Gas permeability and water transmission rate (WTR) of polymeric film available for packaging of MAP produce.
\r\n\tAntiphospholipid syndrome is likely to be involved in a small percentage of infertility. It is mainly associated with repeated miscarriages, secretion of cytokines, and growth factors that affect both ovulation, fertilization, and implantation, as well as a previous ectopic pregnancy in the fallopian tubes. Ectopic pregnancy is linked to taking drugs to induce ovulation, but the exact pathogenetic mechanism associated with hormone intake and fallopian tube damage is not yet known.
\r\n\tFertilization of the egg with the sperm under normal conditions occurs in the fibrous part of the fallopian tube. After 3-4 days the fertilized egg reaches the uterus, where the blastocyst within 2 to 4 days may be in a state of immersion in the endometrial tissue. Thus, the implantation takes place on the 20th-21st day of the 4-week menstrual cycle. The pathology of the function of the fallopian tubes is most often associated with inflammatory processes of any etiology. Non-specific infection plays a predominant role, the spread of which contributes to abortion, intrauterine contraception, diagnostic intervention and the occurrence of obstetric and perinatal complications.
\r\n\tIn recent years, the increasing incidence of chlamydial infection has been linked to the occurrence of ectopic pregnancy. Along with the inflammatory nature of the structure and function of the fallopian tubes, endometriosis also seems to play an important e localization may be ovarian, cervical or intra-abdominal, but in most cases it is tubal. The incidence of ectopic pregnancies in the USΑ has at least quadrupled in recent years with the probability nowadays standing at 20 per 1000 pregnancies. Ectopic pregnancy in the USA is reported to be the cause of death in 10% of obstetric deaths, but it is important to note that most of these deaths are bleeding-related and preventable.
\r\n\tA clear trend of increasing the frequency of ectopic pregnancies has been observed in the last ten years, which is triggered by two main reasons. On the one hand, the localization of inflammatory processes in the internal genitals is constantly increasing, while at the same time, the number of surgeries on the fallopian tubes is increasing in order to improve a woman's reproductive capacity. Τhe number of women using intrauterine and hormonal methods of contraception is also increasing and ovulation inducers are increasingly being introduced into the practice of infertility treatment.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, diagnostic capabilities have been improved in recent years by allowing detection of intolerance and even remission of ectopic pregnancy. Currently, an ectopic pregnancy occurs from 0.8-2.4% of cases that are born. In 4-10% of cases, it is repeated. Ectopic pregnancy often occurs as a result of tubal pathology.
\r\n\tRisk factors include smoking, inflammation of the pelvic organs as a result of chlamydia or gonorrhea, and endometriosis, conditions that lead to the formation of scar tissue in the fallopian tubes.role.
\r\n\tThe role of invasive procedures for the treatment of the causative agents of structural abnormalities of the fallopian tubes in the occurrence of ectopic pregnancy is becoming increasingly crucial and even to such an extent that the introduction of microsurgery does not exclude the risks.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"46740c30c279d7ad0334167a63819809",bookSignature:"Prof. Panagiotis Tsikouras, Prof. Nikolaos Nikolettos, Prof. Werner Rath and Prof. Georg-Friedrich Von Tempelhoff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11282.jpg",keywords:"Differential Diagnosis, Early Diagnosis, Abortion, Intrauterine Pregnancy, Surgery, Methotrexate, Salpingostomy, New Aspects, Markers, Endometriosis, Diagnosis, Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 9th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 7th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 6th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Panagiotis Tsikouras has authored and co-authored multiple peer-reviewed scientific papers and presented works at many national and international conferences. His contributions have acclaimed recognition from honorable subject experts around the world. Dr. Tsikouras has great experience in check control of high-risk pregnancies such as ART pregnancies, twin pregnancies, teenage pregnancies. Except for this, he is responsible for the termination of high pregnancies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",middleName:null,surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/48837/images/system/48837.jpg",biography:"Dr. Panagiotis Tsikouras is a specialist in obstetrics-gynecology,\nperinatal medicine, and contraception at the School of Medicine,\nDemocritus University of Thrace, Greece. He is also the headmaster of the Family Planning Centre and Gynecological Cytology\nLaboratory at the same university. Dr. Tsikouras is a fellow of the\nInternational Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis. His scientific activities focus on paediatric and adolescence medicine, gynecological oncology, high-risk pregnancies. He is a reviewer for several international journals and has numerous scientific publications to his credit, including papers and book chapters. 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From 2007 to 2011, Dr.\nNikos served as director of the In Vitro Fertilization Unit, University Regional General Hospital of Alexandroupolis, Greece. From\n2012 to 2018, he was director of the Laboratory of Reproductive\nPhysiology - Artificial Fertilization. In 2018 he became Professor of Assisted Reproduction at the Democritus University of Thrace, Greece. In 2019 he took over the\nmanagement of the University Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic, Medical Department,\nDemocritus University of Thrace. His scientific work includes more than 100 publications in international journals and many lectures by invitation to international and Greek conferences.",institutionString:"Democritus University of Thrcae",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Democritus University of Thrace",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"290374",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Rath",slug:"werner-rath",fullName:"Werner Rath",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290374/images/system/290374.jpg",biography:"Dr. Werner Rath is a specialist in obstetrics and gynecology, gynecologic oncology, perinatal medicine, and hemostaseology. He is currently a professor in the Gynecology and Obstetrics Faculty of Medicine, University of Kiel, Germany, and an honorary doctor at the Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupoli University Hospital He previously served as chief of the Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics at University Hospital RWTH Aachen,\r\nGermany. Dr. Rath is a reviewer for numerous journals and chief editor of Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde (GebFra). 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10460",title:"Current Topics in Caesarean Section",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e59550fca39fd09ff4addfe39ca822a0",slug:"current-topics-in-caesarean-section",bookSignature:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Nikolaos Nikolettos, Werner Rath and Georg Friedrich Von Tempelhoff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10460.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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OSAS afflicts 2–4% of the population and has a strong genetic component [2]. Moreover, age, gender, craniofacial structure and the anatomy of the upper airways (UA), endocrine conditions, and obesity, but not ethnicity, are associated with OSAS [3].
\nThe collapse of UA during sleep is the major characteristic of OSAS [4]. Two primary theories have been proposed to explain the pathophysiology of OSAS: the obstructive theory, in which muscle hypertrophy leads to airway narrowing, and the neurogenic theory, which postulates that peripheral nerve degeneration due to vibratory stretch trauma, or systemic diseases, lead to muscle atrophy and collapse [5–7]. A progressive local neurogenic lesion caused by repeated microtrauma of snoring might be a potential contribution factor for UA collapsibility [8].
\nThe UA size and resistance are tightly regulated by neural mechanisms that control muscles and reflexes. The sensory nerve endings in the mucosa and mechanoreceptors of UA walls respond to changes in different sensory modalities (light touch, temperature, pressure, pain, muscle stretch and proprioception, water and chemical stimuli). Sensory inputs from these structures continually streams toward the central nervous system, including respiratory centers, which control UA muscles via efferent motor neural outputs [9], thus adjusting the contraction of the UA muscles during sucking, swallowing, respiration, speech, and mastication, as well as gagging, vomiting, coughing, and snoring reflexes (Figure 1). The structural support of these reflexes consists of sensory receptors connected with sensory nerve fibers, the central synaptic connections that almost always use interneurons, and the efferent pathway composed of the motoneurons, innervating the effector organ. The effector organ in a somatic reflex is the striated muscle innervated by the α‐motoneurons [10].
Schematic representation of the afferent and efferent innervation of the upper air ways. The mucosa of the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx are primarily supplied by the trigeminus (maxillary division, V2), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) cranial nerves, respectively, with a minimal contribution of the facial nerve (VII). The sensory neurons of these nerves are placed in the parent sensory ganglia and their central processes synapse within the trigeminal and tractus solitarius nuclei of the brain stem. These nuclei send the inputs to nuclei whose motoneurons are located in the pons trigeminal, facial, ambiguous, and hypoglossal nuclei, and in the anterior horn of the cervical spinal cord (C1‐2). Axons from these motor neurons travel through cranial nerves V, VII, IX to XII, and the ansa cervicalis and form motor endplates that use acetylcholine for neurotransmission via nicotinic receptors to innervate innervating UA muscles (for a more detailed description of these muscles and nerves, see Massey [
In the last decade of twentieth century, Woodson et al. [11] hypothesized that the pathophysiologic events that lead to the development of airway instability may be secondary to modifications in neurologic control, airway morphology, or both. Changes in sensation, muscle structure, and physiological properties of UA have been reported in patients with OSAS; these changes are referred to as airway remodeling. But whereas the structural and functional properties of muscles of OSAS patients have been extensively analyzed [5, 12–14], the motor nerve fibers and motor endplates as well as the potential role of sensory nerve impairment in OSAS have not been sufficiently investigated [15, 16]. Furthermore, the available data are heterogeneous and sometimes contradictory, because of the heterogeneity of the UA muscles, the different nerves innervating these muscles and the UA mucosae, and the differences in the methods used.
\nThe nerve and muscle characteristics of OSAS patients may result from complex interactions of vibratory stretch trauma, inflammation, and hypoxia [8, 15–20]. It has been proposed that the repeated mechanical trauma and/or hypoxemia associated with OSA may lead to sensory and motor impairment of upper airway structures [8, 21], or that local nerve lesions due to long‐standing snoring vibrations could be the basis of OSAS or its progression [17, 22, 23]. But is the neuropathy of OSAS, the cause or a consequence of the disease? It is unknown to what extent chronic intermittent hypoxemia in OSAS causes damage to the motor and sensory peripheral nerve, but muscle action potential and sensory nerve action potential amplitudes are significantly reduced in the nerves outside UA in patients with OSAS suggesting that axonal damage exists in patients with OSAS to a greater extent than previously thought [24]. On the other hand, association between OSAS and sensory neuropathy, and nerve damage outside the UA [18, 25–27], type 2 or type 1A diabetic neuropathy, and axonal subtypes of Charcot‐Marie‐Tooth disease [28–31] has been also demonstrated. Of particular interest is the epidemiological association between OSAS and anterior ischemic optic neuropathy [32] although a concluding rapport cannot be established [33].
\nThus, there is a large body of evidence that UA neuromuscular abnormalities are frequent in OSAS patients, and these altogether support the neurogenic theory of OSAS [5–7, 34]. In recent years, multiple studies have demonstrated altered UA sensory input and abnormal UA motor function in patients with OSAS using a variety of neurophysiological and histological approaches [5, 7, 35–37], and impaired neural function is at least partly reversible with treatment for sleep apnea [27].
Consistent with the above data, studies on the innervation of the palate‐pharyngeal region in OSAS patients have revealed both increased and decreased number of nerves in the mucosa and muscles [8, 13, 38, 39], as well as degenerative changes in myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers [40], and the degree of sensory neuropathy in UA correlates with the degree of OSAS (Figure 2) [41].
Main changes in nerves and muscles in OSAS patients in comparison with non‐OSAS subjects. Data are based on the text and the figures are a courtesy of J.A. Vega.
If the anatomically deeper motor axons are affected by UA vibration, sensory afferents closer to the airway surface should also be impaired thus impairing normal inputs for reflex mechanisms which contribute to the upper airway function. Nevertheless, the evidence supporting sensory nerve impairment in OSA is less convincing than that for motor nerves.
\nThe mucosal sensory function is impaired at multiple UA sites in OSAS [16]. Focal degeneration of myelinated and nonmyelinated nerve fibers, affecting Schwann cells and axons in the soft palate and uvula have been demonstrated in OSAS patients [11, 40]. In these UA zones, increase in the density of epithelial afferent nerve endings (based on the expression of substance P and calcitonin gene‐related peptide) was also observed which is indicative of nerve lesion [38]. On the other hand, the afferent information from UA muscles is important in regulating the masticatory force and oromotor behaviors, but also in the response of important reflexes related to speech, swallowing, cough, vomit, or normal breathing [10, 42]. Patients with OSAS show a significant reduction in the density of nerve fibers in the submucosa as well as morphological abnormalities in mechanosensory corpuscles. Importantly, the muscle innervation of nerve fibers expressing ASIC2 and TRPV4 (regarded as two putative mechanoproteins) is also reduced in these subjects [43].
\nIn addition, and consistently with the above‐mentioned pathological findings, UA sensory function has been shown to be impaired in OSAS during wakefulness [13, 15, 16, 44], specially patients with OSAS have altered vibration and cold detection thresholds [45, 46]. The respiratory‐related evoked potentials (RREPs) during wakefulness in OSA revealed a reduction in the amplitude but not the latency of the early RREP components [44, 47] reflecting sensory processing is reduced in the OSA patients [48]. Other studies revealed no changes [49–51].
Data regarding the changes in motor nerves during OSAS are scarce. Motor neuron lesions and/or direct damage in the muscles [17, 41] as well a decrease [39, 43] or increase [13] in the number of nerve fibers have been reported. But most studies have focused directly on muscles.
Structural changes in skeletal muscles have been studied primarily in the uvula muscles and the palatopharyngeal muscle, and the reported changes are very heterogeneous. They include focal muscle atrophy and muscle bundle disruption [11, 52], prevalence of angulated muscle fibers, increased and/or reduction of muscle fibers diameter and variation in fiber type grouping [14, 23, 53–57], atrophic and hypertrophic muscle fibers [8, 52, 58], changes in mitochondria content [14], enzymatic changes [56], and increased neural cell adhesion molecule expression by muscle cells [13].
\nAnother characteristic of the UA muscles is the high percentage disproportion of glycolytic fast twitch of type II muscle fibers compared with non‐OSA control subjects [12, 14, 55, 59–62], a difference that may represent an adaptive response to mechanical strain and/or neuronal activity. In this way, the over expression of N‐CAM is suggestive of collateral nerve sprouting, reflected in the hyperinnervation that present these muscles [13]. Vascular enlargement, fibrosis, edema, inflammatory cells, and infiltration have also been reported. There is also increased fat in and around the muscles of the UA in patients with OSA [63].
\nHowever, all these changes in muscle fibers are not a major contributing factor to OSAS pathogenesis in most patients [20].
\nIn addition to the structural changes, the UA muscles also show electrophysiological changes in OSAS. Patients with OSA have higher levels of multiunit electromyographic activity (EMG) recorded in the UA muscles compared to healthy control subjects presumably secondary to neurogenic remodeling. This is characterized by chronic partial denervation of muscle fibers, with reinnervation of the orphaned muscle fibers by collateral sprouting of surviving motor axons [13, 60, 64–66]. The apparent increase in drive was ascribed to a neural compensation for a narrow UA.
\nRecent investigations using single motor unit techniques have shown that the motor unit potentials of upper airway muscles in OSA patients are larger in area, longer in duration, and more complex [7, 23, 37]. These changes could contribute to the increased multiunit EMG in OSAS. However, the presence of denervation and subsequent axonal sprouting may lead to changes in fine motor control such as speech [67].
The involvement of the peripheral nervous system and muscles in the pathogenesis of OSAS is now accepted. Nevertheless, large have been reported presumably due to the methodological differences used to evaluate both the pathological and functional changes in UA of patients suffering from OSAS. So, whereas some researchers found decrease in the density of nerve fibers [39, 40, 43] some others have found increased numbers of nerve fibers in the mucosa and muscles [13, 38]. These discrepancies can be related to the zones of the UA sampled or the muscles analyzed. And more importantly, no specific markers for sensory or motor nerve fibers were used in these studies. Another important aspect is the studies about the state of motor end‐plates in OSAS. Thus, further studies are required to elucidate the role of upper airway sensory and motor impairment in modulating disease progression or severity.
Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable and have a very short shelf-life. During different handling and marketing operations, there is a huge postharvest loss of agricultural produce. Both qualitative and quantitative losses occur in horticultural commodities between harvest and consumption. Qualitative losses like loss inedibility, nutritional quality, calorific value, and consumer acceptability of fresh produce are much more difficult to assess than are quantitative losses [1]. Quantitative post-harvest losses in India estimated by different committees ranged between 25 and 33% depending upon the crop. The major cause of postharvest loss is the lack of proper infrastructure for processing and packing. These losses can only be minimized to some extent by proper marketing, handling, and processing of agricultural commodities. According to a national level study conducted under the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Postharvest technology of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) the post-harvest losses during different farm handling operations like harvesting, sorting, grading, and packing accounts for about 13%, during farm storage about 6% and during storage at going down, wholesale and retail level about 12% of the produce goes waste. Thus, on average, about one-third of horticulture produce never reaches the ultimate consumer. This results in a considerable gap between gross food production and net availability [2]. Insufficient knowledge of pre and post-harvest operations and lack of proper facilities for handling like pre-cooling, grading, packaging, transport, storage, processing, and marketing all together compound the post-harvest losses and wastage which in value terms accounts for more than 6,720,000.00 US dollars.
Keeping the huge postharvest losses in mind, there is an urgent need to reduce the postharvest losses of fresh commodities and increase the level of processing as a reduction in post-harvest losses is a complementary means of production [3]. The important strategies for loss prevention include the development of varieties (genotypes) that have longer postharvest life, use of integrated crop management system, and development of cost-effective adaptable technologies for post-harvest handling, value addition, and by-product waste utilization [4]. The value chain in post-harvest management of horticultural crops mainly comprises pre-harvest factors, harvesting, market preparation (pre-cooling, sorting, grading, packaging, and on-farm storage), transportation, storage, value addition, and by-product waste management. The status of R&D carried out pertaining to postharvest management (PHM) and processing in the country by different ICAR institutes like Central Institute of Post Harvest Technology (CIPHET) (Ludhiana) and State Agricultural University (SAUs) on different aspects of post-harvest management and processing of horticultural crops is given ahead. Depending upon the status report, research scientists can find out the gap/missing links in the available technology to suggest future priorities in the area of R&D.
Maturity is the state where the product is ready for picking. Proper identification of maturity of produce is essential so that the product is less prone to various physiological disorders and diseases [5]. Maturity indices have been developed for various fruits such as mango, pomegranate, apple, grapes, ber, aonla, Nagpur mandarin, etc. Technique to determine the maturity of mango on the tree (CIPHET) and non-destructive method for the maturity of Grand Naine banana (NRCB, Trichur) need to be popularized.
In recent years, rapid industrialization, population growth, and changed lifestyle led to increased demand for processed and packed foods. Currently, ready to eat packed food industry is growing very fast. Packaging is considered as the science, art, and technology of protecting the products during transportation, distribution, storage, sale, and use. Further, the packaging ensures safe and efficient delivery of the commodity to the consumer in good condition. Good packaging attracts the customer to buy the product. It also plays a vital role in reducing the security risks during shipment. Packaged products are easy in displaying, handling, storing, distributing, opening, reclosing, and reusing. Packaging performs four important functions, such as containment, protection, convenience, and communication. A wide variety of materials, such as cane baskets, wooden boxes, clay vessels, metal cans, China pots, paper bags, and plastics containers are still used for packaging the products in many areas of the world. The packaging material should not cause any environmental pollution. Hence, there is a need to undertake detailed studies to assess the impact of food packaging on the environment.
In this context, Paine and Paine [6] concluded that packaging contains, protects, and preserves as well as informs to create convenience to consumers. It is stated that many companies apply packaging to create values beyond the basic components of containing, protecting, preserving, and informing [7]. Recent progress in food packaging is resulting from the rising need for mild processed but with better shelf-life food products by the consumers. An important reason for innovative packaging is the emergence of food-borne microbial outbreaks that demand packaging with anti-microbial products to ascertain quality and safety. No hazardous components must touch the food within the packaging, and the flavor of the food should not get affected. The food must not change its original appearance and taste. In addition, the food should not cause any discoloring in the packaging. It is pertinent to mention that high-quality films serve to protect a product during transportation, distribution, and use. It seems that the public health impact of unhygienic packaging of food is not well studied. The new food packaging techniques, such as intelligent packaging, bio-active packaging, and active packaging, which engage deliberate contact with the food or its surroundings and influence on consumer’s health have been the most important innovations in the field of packaging technology [8]. Therefore, the main objective of this article is to present an overview of the innovations in food packaging technology.
It is essential to minimize physical damage to fresh produce to obtain optimal shelf-life. The use of suitable packaging is vital in this respect [9]. The most frequently used one is the fibreboard carton, however, they may vary depending on the product and its physical nature, for example, tissue paper wraps, trays, cups or pads, are required to reduce damage from abrasion. Individual packing of the product is most suitable as it ensures its microenvironment and also reduces physical contact with others which improves its texture and nature and prevents the spread of disease-causing pathogens. Molded trays may be used which physically separate the individual piece of produce. Packing plays a crucial role in enhancing the postharvest life of produce and ideal packing material should possess some characters:
Readily available
Easy to handle i.e., less weight
Cost-effective
Provide adequate ventilation for produce
Eco friendly
When packaging is required at the source or when an extended storage life is desired, the packaging film should have high gas permeability and anti-fog properties.
The most commonly used packing material at local markets or for retail purposes is polyethylene (PE) bags. The packaging of fresh vegetables and fruit provides the largest single use of printed PE bags. But they do not have their presence in long-distance transport as they are not firm enough and may cause destruction to the product that results in decay and economic loss to the marketer. During packing the principal factor to be taken into consideration is free movement of air so that the temperature within the enclosure does not increase and shelf life is not affected. Light does not seem to be an essential factor for packing, however, some green leafy vegetables perform photosynthesis by absorbing carbon dioxide and release oxygen upon exposure to light. Vibrations and shock may cause damage to cells that leads to increased respiration rate and enzymes to be released that cause browning reaction to getting started.
The important requirements of food packages are given as follows (ICAR online e-courses).
It should protect from physical damage.
It should safeguard from contamination.
It should protect from bad smells and external toxicants.
It should be nontoxic.
It should not affect the food packaging.
It should be easy to open.
It should act as a barrier for moisture and oxygen ingress.
It should filter harmful ultraviolet light.
It should meet the required physical requirements.
It should be transparent and resistant or tamper.
It should have appearance and printability features.
It should be of low cost.
I should have handling features.
It should be disposed of easily.
Polymeric films are regularly used because of their advantages and their availability, the chief factor in their control of movement and concentration of gasses by lowering the oxygen concentration and raising carbon dioxide concentration that abridges the respiration rate and promotes produce shelf-life (controlled atmospheric (CA) packing). Temperature control plays a crucial role in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) packing as it directly influences respiration rate that shows an effect on the shelf life of produce. The major drawback of MAP packing is that the concentration of O2 is reduced to a greater extent that may result in the fermentation of tissues producing undesirable off-flavors.
MAP can be done in 2 ways:
Film | Permeability (cm3/m2 day atm) for 25 μm film at 25°C | WTR (g/m2/day/atm) at 38°C, 90% RH | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
O2 | N2 | CO2 | ||
Ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVAL) | 3–5 | — | — | 16–18 |
Polyvinylidenechloride (PVdC)-PVC copolymer (Saran) | 9–15 | — | 20–30 | — |
Low-density polythene (PE-LD) | 7800 | 2800 | 42,000 | 18 |
High-density polyethylene (PE-HD) | 2600 | 650 | 7600 | 7–10 |
Polypropylene cast (PPcast) | 3700 | 680 | 10,000 | 10–12 |
Polypropylene, oriented (OPP) | 250,000 | 400 | 8000 | 6–7 |
Polypropylene, oriented, PVdC coated (OPP/PVdC) | 10–20 | 8–13 | 35–50 | 4–5 |
Rigid poly (vinyl chloride) PVC | 150–350 | 60–150 | 450–1000 | 30–40 |
Plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-P) | 500–30,000 | 300–10,000 | 1500–46,000 | 15–40 |
Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVAC) | 12,500 | 4900 | 50,000 | 40–60 |
Polystyrene, oriented (OPS) | 5000 | 800 | 18,000 | 100–125 |
Polyurethane (PUR) | 800–1500 | 600–1200 | 7000–25,000 | 400–600 |
PVdC-PVC copolymer (Saran) | 8–25 | 2–2.6 | 50–150 | 1.5–5.0 |
Polyamide (Nylon-6), (PA) | 40 | 14 | 150–190 | 84–3100 |
Fruits | O2 (%) | CO2 (%) | N2 (%) | Vegetables | O2 (%) | CO2 (%) | N2 (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apple | 1–2 | 1–3 | 95–98 | Artichoke | 2–3 | 2–3 | 94–96 |
Apricot | 2–3 | 2–3 | 94–96 | Beans, snap | 2–3 | 5–10 | 87–93 |
Avocado | 2–5 | 3–10 | 85–95 | Broccoli | 1–2 | 5–10 | 88–94 |
Banana | 2–5 | 2–5 | 90–96 | Brussels sprouts | 1–2 | 5–7 | 91–94 |
Grape | 2–5 | 1–3 | 92–97 | Cabbage | 2–3 | 3–6 | 81–95 |
Grapefruit | 3–10 | 5–10 | 80–92 | Carrot | 5 | 3–4 | 91–95 |
Kiwifruit | 1–2 | 3–5 | 93–96 | Cauliflower | 2–5 | 2–5 | 90–96 |
Lemon | 5–10 | 0–10 | 80–95 | Chili peppers | 3 | 5 | 92 |
Mango | 3–7 | 5–8 | 85–92 | Corn, sweet | 2–4 | 10–20 | 76–88 |
Orange | 5–10 | 0–5 | 85–95 | Cucumber | 3–5 | 0 | 95–97 |
Papaya | 2–5 | 5–8 | 87–93 | Lettuce (leaf) | 1–3 | 0 | 97–99 |
Peach | 1–2 | 3–5 | 93–96 | Mushrooms | 3–21 | 5–15 | 65–92 |
Pear | 2–3 | 0–1 | 96–98 | Spinach | Air | 10–20 | — |
Pineapple | 2–5 | 5–10 | 85–93 | Tomatoes | 3–5 | 0 | 95–97 |
Strawberry | 5–10 | 15–20 | 70–80 | Onion | 1–2 | 0 | 98–99 |
However, the packing material used may not satisfy all the properties required, so they are combined to provide a wide range of characters by lamination and co-extrusion. The concentration of gasses accumulated depends on many variables such as the chemical composition of products, packing material permeability, product respiration, and the influence of temperature on them. A lot of commercial interest has been focused on developing packing materials with high gas transmission rates. For major polythene films have more permeability to CO2 than O2, thus aid in maintaining a proper gaseous ratio. Thus, packaging film of the correct permeability must be chosen to realize the full benefits of MAP of fresh produce [17].
Typical packing material should have a 2–10% O2/CO2 ratio to maintain the freshness of produce and enhance its shelf life. Highly respiring produce must not be loaded in traditional packing material such as poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), low-density polythene (PE-LD), polypropylene, oriented (OPP), instead kept in the highly permeable micro-perforated film so that the gaseous concentration is maintained. Ceramic films have high oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethylene permeability [18]. Films that have high gas permeability are usually a mixture of two or more non-numeric units each contributing a specific character such as strength, transmission, durability, permeability, etc. Furthermore, films can be laminated to achieve desired traits Films using micro-perforations can attain very high rates of gas transmission [19]. Films with micro-perforations are preferred, generally, the size ranges from 40 to 200 μm, and by making modifications to them we can regulate the gaseous concentration to meet product requirements. Based on the release of gasses from perforations of film, suitable packing materials have been identified for mushrooms. Perforated packing materials also proved good to store nectarines, apples, asparagus, etc. Macro perforated material can also be used to pack some strawberries and raspberries. Micro-perforated material is expensive and may also allow entry of some pathogens during wet handling conditions [17].
The most effective and efficient way for packing high respiring produce is by combining high O2 MAP and low O2 MAP, because of high oxygen concentration there is the prevention of off-flavors and odd odors that result due to fermentation [11, 17]. Macro perforated material can also be used to pack some strawberries and raspberries. Micro-perforated material is expensive and may also allow entry of some pathogens during wet handling conditions [17].
The most effective and efficient way for packing high respiring produce is by combining high O2 MAP and low O2 MAP, because of high oxygen concentration there is the prevention of off-flavors and odd odors that result due to fermentation [11, 17].
Proper movement of air must be ensured for enhancing the shelf life of produce and also increase resistance to gas diffusion. Ethylene is known as a natural ripening hormone and is active at trace concentrations, it is observed that its activity is reduced at oxygen levels of 2–10%, thus low oxygen enhances shelf life.
Biological reactions increase by 2–3 times for every 10°C rises in temperature, film permeability also increases with fluctuations in temperature hence temperature control is crucial for successful MAP, temperature fluctuations may result in browning of tissues, loss of firmness, increased ethanol content, all in combination deteriorate the quality of produce packed.
Relative humidity (RH) also has to affect produce packed, more RH invites disease-causing pathogens thus reduces the quality of produce, whereas low RH increases transpiration damage and leads to desiccation. A mathematical model was developed for estimating the changes in the atmosphere and humidity within perforated packages of fresh produce [18, 20, 21]. This model depends on the concentrations of O2, CO2, N2, and H2O vapors in the package. A different procedure was developed to maintain the concentrations of O2 and CO2 inside packages that are exposed to different environmental conditions [22].
Cucumbers that are not packaged experienced severe chilling injury compared to those packed in 31.75 μm PE-LD when they are stored at 5°C and 90–95% RH [3]. The influence of MAP on the sensory characteristics and shelf life of shiitake mushrooms (
Some fresh vegetable shelf life has been enhanced by packing them with nitrogen gas.
Increased use of synthetic packing material poses an environmental threat during its disposal, hence some coating techniques evolved that satisfy both the product shelf life and less threat to nature (Table 3). The materials used or coating must full fill some features such as acceptable sensorial characteristics, appropriate barrier properties, good mechanical strength, reasonable microbial, biochemical, and physicochemical stability, safety, low cost, and simple technology for their production [23].
Film | Thickness (mm) | Permeability at 0% RH (10−15 l/m2 s Pa) | Permeability ratio (CO2/O2) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
O2 | CO2 | |||
Corn-zein | 0.12–0.31 | 0.36 30°C | 2.67 21°C | 7.5 |
Wheat gluten | 0.23–0.42 | 0.20 30°C | 2.13 21°C | 9.5 |
Methyl cellulose low level (MC (L)) | 0.04–0.07 | 2.17 30°C | 69.00 21°C | 31.6 |
Hydroxypropylcellulose low level (HPC (L)) | 0.05 | 3.57 30°C | 143.99 21°C | 40.6 |
HPC/lipids | 0.15 | 3.44 30°C | 81.75 21°C | 23.7 |
Cozeen | 0.09 | 0.89 37.8°C | 5.25 22.8°C | 5.9 |
Wheat gluten | 0.14 | 0.09 37.8°C | 0.03 22.8°C | 0.3 |
Corn-zein | 0.08 | 0.16 25°C | — | — |
Wheat gluten | 0.15 | 0.08 25°C | — | — |
Mostly used coating materials are polysaccharides of starch, proteins, the cellulose that does not pose any harm to human health. Carboxymethylcellulose is one of the materials that gained attention because of its wide applications. The materials used may be extracted from plants such as (corn zein, wheat protein, soy protein) or from animals (casein, whey protein). Pullulan, produced by
It’s the combination of edible packing material with some antimicrobial agents that aid in inhibiting the growth of microbes. There are several categories of antimicrobials that include, organic acids (acetic, benzoic, lactic, propionic, sorbic), fatty acid esters (glyceryl monolaurate), polypeptides (lysozyme, peroxidase, lactoferrin, nisin), plant essential oils (cinnamon, oregano, lemongrass), nitrites and sulfites, among others [24]. But their use is limited in fresh-cut fruits, only organic acids, and plant essential oils are used. The drawback is that fruits are losing their natural flavor and aroma due to the usage of essential oils. To confer antimicrobial activity, antimicrobial agents may be coated, incorporated, immobilized, or surface modified onto package materials [25].
Antimicrobial films are of 2 types: (a) mobile-which includes an antimicrobial agent that migrates on the surface of produce and prevents pathogenic growth (b) static that does not migrate and inhibits pathogen growth on the surface of produce. Packing materials with grapefruit seed extract in combination with a polyamide binder had an impact on microbial activity compared to grapefruit seed extract (GFSE) alone. When only GFSE is used it should antimicrobial activity against few microbes, but when used in association with a binder it is found effective against several microbes. But these when used alone may not be much effective, hence must be combined with other techniques such as pulsed light, high pressure, and irradiation could reduce the risk of pathogen contamination and extend the shelf-life of perishable food products.
It is the most efficient technique for packing products that had a dual purpose of maintaining quality and also reduced pathogen damage. It is based on the technique of modifying the internal gas environment by removing or adding gasses to the headspace inside the package. It is done through various ways such as:
Ethylene scavenging: ethylene is known as a ripening hormone and in very minor concentrations it shows its action, so by eliminating ethylene from packing material we can avoid the further maturation of produce and prevent enzyme action that results in extended shelf life.
Oxygen scavenging: the presence of oxygen enhances aerobic microbial growth and also enzymatic action. It also results in nutrient loss, off flavor development. Mostly it is used to check mold growth.
Carbon dioxide release: higher concentrations of carbon dioxide check microbial growth, hence it is essential to maintain it at the needed level, and it is more permeable to plastic films than oxygen, so it must be regulated timely to get quality produce.
Sulfur dioxide: most commonly used for the packing of grapes, grapes packed in the carton are intermittently fumigated with sulfur dioxide, it must be properly regulated to prevent excess accumulation of sulfur dioxide. Flexible packaging materials such as PE-LD and linear low-density polyethylene (PE-LLD) when impregnated with potassium permanganate and cinnamic acid, respectively become ethylene scavengers.
Many biobased polymers are available in the market, like certain kinds of polyester, polyvinyl alcohol, polyesteramides, which are mainly used as films or moldings (Table 4). Polyhydroxy acid is very expensive as it is produced in limited quantities at the commercial level. Polylactic acid (PLA) is gaining importance in recent times as it performed better than many synthetic ones. There is always a great demand in searching for biodegradable packing material that serves the dual purpose of being ecofriendly and also less damage to the products stored in it.
Material | Film preparation | Moisture barrier | Oxygen barrier | Mechanical properties |
---|---|---|---|---|
Starch/polyvinyl alcohol (PVAL) | Extrusion | − | + | + |
Polyhydroxybutyrate/valerate (PHB/V) | Extrusion | + | + | +/− |
Polylactic acid (PLA) | Extrusion | +/− | − | + |
The preference of these bio-based packing materials is for those products that need short time storage such as fruits and vegetables. To achieving in this platform the packing material must meet the quality and safety standards of products and also promote its shelf life and fetch good market price to justify the additional costs incurred.
They are the nanoscale structures the improve the macro properties of food. Some of the nanocomposites used are silica nano clay and polymer clay nano clay. Silver nano clay have good interactions with other particles and also provides a large surface area to volume ratio, enhanced bacterial activity control, whereas polymer nano clay provide more strength and stiffness, smaller cell size, and is a flame retardant.
Polymer nano clay has recently emerged due to its wide-ranging properties such as providing mechanical strength, less shocking treatments, etc. The properties of biopolymer-based coatings were shown to act as hurdles for gas and solutes thereby increasing the shelf life of produce. But they showed poor performance in mechanical resistance and water vapor exchange. To achieve these characters hybrid materials were developed consisting of bio-based polymer and layered silicates such as montmorillonite (MMT). These exhibited great and good results in the chemical, physical and physiological aspects of the product in comparison to the pure one [27].
Nanocomposite constituents are composed of a nanoscale structure that enhances the macroscopic properties of food products. Polymer clay nano clay and silica nanocomposites of nanosilver are the two common nanocomposites utilized in the food packaging industry. Increased stiffness, strength, nucleating agent in foams, smaller cell size, higher cell density, and flame retardant are the impacts of nano clay in polymers. Nanosilver has great antibacterial characteristics which are made out of de-ionized water suspended in silver. Silver nanoparticles have a large surface area relative to volume, so, they interact well with other particles, increasing their antibacterial efficiency. As a result, they are widely utilized in the food packaging business. Although the application of nanotechnology in the food industry was initiated later than other industries, many nanoscientists and technologists have recognized the immense potential of food nanotechnology, particularly in the areas of increasing food quality and ensuring food safety [4].
Polymer/clay nanocomposites are one of the potential applications of nanotechnology in food packaging; they have recently emerged due to their capacity for improving mechanical, barrier, and chemical properties of packaging materials with a small amount of nano clays reinforcement (less than 5% by weight). However major work done on clay polymers concentrated on synthetic polymers majorly. Biopolymers act as a hurdle to solute and gas thereby enhancing the shelf life of produce However, due to their hydrophilic qualities, these films do not retain good mechanical and water vapor barrier capabilities. To overcome these issues, an innovative approach has been developed, by using hybrid materials consisting of polymers and layered silicates such as montmorillonite (MMT) clay mineral, result from the stacked arrangement of negatively charged silicate layers and contain a platelet thickness of about 1 nm with a high aspect ratio (ratio of length to thickness) [28]. The layered silicate filled polymer composites exhibit extraordinary enhancement of mechanical, thermal, and physicochemical properties at a low level of filler concentration when compared to pure polymer and conventional micro composites [27].
In specific, these nanocomposites offer good barrier characteristics, because, the presence of clay layers inhibits the diffusing molecule pathway due to tortuosity [29, 30]. Some of the works done with biopolymer-based nanocomposites were based on starch or polysaccharides, such as chitosan [31, 32], thermoplastic starch and wheat and maize starch. A few studies on protein-based nanocomposites have been available, including whey protein soy protein [31], and wheat gluten. Nanocomposites along with biopolymers exhibited a greater impact when compared nanocomposites alone. The most popular biopolymer is whey protein that has gained popularity due to its transparent coating and effective oxygen barrier. Unlike chitosan film, whey protein films have not shown any antimicrobial activity; therefore, incorporation of antimicrobial agents, such as lysozyme, sorbic acid, and p-aminobenzoic acid and is desirable to induce this feature. Rhim et al., reported that cloister 30R and some chitosan-based nanocomposites showed action against gram-positive bacteria.
It is of two types: the one which incorporates integrated circuits and the one that does not (chipless smart packing). The type of packing that includes diagnostic indicators also falls under this umbrella. They can be used for some functions such as humidity, light, heat, mechanical shock, biological agents such as bacteria or viruses as they come in contact.
The conventional packing material use Is limited to only some fresh produce and it can not come up with tolerating the high rates of respiration of fresh produce, however, some breathable polymer films were in use for cut vegetables and fruits. Packing films with acrylic side chains is more beneficial as the side chains melt which results in increased gas permeability and also ensures proper carbon dioxide to oxygen ratio that usually varies with the product. In this way, packing becomes smart as the concentrations of gasses are controlled automatically around the product during storage and transportation and provide the products with high quality to the consumers.
Intelligent packaging technique indicates the freshness of produce by changing colors, so the consumer can know its quality and can check it if any deterioration occurred during the transit. Time-temperature integrators (TTI’s) are instruments that display irreversible changes in characters such as shape or color. They work based on different principles such as physical, chemical, and biological. The first two types are based on the response towards time, temperature, melting, polymerization, etc… The latter depends on the activity of biological organisms.
Fresh-Check®Life Lines integrator is available as self-adhesive labels, that are attached to the packing material of perishable produce to assure the quality of products to customers. It is based on the principle of color change, which is due to a polymer that has diacetylene monomeric units. It includes a small ring of polymer surrounded by another ring for color reference, the rate of change of color depends on the rate of food quality loss. The color changes from light to dark as the temperature increases.
Vitsab® indicator is based on enzymatic reactions. It has two compartments, one for enzyme plus a dye and the other for substrate (primarily triglycerides). It consists of a bubble-like dot and it is activated by applying pressure, which results in the compartments getting mixed. Because of the reaction between enzyme and substrate, there will be a change in pH and also a change in color. Initially, the dot is in green color and slowly changes to yellow as the product reaches the end of shelf life. The reaction is irreversible and the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the temperature. Single dot tags are used at consumer level packing for monitoring pallets and cartoons.
The Institute of Food Technologists in the United States has defined shelf life as “The period between the manufacture and the retail purchase of a food product, during which time the product is in a state of satisfactory quality in terms of nutritional value, taste, texture, and appearance”. Various factors affecting shelf life are product characteristics, which include intrinsic factors, such as water activity, pH, microflora, availability of oxygen, reduction potential; and extrinsic factors, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, light, etc., enzymic reactions, chemical reactions, and non-enzymic reactions (Table 5).
Food/treatment | Packaging materials/methods | Shelf life |
---|---|---|
Peach, cauliflower, truffle | Tray: PP; Cover: PE-LD/polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (40 μm), 0–14 microperforated package, all wrapped in PE | 4 days at 4°C |
Strawberry | Stretch PVC | 8 days at 1°C |
Minimally processed fruits (kiwi, banana and prickly pear) | 1. PE/Al/PET | 4–12 days at 5°C |
2. Coex. polyolefinic high permeable film | ||
Sweet cherry | 5% O2 + 10% CO2 | 80 days at 1°C |
PE: 13–18% O2 + 2–4% CO2 | 40 days at 1°C | |
70% O2 + 0% CO2 | 20 days at 1°C | |
Air | 30 days at 1°C | |
Cactus pear fruits | Cryovac MY 15 Plastic box | 9 days at 4°C |
Carrots, minimally processed | PP + cPP/OPP in: | |
5% O2/10% CO2/85% N2 | 2 days at 4°C | |
80% O2/10% CO2/10% N2 | 7 days at 4°C | |
Cabbage, shredded | OPP (30 μm) | 9–10 days at 3°C |
Cabbage, shredded | Glass jar; PE (30 μm); PP (30 μm) in: | 7 days at 0 and 10°C |
Air | ||
100% N2, | ||
MAP 1: 100% N2, | ||
MAP 2: 5% O2/95% N2, | ||
MAP 3:10% O2/90% | ||
MAP 4: 70% O2/30% N2 and 100% O2 |
There are various chemical, biochemical and physical reactions that lead to food quality deterioration. These include enzymic and non-enzymic browning, fat oxidation, hydrolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis that change the physical and chemical composition of food [33].
Recently, the food packaging process, biotechnology, sensor science, information technology, nanotechnology, and other scientific disciplines are coming together to develop a breakthrough in postharvest packaging systems. These improved postharvest handling techniques are continuously getting advanced by creating new opportunities in food industries to utilize technologies in the future Proper and good packing is essential in providing quality products to customers. It is the connecting link between producers and consumers, so it must be done so perfectly to retain the product quality and also customer confidence. The food packaging industry gets highly competitive due to consumer’s desire for tasty and slightly processed food products with longer shelf life at a lower cost than their existing packaging. The recent trend in the change of lifestyle leads the food industry well aware of consumer’s needs, and therefore, the packaging industry must innovate or stagnate. This condition has posed a great challenge for the food packaging sector to innovate new food packaging techniques. Consumers will often actively seek the freshness of the product with the longest remaining shelf life. Nowadays, novel food packaging technologies, such as active packaging, aseptic packaging, intelligent packaging, nano-packaging, and bioactive packaging intentionally associated with food products have proved to be the best technological research areas. Advances in packaging technology may prevent food spoilage by retarding water penetration, ultraviolet interactions, oxygenation, and ripeness. It is predicted that the future packing material includes radio frequency identification tags. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags are advanced forms that can trace and identify a product. Therefore, continuous innovations in active and intelligent packaging systems are expected to secure food quality, safety, and stability and to satisfy the ever-growing need of consumers.
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\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
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\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
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\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
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The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82158",title:"A Usability Analysis of the DAO Concept Based on the Case Study of a Blockchain Game",slug:"a-usability-analysis-of-the-dao-concept-based-on-the-case-study-of-a-blockchain-game",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105347",abstract:"Games based on a blockchain exist in all variants and facets, mostly as single- or multiplayer games. This chapter deals with the implementation of a multiplayer strategy game (Connect Four), using blockchain technology for decentralized data storage and the entire game logic. The focus is on the use of the decentralized autonomous organization (DAO) principle, for coordination and voting within the teams. The chosen game just stands as an example; other games or gamification approaches in which users can take decisions collaboratively can be used here. A web application was implemented acting as a central interface between players and the blockchain. Hence, it was possible for players to compete against each other in teams and to collectively decide the next move by participating in a roundly voting. With the help of a standardized questionnaire, answered by each player after each match, possible impacts of the voting mechanism on the usability were determined.",book:{id:"11552",title:"Gamification - Analysis, Design and Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11552.jpg"},signatures:"Lars Karbach, Mortiz Korte, Nils Orbat, Daniel Muschiol and March Jansen"},{id:"82415",title:"Power Consumption in CMOS Circuits",slug:"power-consumption-in-cmos-circuits",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105717",abstract:"In this chapter, we explain the two types of power consumption found in a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) circuit. In general, a CMOS circuit tends to dissipate power at all times—be it active or inactive. The power consumed by the circuit when it is performing computational tasks is known as dynamic power. On the contrary, the power lost due to current leakage during which the circuit is dormant is referred to as static power. By carefully and properly designing the circuit, current leakage can be suppressed to its minimum. Hence, dynamic power consumption is usually significantly higher than its static counterpart. Some of the techniques that could be adopted to save dynamic power consumption include reducing the supply voltage, clock frequency, clock power, and dynamic effective capacitance. 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However, both models assume constant and fixed parameters over time. Unfortunately, most of these assumptions are unrealistic. In this study, we generalize the EOQ and EPQ models and study production-inventory fluid models operating in a stochastic environment. The inventory level increases or decreases according to a fluid-flow rate modulated by an n-state continuous time Markov chain (CTMC). Our main objective is to minimize the expected discounted total cost which includes ordering, purchasing, production, set up, holding, and shortage costs. Applying regenerative theory, optional sampling theorem (OST) to the multi-dimensional martingale and fluid flow techniques, we develop methods to obtain explicit formulas for these cost functionals. As such, we provide managers with a useful framework and an efficient and easy-to-implement tool to coop with different demand–supply patterns.",book:{id:"11169",title:"Logistics Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11169.jpg"},signatures:"Yonit Barron"},{id:"82326",title:"Probabilistic Risk Assessments for Static Equipment Integrity",slug:"probabilistic-risk-assessments-for-static-equipment-integrity",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105550",abstract:"The mechanical integrity of batch-produced machinery is successfully safeguarded using online condition monitoring and reliability theory principles. However, the integrity of nonreplaceable static equipment (pressure vessels, cranes, bridges, and other critical infrastructure) is still widely assured and managed using basic equations (e.g., safety factors and design loads), with no or little regard to the probabilistic nature of their operational damage. The gap between the deterministic “remnant life” assumptions and the probabilistic reality restrains the implementation of new asset integrity technologies (advanced condition monitoring and asset management) because these novel tools are not supported by a numeric cost/benefit analysis in many practical cases. The latter is impossible to implement confidently, while the probability of failure (PoF) versus time remains unquantified. The solution to this problem is holistic and logical: individual equipment integrity analysis now needs to be upgraded to the probabilistic terms at all the stages of life. Even well-known asset integrity technologies can help achieve this goal, providing that they are considered and utilized from the standpoint of harmonizing and aligning their outputs with risk owner’s actual decision-making. This chapter shows real-life case studies to briefly illustrate how the existing integrity engineering tools can be advanced via further PoF considerations, in order to provide the outputs needed for a cost/benefit-based confident and compliant risk control.",book:{id:"11528",title:"Maintenance Management - Current Challenges, New Developments, and Future Directions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11528.jpg"},signatures:"Yury Sokolov"},{id:"1083885",title:"Design and Planning Robust and Competitive Supply Chains",slug:null,totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000208",abstract:'In recent years, supply chains in the manufacturing industry have become more and more complicated, and many cases of supply chain disruptions due to natural disasters have been confirmed. It is necessary for manufacturers to build a system that can help them alleviate losses and shorten recovery periods due to supply chain disruptions. Supplier diversification, as well as supplier evaluation and selection, are discussed as risk aversion measures in many papers. However, even if the procurement source has been evaluated enough, there are problems, such as opportunity loss during recovery periods and soaring procurement costs during normal periods. In this chapter, to help Japanese manufacturers to alleviate opportunity loss under component procurement disruption situations and keep cost competitiveness in normal periods, decision-making models of supply chain structure assessment, supplier selection, procurement allocation, and trading contracts are designed and verified.
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These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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