Atleast Income distribution before and during lockdown.
\r\n\tEven though video surveillance systems have been part an integral part of the public and security sectors for decades, there is a significant interest in them outside of those industries. This interest is largely due to increased crime rates and security threats all around the globe, which are driving a continuous growth of the video surveillance market. According to a recent report, the video surveillance market was valued at $29.98 billion in 2016 and is expected to reach a value of $72.19 billion by 2022. This market potential is also propelled by recent advances in Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision research fields—boosting the intelligence, scalability, and accuracy of intelligent video surveillance solutions.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book's goal is to provide a game-changing and cross-disciplinary forum that brings together experts from academia, industry, and government to advance the frontiers of theories, methods, systems, and applications.
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Kamanina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/847.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28159",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Kamanina",slug:"natalia-kamanina",fullName:"Natalia Kamanina"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80218",title:"COVID-19 Sends the Bill: Socially Disadvantaged Workers Suffer the Severest Losses in Earnings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102030",slug:"covid-19-sends-the-bill-socially-disadvantaged-workers-suffer-the-severest-losses-in-earnings",body:'Since the outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease in China, COVID-19 has profoundly affected the daily routine of the great majority of the global population and plunged the world into a crisis of unprecedented scope [1]. At an early stage herein, the goal was to avoid the overburdening of the health system. Many countries have worked to “flatten the curve”, taking such restrictive measures as travel bans, lockdowns, stay-at-home orders, and quarantines—some of them extremely stringent—to reduce the movement of persons, and, consequently, to slow down the spread of the virus [2].
As the pandemic unfolded, Brazil would become a global hotspot. At the time of this writing, the seventh-most populous nation on the planet was then the second-worst-affected country worldwide with more than 18 million confirmed cases and 510 thousand deaths due to COVID-19. Since the confirmation of the first coronavirus case in Brazil on February 26, 2020, the policy responses to combat the spread of the pandemic have been scattered and uncoordinated [3]. The federal and local governments have found themselves in constant disagreement over the lockdown measures necessary to flatten the curve [4]. However, despite the opposition of President Jair Bolsonaro, all twenty-seven Brazilian states would implement between March 13 and 24, 2020, lockdown measures to reduce the circulation of persons and consequently the spread of the virus. In subsequent weeks, the municipalities followed suit, enacting additional legislation to regulate these stay-at-home orders.
Some empirical studies have already been able to confirm that these lockdown policies were successful in increasing social distancing during the pandemic. Leone [5], for example, used geolocation data from nearly sixty million smartphone users in Brazil to show that the population numbers socially distancing grew considerably after the implementation of the lockdown measures. While the share of stay-at-home individuals in the pre-pandemic phase (January and February 2020) was close to 20 percent, this number increased to 50 percent in the first weeks after lockdown policies were introduced. Similar results were also reported for Italy [6], Sweden [7], and the United States [8, 9, 10].
It is therefore no surprise that the impacts of the pandemic go way beyond the mortality rate, and the government responses to it will certainly cause turmoil for the economy. Fernandes [11] estimates a decline of 10.4 percent in global gross domestic product under the scenario whereby the lockdowns last until the end of July. In contrast to many European countries who can mitigate at least parts of their lockdowns’ economic disruption through welfare states, in developing ones the most vulnerable among the population have tended to be the biggest losers during the pandemic given the lack of social security coverage [12]. A World Bank study concluded that, at the global level, COVID-19 is pushing between 40 and 60 million into extreme poverty [13]. Sumner et al. [14] also used simulation models to quantify the potential short-term economic impact of the lockdown policies, highlighting that in some regions of the world the pandemic could result in poverty levels being reached similar to those recorded 30 years ago. Based on the worst-case scenario—whereby the per capita income decreases 20 percent—the number of people living in poverty could increase by up to 580 million as compared to 2018.
Despite the valuable contribution of all these empirical simulations of the economic costs related to COVID-19, it is high time to abandon the forecasts and start to estimate the real socioeconomic consequences of the pandemic. This is exactly the main contribution of this chapter to the literature. This work will apply real-time measures of work activities and income levels during the pandemic in Brazil to quantify the short-term economic impacts of COVID-19-related social-distancing policies.
Consequently, this chapter contributes to the rapidly growing literature describing the economic impacts of the coronavirus crisis. While similar studies for developed countries have largely flourished over the past year [15, 16, 17], empirical evidence for developing countries is still rare in the literature. Therefore, this work will be the first to apply data from the PNAD COVID-19—a (national) representative household survey conducted by phone with 349,306 Brazilian residents during the pandemic—to estimate the negative impact of the lockdown on employment and income levels in Brazil. Overall, the findings suggest that the measures to flatten the curve have led to a reduction in employment and income—with more significant losses occurring for the most vulnerable parts of the Brazilian populace.
This manuscript uses data from PNAD COVID-19, a recent nationally representative longitudinal survey conducted by the IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) with 193,662 households (349,306 individuals). The intention behind it is to continuously produce information about the health status and labor-market characteristics of the domestic population during the pandemic (May–November 2020). Data collection was carried out remotely via telephone calls, and drew on the sample of the PNAD-Contínua (Continuous National Household Sample Survey).1
To provide information in real time about the pandemic, PNAD COVID-19 adopts a rotating panel scheme of interviews to produce weekly and monthly consolidated data. This means that every week one-quarter of the involved households are interviewed, and the ongoing main descriptive statistics are published immediately. Then, at the end of the month, the data for the whole sample (193,662 households) are consolidated and made available to the public in the form of microdata. Given the panel structure of the survey, the households can be correctly identified across all the months of PNAD COVID-19, and they can be also linked with the data of the Continuous PNAD—thereby providing the relevant information for the period pre-coronavirus.
From the PNAD COVID-19 sample, two main pieces of information related to personal income will be used in this study here. The first variable (C10) refers to the (normal) earnings before lockdown policies were implemented in March 2020, while the latter (C11a) investigates the same type of income during the pandemic itself. In addition, I use the information on the allocation of COVID-19 Emergency Aid (D0051) to estimate the effects of this social scheme on income distribution.
In a first step, the manuscript identifies the economically active population from the sample, which corresponds to employed and unemployed persons aged 15–64. Employed are those individuals who have worked at least one hour during the reference week or who were temporarily absent from their job; unemployed persons meanwhile are those who were not employed but made some specific active effort to find a job in the same reference week. PNAD COVID-19 shows that the lockdown policies have deeply affected job-seeking, since many people were dissuaded from leaving the home or have anticipated that companies would postpone their new hires. For this reason, this chapter assumes as unemployed also those persons who have not looked for a job but wanted to be working during the identified reference week. Finally, this manuscript differentiates between the population employed in the formal and informal labor markets. Informal are those workers with no employment contract registered via the Work and Social Security Card and self-employed persons who do not pay social security contributions (INSS).
In order to reduce the negative labor-market impacts arising from the lockdown measures to flatten the curve, many governments are encouraging their residents to work from home [18]. A recent policy brief of the International Labour Organization indicated that with the pandemic, 59 countries had implemented telework for nonessential publicly employed staff [1]. In Brazil, a phone-interview survey conducted on 03/20/2020 reported that 46 percent of respondents believed that it would indeed be possible to carry out their employment duties via home office [19]. However empirical evidence shows that the chance to work from home is not distributed equally across the population, since many occupations such as construction workers or street vendors cannot be fulfilled from there [1]. Saltiel [20], for example, found that work-from-home jobs are strong correlated with the educational levels of the workforce; therefore, vulnerable groups are more likely to suffer the negative economic impacts of the coronavirus as their jobs cannot be done from home.
Figure 1 above examines this hypothesis with the data obtained from the Brazilian case during the month of May 2020.2 For that, the individuals who have worked in the reference week are sorted according to their (personal) work earnings pre-lockdown and then divided into income deciles.
Workplace during the lockdown. Notes: Income deciles use (normal) personal work income pre-lockdown. Working population refers to individuals aged 15–64 that have worked in the reference week. Percentages are weighted for population size. Workplace in May 2020. Source: Author’s own estimates, based on PNAD COVID-19.
During the pandemic, 81.9 percent of employees—meaning those who had worked in the reference week—conducted this activity in the same workplace as in the time pre-coronavirus and only 13.5 percent were working from home. However, as predicted in the literature, the chances to work via home office differ greatly according to socioeconomic status. This share is 2.8 percent for the bottom 10 percent of the income distribution, and 40.7 percent for the highest income decile meanwhile.
Looking beyond employment functions can help us to understand this difference across income deciles. PNAD COVID-19 data show that employees with occupations requiring more extensive higher education qualifications were more often found to be working from home during the pandemic. Some 45.4 percent of teachers and 39.6 percent of lawyers, engineers, and journalists were doing home office, while these figures were close to 0 for domestic workers (0.0), doorkeeper (0.2) farmers (0.2), butchers and bakers (0.4).
Figure 1 was limited to the individuals who continued to work during the pandemic. However, the coronavirus crisis has had also a strong impact on the employment status of workers. Figure 2 reports the share of the employed population who had a job before the lockdown measures but who are in May 2020 temporarily absent from it due to the lockdown policies.3
Temporary work absenteeism due to lockdown. Notes: Income deciles using (normal) personal work income pre-lockdown. Employed population refers to individuals aged 15–64 who worked or were temporarily absent from their jobs in the reference week. Percentages are weighted for population size. Absenteeism related to the month of May 2020. Source: Author’s own estimates, based on PNAD COVID-19.
In May 2020, 18.8 percent of the employed population of Brazil—equivalent to 15.7 million workers—were temporarily absent from their job due to social-distancing measures.4 From this total, 56.9 percent continued to receive (at least one part of) their work earnings, while 43.1 percent had a complete loss of such income. Figure 2 confirms that vulnerable workers have been hit hardest by the pandemic. The lower the work income, the higher the chance of having become detached from the labor market as a direct result of the lockdown. Informal workers have been especially affected by this trend because they have—independent of their income—a higher chance of being absent from their job, and are more likely to lose all their income in case of work leave. Some 65.5 percent of informal workers who were absent from their job due to the lockdown received no work income in May 2020, compared with a figure of 11.6 percent among the formally employed.
To highlight the impact of this lockdown-related temporary work absenteeism on income levels, Table 1 below reports the income distribution in Brazil both before and during the pandemic. Measured are (personal) work incomes for the economically active population aged 15–64, and in the third block (Columns 6 to 7) I add to the investigation the COVID-19 Emergency Aid provided by the Brazilian government to mitigate the economic impact of the lockdown measures.
No lockdown | With lockdown | Lockdown with COVID-19 aid | Variation in income (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Income | N | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | A | B |
Deciles | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (2) to (4) | (2) to (6) |
1 | 16,402 | 389.07 | 165.64 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 369.46 | 265.99 | −100.0 | −5.0 |
2 | 12,346 | 878.07 | 119.32 | 262.06 | 119.18 | 744.20 | 56.66 | −70.2 | −15.2 |
3 | 16,615 | 1044.74 | 1.96 | 649.06 | 118.18 | 995.51 | 62.94 | −37.9 | −4.7 |
4 | 13,075 | 1159.40 | 55.43 | 1020.15 | 41.90 | 1149.24 | 54.91 | −12.0 | −0.9 |
5 | 16,660 | 1423.94 | 89.75 | 1155.65 | 56.40 | 1408.45 | 88.55 | −18.8 | −1.1 |
6 | 5482 | 1624.69 | 49.60 | 1420.43 | 90.48 | 1623.83 | 28.57 | −12.6 | −0.1 |
7 | 12,670 | 1940.66 | 88.25 | 1689.03 | 91.58 | 1878.85 | 110.99 | −13.0 | −3.2 |
8 | 16,340 | 2614.84 | 325.28 | 2164.81 | 217.58 | 2331.64 | 192.59 | −17.2 | −10.8 |
9 | 8012 | 3787.96 | 402.86 | 3290.82 | 446.96 | 3300.09 | 422.25 | −13.1 | −12.9 |
10 | 11,247 | 9159.61 | 7220.26 | 8581.21 | 6044.45 | 8412.53 | 5951.34 | −6.3 | −8.2 |
Total | 128,849 | 2302.18 | 3272.54 | 1888.13 | 2854.72 | 2121.55 | 2797.30 | −18.0 | −7.8 |
GINI | 0.467 | 0.481 | 0.433 |
Atleast Income distribution before and during lockdown.
Notes: Calculation using personal income of the economically active population aged 15–64. No lockdown refers to work income before the pandemic. With Lockdown denotes the work income in May 2020. Lockdown with COVID-19 Aid adds to the work income of May 2020 the emergency support of BRL 600 per person paid by the Brazilian government. Values are in BRL, and weighted for population size.
Source: Author’s own estimates, based on PNAD COVID-19.
As shown in the Table 1, lockdown increased income inequality within Brazilian society (Gini coefficient rose from 0.467 to 0.481) and reduced the average monthly (work) income of the population by 18 percent (from BRL 2320.18 to BRL 1888.13). It is worth mentioning that all social classes were affected by this income reduction. However, in relative terms, it is the bottom decile who have suffered the greatest losses. The average income of this group—which was BRL 389.07 in the period pre-lockdown—decreased to 0 in May 2020; in other words, around 8.5 million people have lost their entire work income during the course of the pandemic.
PNAD COVID-19 reports that 68 million Brazilian households (38.7 percent) have benefited from COVID-19 Emergency Aid. Therefore, as shown in Table 1, this financial support has helped to mitigate the economic losses induced by lockdown and has made all the income deciles better off than they would otherwise be.
These findings are in line with the conclusions of other studies. Carvalho [23] and Duque [24] confirmed the effectiveness of the COVID-19 Emergency Aid in reducing poverty and neutralizing, at least in part, the income losses caused by the crisis. Pires et al. [25] emphasized the positive impact of the COVID-19 Aid on income inequality, measured by the Gini coefficient. While the lockdown’s initial impact generated an increase of 5 percent in the income inequality, the implementation of the emergency cash transfer was responsible for the reduction of the income distribution to a level lower than the pre-pandemic period.
Despite this positive impact of the COVID-19 Emergency Aid, Table 1 shows that these gains were not evenly distributed the Brazilian society. The deciles in the center of the income distribution (fourth, fifth, and sixth) enjoyed the greatest benefit in relative terms: the (average) income including also the emergency aid of the fourth decile, for example, was only 0.9 percent lower than the value pre-coronavirus. The second income decile has experienced the highest percentage loss of income meanwhile: between earnings and COVID-19 emergency aid, this group had an average income of BRL 744.20 in May 2020, which is 15.2 percent lower than the equivalent figure pre-pandemic (BRL 878.07).
Using data from a recently published (national) representative phone survey, this chapter has calculated the impact of the COVID-19-related lockdown policies on employment status and income levels in Brazil. Linking the socioeconomic variables of 349,306 individuals across 193,662 households before and during the imposed social-distancing measures (May and June 2020), this manuscript found that home office is a significant option only for the more advantaged sections of society. For the bottom deciles vis-à-vis income distribution, the chance to work from home remains a distant dream.
With the pandemic, 18.8 percent of the employed population in Brazil (around 15.7 million workers) have been temporarily absent from their professional activities and 56.6 percent of them have completely lost their work income. This reduction in employment has generated a fall of 18 percent in the average work income, with more significant losses for the poorest sectors of the population: the average work income of the lowest income decile decreased from BRL 389.07 to 0 and for the second decile the reduction has been 70.2 percent (from BRL 878.08 to BRL 262.06). Informal workers have been doubly economically burdened during the pandemic, since they have a greater probability of being absent from their job, and—if out of work—they are more likely to completely lose their work income.
In addition, this chapter has addressed the importance of state interventions to mitigate the negative impact of social-distancing measures on the socioeconomic environment of the domestic population. The COVID-19 Emergency Aid implemented by the Brazilian (federal) government has compensated—at least in part—for the income losses due to the enforced lockdown policies, increasing the average income from BRL 1888.13 to BRL 2121.55. However, this value is still 7.8 percent lower than the average work income amount pre-coronavirus.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Workplace during the lockdown. Notes: Income deciles use (normal) personal work income pre-lockdown. Working population refers to individuals aged 15–64 that have worked in the reference week. Percentages are weighted for population size. Workplace in June 2020. Source: Author’s own estimates, based on PNAD COVID-19.
Temporary work absenteeism due to lockdown. Notes: Income deciles using (normal) personal work income pre-lockdown. Employed population refers to individuals aged 15–64 who worked or were temporarily absent from their jobs in the reference week. Percentages are weighted for population size. Absenteeism related to the month of June 2020. Source: Author’s own estimates, based on PNAD COVID-19.
BRL | Brazilian Real |
IBGE | Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics |
INSS | National Institute of Social Security |
PNAD | National Household Sample Survey |
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the Environment"},signatures:"Antonio Mariani, Biagio Morrone and Andrea Unich",authors:[{id:"108787",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Mariani",slug:"antonio-mariani",fullName:"Antonio Mariani"}]},{id:"32329",doi:"10.5772/38176",title:"Fuel-N Conversion to NO, N2O and N2 During Coal Combustion",slug:"fuel-n-conversion-to-no-n2o-and-n2-during-coal-combustion",totalDownloads:5758,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1893",slug:"fossil-fuel-and-the-environment",title:"Fossil Fuel and the Environment",fullTitle:"Fossil Fuel and the Environment"},signatures:"Stanisław Gil",authors:[{id:"115876",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanisław",middleName:null,surname:"Gil",slug:"stanislaw-gil",fullName:"Stanisław Gil"}]},{id:"65221",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83681",title:"Integrating Citizen Science and GIS for Wildlife Habitat Assessment",slug:"integrating-citizen-science-and-gis-for-wildlife-habitat-assessment",totalDownloads:1221,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"With the rapid advancement and popularity of geospatial technologies such as location-aware smartphones, mobile maps, etc., average citizens nowadays can easily contribute georeferenced wildlife data (e.g., wildlife sightings). Due to the wide spread of human settlements and lengthy living histories of citizens in their local areas, citizen-contributed wildlife data could cover large geographic areas over long time spans. Citizen science thus provides great opportunities for collecting wildlife data of extensive spatiotemporal coverage for wildlife habitat assessment. However, citizen-contributed wildlife data may be subject to data quality issues, for example, imprecise spatial position and biased spatial coverage. These issues need to be accounted for when using citizen-contributed data for wildlife habitat assessment. Geovisualization and geospatial analysis capabilities provisioned by geographic information systems (GISs) can be adopted to tackle such data quality issues. This chapter offers an overview of citizen science as a means of collecting wildlife data, the roles of GIS to tackle the data quality issues, and the integration of citizen science and GIS for wildlife habitat assessment. A case study of habitat assessment for the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) using R. bieti sightings elicited from local villagers in Yunnan, China, is presented as a demonstration.",book:{id:"8846",slug:"wildlife-population-monitoring",title:"Wildlife Population Monitoring",fullTitle:"Wildlife Population Monitoring"},signatures:"Guiming Zhang",authors:null},{id:"65529",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84290",title:"Infectious Disease Monitoring of European Bison (Bison bonasus)",slug:"infectious-disease-monitoring-of-european-bison-em-bison-bonasus-em-",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"In 2019, the 90th anniversary of the restitution of European bison (wisent) will be celebrated. Therefore, the chapter discusses the past, present, and future health threats of the Bison bonasus species that was on the edge of world extinction at the beginning of the twentieth century and was restituted with great efforts from many researchers, breeders, forestry workers, and caretakers. Due to the dramatic genetic “bottleneck” that depleted the gene pool, increasing the inbred of today’s European bison, the breeding may face problems of decreased fertility, deficiency in growth, and increased susceptibility to diseases. While the increasing numbers of European bison may be enjoyed by breeders, the suitable habitat for the largest herbivore in Europe shrinks with increasing human population density, forestry, and agricultural activity. Additional threats include inappropriate management based on animal farming rather than sylvatic ecosystems, need for supplementary winter feeding, and establishment of breeding of related species such as American bison (Bison bison) in Europe. The control of European bison exposure to pathogens through passive and active surveillance is a key component of the species conservation. Hereby, the current knowledge on the epidemiology of the most significant infectious diseases in European bison is presented.",book:{id:"8846",slug:"wildlife-population-monitoring",title:"Wildlife Population Monitoring",fullTitle:"Wildlife Population Monitoring"},signatures:"Magdalena Larska and Michał K. Krzysiak",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66955",title:"TSE Monitoring in Wildlife Epidemiology, Transmission, Diagnosis, Genetics and Control",slug:"tse-monitoring-in-wildlife-epidemiology-transmission-diagnosis-genetics-and-control",totalDownloads:1280,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Among the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), chronic wasting disease (CWD) in cervids is now the rising concern within Europe. CWD will be outlined in this chapter gathering its epidemiology, transmission, diagnosis, genetics, and control. Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the accumulation of an abnormal isoform of the prion protein (PrPc), usually designated by PrPsc or prion. CWD is a prion disease of natural transmission affecting cervids detected mainly in North America. The first European case was detected in Norway, in 2016, in a wild reindeer; until April 2018, a total of 23 cases were described. The definite diagnosis is postmortem, performed in target areas of the brain and lymph nodes. Samples are first screened using a rapid test and, if positive, confirmed by immunohistochemistry and Western immunoblotting. It is not possible to establish a culling plan based on the genotype, once affected animals appear with all genotypes. However, some polymorphisms seem to result in longer incubation periods or confer a reduced risk. The control is not easy in captive cervids and even more in the wildlife; some recommendations have been proposed in order to understand the danger and impact of CWD on animal and public health.",book:{id:"8846",slug:"wildlife-population-monitoring",title:"Wildlife Population Monitoring",fullTitle:"Wildlife Population Monitoring"},signatures:"Carla Neves Machado, Leonor Orge, Isabel Pires, Adelina Gama, Alexandra Esteves, Ana Paula Mendonça, Ana Matos, Anabela Alves, Carla Lima, Estela Bastos, Fernanda Seixas, Filipe Silva, João Carlos Silva, Luis Figueira, Madalena Vieira-Pinto, Maria De Lurdes Pinto, Nuno Gonçalves-Anjo, Paula Tavares, Paulo Carvalho, Roberto Sargo and Maria Dos Anjos Pires",authors:null},{id:"76137",title:"Germplasm Conservation",slug:"germplasm-conservation",totalDownloads:555,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"With the increase in risk of extinction of various plants, the trend has been shifted to employment of many biotechnological techniques for preservation of genetic resources of plant and is the area of research which needs to be revolutionized after a specific time period because it allows the production and selection of crop varieties with desirable characteristics during breeding process such as improved fuel, food and health facilities. Having an immense research in conservation of non-threatened species, there is a small collection of knowledge available for conservation of endangered ones. This chapter aims to highlight the various techniques in germplasm conservation of endangered or the species which are at extent of extinction and also the future directions in this field. In developing countries where most of agriculture depends upon food crops, the maintenance of genetic variation is of immense importance. On farm conservation provides the best example of preservation and evolution based on genetic variability which can occur ex-situ and in- situ environment in farms or gene bank. So, it presents the best option for conservation or maintenance of ecosystem and biodiversity which ensures survival of endangered species via germplasm. The most point to consider is that germplasm or genes have to be conserved instead of genotype. In situ conservation involves preservation of plant crops in the field condition in ecosystem where plant is adopted to grow in order to maintain self –sustaining process in natural ecosystem. Similarly ex-situ involve the collections of seed banks of genes collected from plant under natural conditions to produce desirable varieties or from tissue culture in laboratory also referred as in-vitro methodology. In –vitro techniques include cryopreservation which include freezing at much lower temperature than that of freezing point i.e. -196 °C in liquid nitrogen for preserving species which are near to extent of endangerment. Cold storage and storing at lower temperature provides best opportunity for protection against damage caused by rapid freezing. Germplasm exchange has become now a usual practice ensuring exchange of varieties between cultivated and wild types as for example in potatoes specie etc. DNA as well as gene or seed banks provide molecular sources for conservation at biotechnological level. The techniques of introgression and incorporation are basic approaches for germplasm conservation. So there is need to revolutionize and practice germplasm conservation for fulfilling future needs being aimed at conserving endangered or threatened species from conservation hotspots.",book:{id:"9694",slug:"endangered-plants",title:"Endangered Plants",fullTitle:"Endangered Plants"},signatures:"Sameer Quazi, Tanya Golani and Arnaud Martino Capuzzo",authors:[{id:"331856",title:"Mr.",name:"Sameer",middleName:null,surname:"Quazi",slug:"sameer-quazi",fullName:"Sameer Quazi"},{id:"342338",title:"Ms.",name:"Tanya",middleName:null,surname:"Golani",slug:"tanya-golani",fullName:"Tanya Golani"},{id:"346414",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnaud Martino",middleName:null,surname:"Capuzzo",slug:"arnaud-martino-capuzzo",fullName:"Arnaud Martino Capuzzo"}]},{id:"66812",title:"An Assessment of the Human-Wildlife Conflict across Africa",slug:"an-assessment-of-the-human-wildlife-conflict-across-africa",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The coexistence between humans and mammals across Africa has led to Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC) due to the competition for limited natural resources. Over the past two decades, I have focused my research on conservation issues that either resulted from or induce human-wildlife conflict. Conflicts are intensified in regions where dense human populations live in close proximity to nature, and where livestock holdings and crop fields form a significant part of rural livelihoods. As a result, both people and wildlife suffer tangible consequences; therefore, creating the need for stakeholder’s involvement and their willingness to adopt conservation-based behaviors, as key ingredients for feasible and effective conservation counter measures. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the wide array of drivers and conservation implications of HWC incidences throughout Africa. An in-depth analysis is essential to understanding the problem and support future conservation prospects. Examples explore key case studies ranging from decreasing numbers of the charismatic forest dwelling elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) in the DRC, to increasing numbers of waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) in Mozambique, and varying numbers of lion populations bordering Kruger National Park in South Africa. Concluding with conflict resolution strategies employed across Africa and recommendations for the effective conservation of the world’s most endangered mammals.",book:{id:"8846",slug:"wildlife-population-monitoring",title:"Wildlife Population Monitoring",fullTitle:"Wildlife Population Monitoring"},signatures:"Benjamin-Fink Nicole",authors:null},{id:"67071",title:"Cheetahs Race for Survival: Ecology and Conservation",slug:"cheetahs-race-for-survival-ecology-and-conservation",totalDownloads:1142,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Cheetahs reach speeds of up to 113 km/h accelerating from zero to 96 km/h in 3s. Revered for 5000 years throughout Asia, Europe and Africa has contributed to the species decline. Today’s wild cheetah population is estimated at 7100 adult and adolescents, a 90% reduction from a century ago, and a range reduction of 9%. Over 80% live outside protected areas where human-wildlife conflict occurs. Female cheetahs live solitarily with their cubs; male cubs form lifelong coalitions. Living in low densities cheetahs’ home ranges cover over 1500 km2, requiring large landscapes with prey. Although cheetahs’ lack genetic diversity from a historic population bottleneck, their greatest conservation problems are humans. Habitat loss and declining preybase leads to conflict with livestock farmers. Additionally, illegal wildlife trafficking of cubs is affecting small populations in the Horn of Africa. Solving the cheetah conservation crisis is critical and involves addressing a complex web of social, environmental and economic issues, and depends on a holistic approach balancing the needs of humans and cheetahs sharing land. Research into conserving and restoring habitat for cheetahs includes training, the use of Livestock Guarding Dogs, and other conflict mitigation strategies, addressing habitat loss, dismantling the illegal pet trade, and encouraging coexistence.",book:{id:"8846",slug:"wildlife-population-monitoring",title:"Wildlife Population Monitoring",fullTitle:"Wildlife Population Monitoring"},signatures:"Laurie Marker",authors:null},{id:"32334",title:"Global Trends of Fossil Fuel Reserves and Climate Change in the 21st Century",slug:"global-trends-of-fossil-fuel-reserves-and-climate-change-in-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:11648,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"1893",slug:"fossil-fuel-and-the-environment",title:"Fossil Fuel and the Environment",fullTitle:"Fossil Fuel and the Environment"},signatures:"Bharat Raj Singh and Onkar Singh",authors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh"},{id:"118426",title:"Prof.",name:"Onkar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"onkar-singh",fullName:"Onkar Singh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"781",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X",scope:"\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{},overviewPageOFChapters:[],overviewPagePublishedBooks:[],openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. 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