Factor levels in the experimental design.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"626",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Endoscopic Procedures in Colon and Rectum",title:"Endoscopic Procedures in Colon and Rectum",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Endoscopic procedures in colon and rectum presents nine chapters which start with introductory ones like screening by colonoscopy as the preparation and monitoring for this exam. 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Each step of such activities produces various types of agricultural waste that include crop residue, on-farm livestock and fisheries waste, forest waste, agro-industrial waste, etc. Currently, handling and managing agricultural waste is a challenging task worldwide, especially in the context of environmental pollution control and sustainable agriculture. Thus, efficient management in terms of reuse, recycling, and reduction of agricultural waste is principally needed not only for the green economy but also for farmers' profitability. This would also contribute to minimizing environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change to meet the 2030 UN-SDGs. Therefore, this book aims to address agricultural waste production and management in the multidimensional aspects of crop residue, biodegradables, biomass, composting and vermiculture, agricultural waste economics, air pollution, environmental safety, waste management, and handling, on-farm waste reuse, and agricultural waste value addition. Authors are encouraged to submit original research, reviews, modeling and simulation, case studies, and recent progress and scenarios in the above-mentioned subject areas.
\r\n\t
Biocomposite materials derived from biodegradable, renewable sources have perceived substantial attention in current times, in particular due to the amplified consciousness towards more environmentally sustainable technologies. In most of the cases bio-composites offer weight reduction, supplemented capabilities (e.g., structural, electrical, electronic, and medical) and occupational health benefits. These bio-composites have great potential for their use in electronic, automobile, packaging, insulations and construction industries with a potential to disassociate material costs from the fluctuating price of oil and energy.
Addition of reinforcements to a bio-composite matrix does more than just enhance on the properties of the composite but also imparts some other “unexpected” properties that can satisfy these requirements. For example, bio-composites with conductive polymer matrices impart unique functional properties which makes them useful for medical applications. On the other hand, use of clay nanotubes as reinforcement materials not only enhances mechanical properties but also opens the way for surface topology enhancements resulting more unique applications. Moreover, smart choice of matrix-reinforcement combinations and understanding their surface interactions can result in applications never even thought about. Such as, keeping both the in-situ surface interactions and interactions with the environment in the mind, choice of appropriate matrix-reinforcement combination can reward us with bio-degradable food packaging materials. This creates a situation where the excellent design of bio-composites provides an extension of the composite functionality. By combining the filler and manipulating the parameter space, bio-composite research holds a vast possibility to produce a wide range of functional materials with controllable properties. To illustrate functionality-based designs, a few of the bio-composites that have been formulated with functional properties are presented here.
There is an emerging attention in the field of natural fiber fortified conductive polymer combinations in numerous aspects of technical functions. Such attention ascends from the fact that the natural fiber supported polymer matrix composites show conjoined possessions of useful insulation and elevated degree of anticipated mechanical strength that allows it to be magnificent structural provision for conductors. Such exclusive characteristics allow these composite structures to be exploited in broadened regions for instance terminals, connectors, switches, insulators, printed circuit boards, industrial and house hold plugs, panels and so on [1, 2]. Moreover, the dielectric features of materials greatly control the transformation of the electromagnetic energy toward heat [3]. At present, several textile fibers and fabrics such as cotton, nylon, lycra, polyester, viscose rayon, and wool, are being employed with technical polymers for diverse functions e.g. conductive textiles, heating appliances, electro-magnetic interference, super-capacitor, shielding and antimicrobial cloths and so on [4, 5, 6]. Nonetheless, conducting polymers with receptive to electrical stimulation are competent to bio- functions such as tissue scaffolds for the restoration or replacement of damaged or malfunctioning tissues [7]. A graphic demonstration showing the significance of designing biomimetic conducting polymer-based materials is exhibited in Figure 1. A continuing push to foster more bio-conforming and intrinsically ecological conductive polymer types with various functionalization techniques are evolved for different possible applications. Optimization of various properties (e.g., conductivity, roughness, porosity, hydrophobicity and degradability) in combination with the attachment of biological molecules have made the conductive polymers as a promising candidate for biomedical applications. This binding of organic molecules can be conducted via four key synthetic ways [8] (Figure 2). First process is adsorption where a solution of functionalizing chemical is put together with the synthesized polymer. The organic molecules are attached to the polymer structure due to the stable contacts with ionic interaction [9]. Secondly, engrossing the functional molecules within the polymer matrix. The entrapment is usually carried out by combining the matrix monomer and functionalizing chemical agent with the polymerization reaction afterwards [10]. Thirdly, by cementing the biomolecules to the polymer matrix with covalent bonding. In this case, functionalization of the polymer is more stable and long-lasting [8]. Lastly by doping practice with a wide variety of charged molecules for inducing the polymers to conductive character [8, 11]. The obvious benefit of conductive polymers is their immense flexibility in terms of dopant selection for proper functionalization to suit a particular usage [12]. Therefore, the fundamental understanding of these dielectric properties is essential for various industrial applications.
Schematic illustration of the critical considered aspects for designing biomimetic conducting polymer-based materials. Redrawn from [
Methods of functionalizing conductive polymers: (a) physical absorption, (b) entrapping, (c) covalent bonding and (d) exploiting the doping mechanism.
Conductive polymers have more extensive favorable circumstances over other electro-active biomaterials (for example electrets, piezoelectric and photovoltaic materials) according to electrical perspective [13]. They have astounding authority over electrical stimulus, have a high conductivity to weight ratio, can have generally excellent electrical just as optical properties, and can likewise add to making biodegradable, permeable, and biocompatible items [14, 15, 16, 17]. Their physical, synthetic, and electrical properties can be custom fitted for providing explicit necessities of their applications and viewed as one of their exceptional focal points. This can be possible by fusing antibodies, proteins and other organic moieties [14, 16, 18]. In addition, such helpful properties of conductive polymers can be controlled, and changed even after combination through incitement (for example using various methods like electricity, light, pH and so forth.) [19, 20, 21].
Recently, their unexpected applications in functional papers just as packaging industries have drawn exceptional consideration. A few investigations affirmed critical need of utilizing such conductive polymers in electrical applications. Coated paper with conducting properties can be utilized to produce anti-static and electro-magnetic shielding papers, anti-bacterial papers, novel wall coverings and electrical resistive heating papers [22, 23, 24]. Johnston’s group designed conducing paper using natural strands and conductive polymers, where unbleached bagasse as well as rice straw filaments were injected into polyaniline (PANi). Results demonstrated that increased conductivity was achieved with the increase of PANi in the composite [22]. Youssef et al. also architectured a composite system based on unbleached cellulosic bagasse or rice straw fibers and PANi as conducting polymer by means of emulsion polymerization. In this context, PANi was formulated with in situ polymerization via oxidative reaction with help of ammonium persulfate accompanied with a specific quantity of emulsifier n-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) and dopant HCl. DBSA was used as emulsifier to catalyze the polymerization reaction of aniline via cation-radical mechanism in the presence of unbleached pulp fibers and also to increase the electrical conductivity of the formed PANi/pulp fiber composites.
In addition, Pramila Devi’s group have studied the cure characteristics, thermal and microwave properties, DC conductivity, and mechanical properties of both natural rubber (NR)/polypyrrole and natural rubber/polypyrrole/polypyrrole-coated short nylon fiber composite. The composites were designed by a two-step process: in situ polymerization in NR latex followed by compounding in a two-roll mill. It was noted that the natural rubber/polypyrrole composite’s DC conductivity was only improved at very high polypyrrole load and a maximum conductivity of 8.3 × 10−4 S/cm was reached at loading time of 100 phr [25].
In addition to this, Jabbour’s group developed conductive papers of graphite particles (GPs)/ carbon fibers (CFs)/cellulose fibers (FBs) composites with low cost of production, good mechanical properties, and tunable electrical conductivity. Flexible GP/FB, CF/FB and GP/CF/FB composite papers with tunable conductivity and good mechanical properties were obtained by means of a papermaking production process. It was perceived that ultraviolet absorbance in UV–vis spectroscopy amplified with adding Carboxymethyl cellulose [26].
In addition, effective current carrying passages were established across agglomerates or scattered nano-fillers [27]. It was also determined that resistivity varied drastically with the distribution of carbon nanofiber into polycarbonate regulated by sonication facilities.
In addition, conductive polymer with silk fiber bunch was effectively used in the manufacturing of thread-fashioned electrodes. In this case, conductive polyelectrolyte, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) -poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT-PSS) and silk bundle were amalgamated electrochemically to produce the electrodes. It has been shown that the polymer composite has conductivity of 0.00117 S/cm. Adding glycerol to the PEDOT-PSS silk thread has allowed the conductivity to increase to 0.102 S/cm. It has also been stated that such biocompatible electrodes can be implemented in both the biomedical and health promotion sectors [28].
Different research groups investigated the dielectric properties of composites made from natural fibers with various polymers including the conductive ones. Chicken feather fiber (CFF)/Epoxy composites’ electrical resistivity was found to be two to four orders of magnitudes higher than that of E-glass fiber composites. Composites with hybrid (CFF-E-glass/Epoxy) fibers were also found to typically have a low dielectric constant value [29].
On the other hand, Xia and Lu fabricated highly conductive polymers with composite silk fibroin fibers through in-situ polymerization. Polypyrrole/silk fibroin, polyaniline/silk fibroin, and poly3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene/silk fibroin composite fibroins were reported to exhibit differed conductivity in the range of
Gelfuso’s group also studied the electrical resistivity of composites based on composites made from polypropylene/coconut fibers. They aimed to investigate the electrical properties of low-cost and composites that are environmentally friendly in order to enhance their implementation in industrial applications [31].
Moreover, W. Jia’s group researched and analyzed the electrical conductivity of composites based on epoxy resin with polyaniline-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) fillers. They used both conductive filler PANI-DBSA in powder and paste forming the composite with matrix polymer bisphenol, hydride hardener, and epoxy resin as well as accelerator. Results showed a conductivity of the order 10−3 at high filler content [32].
In addition, Wang’s group had introduced the theory of percolation and its principles by conducting experiments to study the effect of absorption of moisture on electrical conductivity in natural plastic composites. It was confirmed that there is no observable electrical conductivity in the dry natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite. But electrical conductivity for the natural fiber composite was achieved successfully after water submersion [33].
Moreover, there was investigation of the dielectric properties of date palm fiber/epoxy composite where three relaxation processes were found. These processes were primarily relaxation in the α mode, relaxation due to diffusion of carrier charges for high temperatures above glass transition and low frequencies, and relaxation in the interfaces or Maxwell -Wagner-Sillars relaxation [34, 35, 36].
Similarly, as a biodegradable material, conductive nanocomposite using polypyrrole/dextrin was synthesized. The conductivity of the nanocomposites was investigated using four probe methods and analyzed with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay (DPPH) for antioxidant activity. It was shown that by increasing the polypyrrole in the matrix, both the conductivity and antioxidant activity have improved. The nanocomposites were indicated to be considerably effective against all such bacteria studied. It was also stated that composites in the range of 30.18–74.52% degradation is biodegradable in the natural environment [37].
In addition, Pavlović’s group studied the effects of electrical conductivity of electrodeposited copper powder material filled into the lignocellulose matrix. The conductivity measurements were shown to have S-shaped dependence with a percolation transition from non-conductive to conductive region. The concentration percolation threshold was reached at a copper fraction of 14.4% (v/v) volume [38].
Halloysite clay is a natural medium of tubules formed by rolled kaolin sheets. Halloysite is alumosilicate and is chemically identical to kaolin although in some position of aluminum usually, contains a small amount of metal ions replacing it. Usually, 10–15 layers of alumosilicate roll into the cylinder and its wall packing can be monitored with 0.72 nm X-ray reflection (001) for dry halloysite [39, 40, 41, 42]. Halloysite tube surface is silica, and its innermost surface is alumina, having a good negative zeta-potential of ca. -30 mV on the surface of the tube and + 25 mV on the innermost tube in aqueous dispersions at standard pH. The diameter of the halloysite tubes is 40-70 nm with an inner lumen diameter of 10-15 nm and a length of 1500 ± 500 nm (Figure 3) [42, 44, 45]. It is interesting that sonication leads to the formation of halloysite-like tubes over a long time of kaolin aqueous dispersion, although the concentration of the substance is very low and the tube shape is rather poor [46].
Scheme of tightening halloysite tube walls during heating dehydration (a). Aqueous dispersion TEM and dry powder SEM images of halloysite from Dragon Mine, Utah, Applied Minerals Inc. (b–c). Redrawn from [
In contrast with platy clays such as montmorillonite, kaolin and laponite packed in larger crystallites, halloysite has an important advantage that these nanotubes do not need exfoliation and can easily be dispersed in water or polar polymers. Halloysite-water dispersion is stable for a few hours and can be re-dispersed with quick shaking or brief sonication. It was proven that nano clay-tubes have a solid interfacial characteristic with biopolymers (e.g., polysaccharides, polyamides) and also with polar polymers (e.g., polyacrylates, epoxy, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene). Most importantly, these nanotubes can be incorporated into polymer matrix with proper dispersion. These clay-based nanotubes develop a sort of “structural framework” in bulk polymers which enhances the strength the composite. In addition, these “skeleton bones” can be filled with bioactive substances, such as loading real bones with a marrow offering additional functionality. Halloysite is biocompatible “green” material and its simple processing combined with low cost makes it a prospect for polymeric composites in nano-architecture.
The straightforward application of clay nanotubes is their use in the modification of biological devices’ surface topography, such as microfluidic devices, to distinguish the circulating tumor cells from non-malignant. Halloysite nanotubes functionalized with human selectin protein have been successfully used to isolate myeloid leukemia from colon cancer cells [47]. The system was based on internal-coated 300 μm glass tubes with P or E-selectin molecules and alternated with negatively charged halloysite nanotubes with poly-L -lysine. Microscopic experiments showed that halloysite nanotubes adapted to the glass surface greatly decreased the speed of rolling and increased the number of cells captured. Improving cell separation is caused by the increase in the total surface area following the immobilization of clay nanotubes and the resulting increase in the amount of selectin molecules responsible for the cell capture. In some other situations, the same method can be used where we can pick a suitable molecular agent (i.e., antibodies, receptors, and aptamers), and then exclusively remove the cells accordingly.
In addition, it was found that the nano clay tubes could be functionalized with sensory stimulus molecules and could be stuffed with gradually liberating molecules, enhancing the coating functionality. It was also established that enriched human dermal fibroblast addition on halloysite nanotube coatings which spread, proliferate and sustain the cellular phenotype [48].
An emerging application of halloysite nanotubes in biomaterials is their use in tissue and dental engineering scaffolds. Bottino’s group investigated the manufacture of three-dimensional endodontic regenerative scaffolds based on electro spun polymers doped with halloysite nanotubes. Nanotubes were found predominantly inside the polydioxanone fibers and allowed an increase in the diameter of the fiber. Halloysite addition also impacted the mechanical properties of scaffolds. It has been shown that fibroblast cells derived from human dental pulp exhibited the usual proliferation rate, indicating high biocompatibility of polymer scaffolds doped with electro spun halloysite [49].
Liu’s group have used the idea of using halloysite nanotubes as dopants in the fabrication of chitosan-based tissue engineering scaffolds. Nanocomposite halloysite-doped scaffolds demonstrated the enhanced mechanical and thermal properties of compressive power, compressive assembly, and temperature stability compared to pure chitosan scaffolds. Human fibroblasts had effectively colonized these scaffolds [50].
Another fascinating field of research is the tailoring of nanomaterials to cell surfaces that enables living microbial cells to make new functionalities. Max Planck Institute’s team led by Helmuth Möhwald proposed layer-by-layer (LbL) encapsulation of biological cells and it was first demonstrated for surface modification of
Halloysite-coated cells can be used as adaptable patterns for the manufacture of hollow inorganic microcapsules by calcination.; On the other hand, the fascinating uses are anticipated from live cells carrying a vehicle of halloysite nanotubes packed with different ingredients in advance of the confinement process. These “nanocarrier” cells could be considered as an active composite structure that provides a load of nutrients, defensive antibodies or biocides, DNA, and enzymes for the cells. For example, the extended release of glucose loaded into halloysite nanotubes immobilized on yeast cells has been demonstrated as a proof of principle [57].
Packaging must ensure its fundamental function as container and food damage against physical damage, by displaying adequate mechanical properties, but also by regulating the properties of mass transfer to restrict food degradation reactions. It has been shown that lignocellulosic fibers frequently act as defects that affect both mechanical and permeability properties, degrading the former and increasing the latter. Increasing material permeability by choosing the right formulation seems to be a valuable approach, especially for the packaging of respiring products such as fruit and vegetables.
Mechanical properties for multiple combinations of bioplastics and lignocellulose fibers were widely explored and published. Despite the value of the properties of mass transit, however, the state of information on this subject remains very weak. Clearly, a need for fundamental research turned towards full-bio-composites emerges from this context, by developing understanding and modeling methods capable of considering the entire intricacy of the systems. The present blockages are the deficiency of proper know-how on the underlying characteristics of vegetable yarns in mass transfer and the function of the interphase between the fiber and matrix. Because of the high complexity of vegetable fibers and their vulnerability to ecological surroundings (e.g., humidity, temperature), the assessment of numerical physical factors that could be additionally exploited in standards continues a challenge. Lastly, owing to the great variety, heterogeneity, and sophistication of raw constituents, we are presented with a multitude of systems and composite structures. Thus, the overall performance of complete bio-composites is very system-dependent, which makes the design of packaging materials with a reverse engineering approach difficult. To overcome this bottleneck, a few main parameters showing key effects of overall functional properties required to be established.
The key parameters evoked for regulating water vapor permeability (WVP) include fiber content and size, fiber/matrix adhesion, and matrix crystallinity and plasticization [59, 60]. In principle, assuming fibers are impermeable and well distributed in the matrix, WVP is likely to decrease due to tortuosity effect. In fact, lignocellulosic fibers are not impermeable. Thus, in most cases the composite WVP increased with the addition of fiber. Thus, the hygroscopic fiber character should be added to the list of the key parameters that govern WVP. Owing to aggregation and percolation phenomena WVP will increase. For small fibers and/or weak fiber/matrix adhesion the first one may occur. Weak adhesion of the fiber/matrix would also create voids in the polymers which could allow the transport of water molecules across these regions [61].
Shortly afterwards agglomeration, percolation will appear for higher fiber content and also, more likely, for higher fiber size. WVP will also increase due to a reduction in the crystallinity of the matrix and/or plasticization of the matrix caused by the addition of fiber.
Sonia and Dasan examined cellulose microfibers (CMF)/poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVA) with the amount of up to 13 wt.% of fiber. The introduction of low fiber content (up to 5 wt.%) resulted in an improvement in the barrier properties, while over this limit value, the 200 mm fibers induced an increase in oxygen permeability through the materials [62].
Valdés García’s group studied a composite in a poly (b-caprolactone) matrix, based on almond skin residues. Since composites produced 10, 20, and 30 wt.% of 50 mm fibers, no information is given on low fiber content, and the oxygen transfer rate (OTR) showed the same evolution as Sonia and Dasan observed for highest fiber loads. In all cases, the introduction of fiber increased OTR, with a 5-times rise in the fiber content at 30 wt.%. On the contrary, Valdés García’s group, measuring 10, 20, and 30 wt.% of almond skin residue content in PCL, observed a steady increase in WVP, although no major differences were noticed for smooth PCL and 10% composite PCL (p > 0.05). Such findings were due solely to fiber agglomeration that caused reduction in the homogeneity and cohesion of the matrix [62, 63].
Ludueña’s group also reported a rise in WVP with content of cotton-based fibers (0,.5, and 15 wt.%) in PCL, but also assessed the effect of size of fibers. There is a competitive influence between the size of fibers and their water-related affinity, thus with the matrix. The smallest type of fiber (0.20 mm), being the most hydrophilic form, increases WVP composites almost to the same degree as the longest fibers (59 mm), while the medium size fiber (9.1 mm), the most hydrophobic, retains WVP composite at the same level as pure PCL [60].
The bio-composites nowadays emanate with superior biocompatibility which perform in contemporaneous manner with the body. The architecture of these biocomposite materials is designed in such a manner that some exceptional characteristics are evolved eventually.
A combination of hydroxy apatite (HA) layer with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) as a substitution material for bone has been designed and commercialized as HAPEXTM [64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70]. In these cases, the span of HA was selected between 20 to 40 volume%. Recently, bone graft consisted of demineralized bone powder between two collagen layers was fostered and exhibited cell migration both in Vitro and in vivo investigation [71]. In another development, hydroxyapatite and a PEG/PBT (polyethylene glycol and poly-butylene terephthalate) block copolymer composites were designed with enhanced chemical linkages by using hexamethylene diisocyanate as a coupling agent. They showed that the HA particles in conjunction with polymeric matrix with covalent bonding helps in achieving bone replacement [72].
A complicated bilayer coating of graphene oxide (GO) and Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL)/Gelatin-forsterite nanofibers on 316 L stainless steel (SS) were developed and ultimately it showed increased suitability as orthopedic implant with improved corrosion resistance of SS [73]. However, toxicity of metallic materials is still remained as a major concern for health safety. In this connection, the biocompatibility of the scaffolds was enhanced by designing new nanocomposite system with the activation of functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes, kappa-carrageenan, and chitosan in hydroxyapatite (MHAp) [74].
The pursuit for targeted and coordinated drug release achieved a new dimension with the manipulation of composite structure. Nanocomposites of N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAAm) hydrogel with magnetic nano iron oxide particles was formulated for the pulsatile drug delivery system. By alternating the high frequency magnetic field, the heat generation in nanocomposites was controlled to regulate the swelling transition of the hydrogel [75, 76]. For another instance, nanocomposites of paclitaxel were organized using poly- (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)/montmorillonite (PLGA/MMT) nanoparticles decorated by human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) antibody were designed for targeted chemotherapy treatment. The NP formulation exhibited a biphasic drug release with a moderate initial burst followed by a sustained release profile. The surface decoration speeded the drug release. PLGA-MMT demonstrated increased cellular uptake by CaCo-2 and HT-29 cells [77].
With the development of biocomposite technology, there are various types of dressings for different wounds were studied for better wound healing. Consequently, many therapeutic dressings with different architecture with diverse activity have materialized and employed medically, such as natural dressings, synthetic dressings, medical dressings, and tissue engineering dressing. A promising bio-nanocomposite from nanocellulose (NC), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP), and chitosan was fabricated by solution casting method for in vitro wound dressings [78]. The solution blended PVP and chitosan mixer formed a biocompatible combination with nanocellulose particles via hydrogen bonding. The nanocomposite showed enhanced swelling, blood compatibility and antibacterial activity. Recently, Kamel’s group have fabricated distinctive biocomposite membranes from banana peel nano powder (BPnP) reinforcement in chitosan matrix. In this structure, glycerol was added as plasticizer and crosslinker to the membranes. It was found that the swelling properties of chitosan were reduced with the incorporation of BPnP. Furthermore, the results also showed that chitosan/BPnP membranes have a collaborative action with the highest activity at 10 wt% of BPnP loading [79].
In this chapter we have tried to show the usefulness of functional design concepts through variety of biocomposites design ideas and processes found in the literature. To devise a biocomposite with the expected functionality, it is indispensable to comprehend the meticulous effect of size, shape, volume fraction, orientation, distribution of filler and its compatibility with matrix. Additionally, grasping the interaction among these aspects is vital for fruitful design of biocomposites. Also cost, environmental requirements, weight, complexity and processing are the key drivers that should influence the design of biocomposites. Often, the priority of the design drivers will determine the optimum design. Consequently, this chapter has illuminated the development attained by scientists in engineering biocomposites with different functionality.
The authors would like to thank the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) for providing assistance regarding for the computational facilities.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abrasive cutting is widely used in industry due to its high production rate (machining is performed at a speed of 100–200 mm2/s) and low labor costs. It is characterized by high temperatures (above 1000°C) in the cutting zone, intensive wear and deterioration of the abrasive tool cutting ability, spark generation, increased emissions of environmentally harmful gases, high noise level, risk of accidents, changes in the microstructure of surface materials and occurrence of thermal flaws [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Those disadvantages are related to the high cutting speed (above 50 m/s), constant changes in cutting conditions within a cut-off cycle, and unfavorable geometry of abrasive grains (negative rake angles).
Almost all mechanical work (over 97%) converts into thermal energy and only a small part of it transforms into hidden energy to change the crystal lattice of the material being machined [8, 9].
As a result of the conversion of the mechanical energy used in the cutting process into thermal energy, various heat sources emerge and the process of generating that heat depends on cutting conditions.
As far as every physical phenomenon has two sides—quantitative and qualitative, then, as a rule, the control of the energy transfer in a specific physical phenomenon involves the measurement of two quantities. When controlling heat exchange processes, the two quantities to be measured are temperature and thermal flux. Measuring the thermal parameters of thermal non-stationary processes, in particular, a rapidly changing thermal flux remains relevant today. Among the techniques for measuring unstable thermal fluxes, those using infrared cameras are preferred [10, 11, 12]. Infrared thermography provides remote and wireless real-time measurements of temperature fields of high-speed moving objects. However, to obtain accurate measurements, all emerging noises and interferences need to be compensated or minimized, which is а kind of a “payoff” for the universality of the thermographic thermal control.
By changing the abrasive cutting conditions, which directly define the thickness of the layer of material being cut, and, as a result, the temperatures of the tool, chip, workpiece, and cut piece, the thermal fluxes are controlled and conditions for increasing the tool life, the intensity of the cutting process and the quality of the machined surfaces are provided. Therefore, to improve the effectiveness and applicability of abrasive cutting, it is necessary to study and model the parameters of the process and to optimize the conditions for its implementation. This allows us to apply thermographic monitoring for preventive detection of unexpected changes in the parameters of the elastic abrasive cutting process and for ensuring a high-quality process.
To study the thermal phenomena in elastic abrasive cutting, an innovative approach has been used. It involves a wireless thermal control provided by infrared thermography and the application of the methodology of planned experiments and multi-objective optimization. An original thermographic procedure for increasing the precision of the thermal control during abrasive cutting is offered.
The manufacture of workpieces by cutting is implemented on various machines and installations (automatic lathes, band cutting machines, mechanical hacksaws, band saws circular saws, abrasive cut-off machines, presses, electric spark, and electrochemical installations) depending on the dimensions, profile, type and physico-mechanical properties of the input material and the admissible deviation from nominal dimensions. When comparing cutting methods by technological criteria, the most important criteria are cutting intensity (production rate), tool life, and material loss in the form of chips related to the cut width. Choosing an optimal variant for workpiece cutting is a technical and economic task, which has a considerable impact on the cost of the machine-building production.
Abrasive cutting is a universal method that is applied to manufacturing workpieces of metal and non-metal materials of different hardness by means of high-speed reinforced abrasive (cut-off) wheels of a diameter
Reinforced cut-off wheels whose grain size is in compliance with ISO 8486—grain numbers from 24 (coarse) to 60 (fine); medium-hard (
Abrasive cutting is a complex and varied process performed under different kinematic schema (Figure 1) where the cut-off wheel performs the main rotary motion (at a rotational frequency
Schemas of abrasive cutting.
The oscillatory motion facilitates the cutting process and helps to reduce the cost of the abrasive wheels. However, some shocks occur at both ends of the oscillatory motion, which leads to overloading the cut-off wheel, occurrence of vibrations, and an increase in wear. The implementation of such a motion makes the machine complex and costly. Those disadvantages are avoided when using the schema including a rotary motion of the workpiece (Figure 1c). If we compare abrasive cutting schemas, it can be seen that when performing a cut-off cycle (cutting one workpiece), the cut-off wheel working stroke upon cutting a rotating workpiece (Figure 1c) is approximately twice as short as that for the schemas in Figure 1a and b. It results in reducing the cut-off time and the friction forces between the lateral surfaces of the cut-off wheel and workpiece thus, on one hand, decreasing the temperature in the cutting zone and cut-off wheel wear and, on the other hand, increasing process production rate. When cutting a rotating workpiece, the lower cut-off wheel wear and the higher production rate is also due to the shorter length
The cut-off wheel can be fed into the workpiece at a constant speed of radial feed (
The kinematic schemas of rigid abrasive cutting are similar to those in external cylindrical grinding, where dependencies for defining the tool-workpiece contact area, contact arc length, and thickness of layer being cut, pointed in [14, 18, 19, 20], are required. The principal disadvantage of this method is the change in the power and heat loads of the cut-off wheel within one cut-off cycle, which is related to the change in the instantaneous cross-sectional area of the layer is cut. This results from the fact that with the cut-off wheel feed from the periphery to the center of the workpiece being cut the contact arc length between the cut-off wheel and the piece changes as the instantaneous thickness of the layer being cut
Within one cycle of elastic abrasive cutting, the length of the contact arc
The increase of the compression force
The increase in the workpiece rotational frequency
As the cut-off wheel diameter
The analysis has been carried out shows that elastic abrasive cutting is a sophisticated multi-parameter and multi-factor subject of study, modeling, and optimization [24]. It is characterized by a number of target parameters—economic (productivity and cost), dynamic (cutting forces and power) and technological (cut-off wheel wear and tool life, cutting temperature, noise, roughness and precision of machined surfaces, physico-mechanical properties of the surface layer—structure, microhardness, surface residual stresses, flaws, etc.). Each of the above parameters has a specific meaning in relation to abrasive cutting yet is insufficient for its optimum control.
The parameters of elastic abrasive cutting are determined by numerous control factors—physico-mechanical properties of the materials being machined, methods and components of the cutting mode, cut-off wheel type and characteristics, type and way of supplying cooling fluids, etc.
In the course of abrasive cutting, a number of interrelated, yet of a different type, nature, and intensity, phenomena occur and various materials, cut-off wheels, and cutting modes are used. Each abrasive cutting process is unique and could be studied from different perspectives: technological, energetic, informational, organizational, etc. When it is investigated, new experimental data and models are obtained, which differ from those of the preceding processes. Therefore, its investigation, modeling, analyzing, control, and optimization are always specific.
The mechanical work done in cutting involves deformation (elastic and plastic) of the material being machined, action of friction forces on the face and flank of cutting abrasive grains, and formation of new surfaces (dispersion). The amount of heat generated in cutting per unit of time, expressed by the work done in cutting and the mechanical equivalent of heat (
where:
Intensive thermal fluxes flow through the tool, chip, and material being machined in high-speed abrasive cutting. The large amount of heat generated in the course of abrasive cutting is transferred to the workpiece (
A wide range of changes in the thermal flux components depending on the selected schema for process implementation (rigid or elastic abrasive cutting), the characteristic of the cut-off wheel, the physico-mechanical properties of the material being machined and the cutting mode has been established.
Actually, the whole action of the friction forces in the contact zone below the neutral line
Schema of chip formation in abrasive cutting.
During the initial contact between the abrasive grain and the workpiece, taking into account the comma-shaped cross-section of the layer being cut when
When the values of the layer being cut are
The part of heat transferred to the workpiece is reduced when increasing the cutting speed because of the change in the ratio between the cutting speed and the heat dissipation rate in the deformation zone [14, 17, 19]. The dissipation rate of generated heat depends on the gradient of the temperatures along the shear surface and the heat conductivity of the material being machined. When the cutting speed, i.e. the speed at which the abrasive grain crosses the thermal flux, is low, the heat from the shear surface is transferred unobstructed to the workpiece. As the cutting speed increases, the cutting abrasive grain crosses the thermal flux faster and faster. As a result, a smaller amount of heat is transferred to the workpiece and a larger amount of heat remains in the chip:
where
Since a large part of heat (almost all the heat generated by plastic deformation and part of the heat generated by friction) is generated in the chip, the largest part of process heat remains there. Heat in the abrasive grain occurs externally as a result of friction and heat transfer from the hot chip to the colder abrasive grain, from plastic deformation, from the shear of the material under the neutral line, as well as from friction along the grain flank. As a consequence of conduction, the heat generated on the surface AB (Figure 2) is transferred to the abrasive grain and workpiece. The better the heat transfer from the surfaces being heated, the lower the temperature of those surfaces, i.e. the properties of heat conductivity and heat resistance influence the performance of cut-off wheels and the quality of machined surfaces.
The temperature of the cut-off wheel work surfaces (above 100°C) depends on the thermal flux density
The cutting process in abrasive cutting is accompanied by melting of chips and plenty of sparking, which result from a large amount of heat generated in the cutting zone by friction forces, deformation of the material being machined, and reaction during burning. During burning every material has a specific point at which it ignites. When reaching the ignition temperature under the influence of oxygen, the physically and chemically clean surfaces of the steel workpieces being machined are oxidized to form iron oxide and slag. During oxidation, a considerable amount of heat is released, which provides additional heating of the very small volumes of metal of the chips removed by the abrasive grains up to the melting temperature. The presence of carbon in the material being machined increases burning and the temperature in the cutting zone, which is the reason for the different colors of the formed sparks in abrasive machining. Under the influence of the high speed of the abrasive cut-off wheel grains, the slag and iron oxide been formed are removed as glowing sparks [17]. The oxidation of the chip and the material being machined is useful since the oxide crust is fragile and facilitates chip removal. In accordance with the foregoing, the melting of the chip can be viewed as a positive factor because after melting the chip decreases its dimensions, which contributes to its easier removal by the cut-off wheel and to avoiding the filling of the tool pores with chips.
The burning of materials in abrasive cutting does not allow us to directly measure the temperature of the removed chip since it ignites when it forms or immediately after that. The brightness and type of sparks formed during abrasive machining (a product of burning) are defined solely by the content of the chemical elements in the material being machined. The density and length of the spark flow depend on the components of the cutting mode.
The increase of the heat entering the cut-off wheel intensifies tool wear and decreases tool reliability and cutting intensity as a result of a decrease in the relative pressure of the abrasive grains on the surface being machined (because of the softening of the cut-off wheel bond). Heating up the workpiece in the cutting zone leads to changes in the microstructure of the surface material and the occurrence of thermal flaws. Structural changes in the cross-section of the cut, which require further machining, also occur as a result of smearing and chipping parts of the cut-off wheel, as well as of friction between its lateral surfaces and workpiece face [6, 7]. All the above mentioned demonstrates the decisive role of temperature in abrasive cutting regarding cut-off wheel performance and quality of machined surfaces. It also shows that the heat released in the course of abrasive cutting is an important informative factor for optimizing the operating conditions in abrasive cutting and enhancing the effectiveness of the process and the quality of machined surfaces. Therefore, it needs to be studied, modeled, and optimized. The investigation and measurement of temperature distribution in abrasive cutting play a key role in machine building.
A great number of studies [4, 7, 15, 21, 22, 28] show that by controlling the thermal fluxes in the cutting zone, possibilities for improving the cut-off thermal mode are provided thus ensuring longer tool life, higher intensity of the cutting process and higher quality of machined surfaces. This could be achieved not only by changing abrasive cutting conditions (cutting schema and parameters of cutting mode), which directly determine the thickness of the layer being cut, and respectively the temperatures of the tool, chip, workpiece, and cut piece, but also by choosing the cut-off wheel characteristic.
Depending on the specific nature of cutting processes, various methods for investigating temperature are applied [27]:
Analytical and numerical methods (heat source method; finite difference method; finite element method)—They are based on the heat balance equation and the differential equation of heat conduction [27]:
where:
Experimental methods—They are used to measure the average and local temperatures, determine the zone of temperature distribution, and to visualize the temperature field. According to the way of measurement they are as follows:
Contact methods—Indirect (calorimetric technique, microstructural analysis technique, method of chip coloring, thermal pain technique, and electrical modeling) and direct—thermocouple technique (artificial, semi-artificial, natural, and running). With those methods, the energy exchange between the environment and thermometric substance is based on heat conduction [29].
Wireless measurement methods—They are based on the laws of thermal radiation of bodies. The wireless temperature measurement devices used in practice are as follows: optical pyrometers, spectral ratio pyrometers, radiation pyrometers, infrared thermometers, thermal imaging cameras [29, 30]. Choosing a proper device depends on a number of factors—temperature range, material, object dimensions, distance, ambient temperature. It should also be taken into account that the devices record the total energy in their range of vision. When measuring, they also include additional energy sources, including reflected energy, if they are in the range of vision.
Measuring temperature in abrasive cutting is difficult because of the small dimensions of the zone being heated (only tenths of mm2), high temperatures (hundreds of degrees Celsius), high-temperature gradient (more than 200оС/mm2), high mechanical load, and high heating speed. This predetermines the preferential use of analytical and numeric methods, as well as wireless methods, for investigating the thermal phenomena in that process.
The thermal phenomena in rigid abrasive cutting are well studied unlike those in elastic abrasive cutting. Numeric, analytical, and finite-element models were developed to define and analyze temperature distribution [3, 13, 18, 20, 31]. Thermal fluxes were investigated under different cutting conditions and strategies for optimizing the parameters of rigid abrasive cutting with regard to decreasing the temperature in the cutting zone were proposed [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. In addition, a high-accuracy simulation model for forecasting temperature was proposed. It can be used for forecasting and preventing thermal flaws [33].
Analytical models for determining the temperature in elastic abrasive cutting were also proposed. On the basis of the analysis of thermal phenomena, the inability to directly measure chip temperature was justified and a methodology and an analytical dependency for the theoretic definition of chip temperature, reflecting the effect of the cutting speed and the workpiece rotational frequency, were proposed [42]. A model of the chip temperature, proving the decisive influence of the thickness of the layer being cut by one abrasive grain on it, was developed. An approach to the theoretical and experimental definition of the amount of heat released for one cut-off cycle and transferred to the workpiece being machined, as well as of the cut piece temperature, was proposed [43].
By applying the calorimetric technique for measuring temperature and the methodology of the planned experiment, a theoretical and experimental model for the temperature of the cut piece made of С45 steel depending on the cut-off wheel speed and workpiece rotational frequency was built. It was established that cut piece temperature decreases as cutting speed decreases and workpiece rotational frequency increases. This effect is related to the enhanced heat removal resulting from an increase in the thickness of the layer being cut, the cross-section of the chip being cut by one abrasive grain, and time per cut.
The possibilities for wireless temperature measurement and monitoring by applying infrared thermography are studied in [4, 7, 25, 44]. It was found that the cut-off wheel compression force on the workpiece had the greatest effect on the maximum cut-off wheel temperature, respectively on the tool life [4, 7]. It was also found that temperature increased as the workpiece diameter increased. Furthermore, when cutting fixed workpieces, the combination of larger cut-off wheel diameter and a greater compression force results in generating higher temperatures and obtaining lower values of G-ratio. Studies were done with a focus on the possibilities of using infrared thermography as a tool for wireless and non-invasive thermal investigation of the process and tools of elastic abrasive cutting of rotating workpieces [25, 44]. Experimental data from thermographic measurements done by an infrared camera regarding the effect of workpiece rotational frequency, compression workforce, and cut-off wheel diameter when machining various materials on the temperature distribution on workpiece surface, cut-off wheel, and cut piece were presented.
The analysis of the methods and approaches used for investigating and monitoring temperature in abrasive cutting shows the advantages of wireless measurement methods such as infrared thermography (IRT). This method is increasingly recognized and widely used as a reliable and effective tool for thermal wireless non-destructive testing under real conditions of dynamic processes such as abrasive cutting [4, 7, 12, 25, 29, 44]. Its application allows us to enhance the effectiveness of abrasive cutting. However, the use of IRT has some disadvantages.
The availability of metal parts in equipment leads to a number of reflections that impede temperature measurements on the surfaces under study and vary depending on their orientation, temperature, and wavelength. Temperature measurements by using thermography do not provide us with absolute temperature values. To obtain such values, we should use modeling and look for a correlation with the change in surface temperature. IRT measurements are indirect with regard to temperature measurements in the cutting zone. Although the cut-off zone can be observed from the side at a specific position of the camera, the infrared radiation from the cut-off wheel, workpiece, and produced chips affect the results from the temperature measurement of the surface being observed. Therefore, a thorough study of the possibilities for applying infrared thermography in abrasive cutting is required.
There is a qualitative and quantitative non-contact thermographic temperature control. Qualitative control does not require obtaining an accurate surface temperature, but it is sufficient to obtain thermal signatures, which are characteristic models of relative temperature phenomena at different combinations of the abrasive cutting process control factors values. The relative temperature values of the objects in the cutting area to the temperatures of the other equipment objects with similar conditions are used. Quality visual inspection is appropriate for collecting a large number of detailed data and transmitting them for easy interpretation. It is suitable for controlling the efficiency of the process by monitoring the temperatures of the cut-off wheel, workpiece, cut piece, and chip under certain conditions of the abrasive cutting process.
In quantitative thermographic measurement, the ambient temperature is the reference. The observation of the abrasive cutting is established by measuring the absolute temperature of the studied object, under the same environmental conditions. As the reference temperature must be measured, this requires even better knowledge of the variables affecting the radiometric measurement, as well as taking into account the limitations.
The transition from qualitative to quantitative thermographic control is associated with the need to solve four tasks:
Methodical provision of the procedure for determining the surface temperature of the objects participating in the cutting process with the respective metrological analyses;
Obtaining information about the spectral normal emissivity of the object and its surrounding background for the entire spectral range of the optoelectronic system;
Taking into account the influence of the layers covering the surface of the controlled objects, partially transparent to the heat radiation, on the accuracy of determining the surface temperature by non-contact methods;
Measurement of temperatures comparable to the temperature background, taking into account the influence of the background heat radiation on the experimental results.
The aim of the study is first to develop a methodology for monitoring the evolution of surface temperature to identify the process of elastic abrasive cutting by IRT. For this purpose, a modular thermographic measuring system is proposed to monitor the process from different positions.
The illustrated in Figure 3a and b setup is a part of the more complex experimental framework, which is not the object of the present study [13, 25, 31, 44, 45].
Elements of workstand for elastic abrasive cutting, (a); setup for remote thermal control of cutting process, (b); a thermogram of the abrasive cutting made from the direction to profile of the cut-off wheel, (c); a thermogram of the abrasive cutting made from the direction to full-face of the cut-off wheel, (d).
Special attachment is developed, which is fixed to the main carriage of a combined lathe, having a device for step-less adjustment of rotational frequency workpiece to perform the elastic abrasive cutting process [46, 47]. In this way, a constant rotational frequency of the cut-off wheel can be provided and adjust the amount of compression power
Cut-off area of the workstand for elastic abrasive cutting
Setup of abrasive cutting’s remote non-destructive thermal control
Raw thermogram from the camera (3) Raw thermogram from the camera (4)
Unlike previous studies, thermographic measurement of the surface temperatures is performed simultaneously with two factory-calibrated FLIR SC660 infrared cameras (3) and (4), which work synchronously with the same or different frame rates and are located orthogonally. The cameras have a temperature range from −40°C to +2000°C, temperature sensitivity (NETD) <0.045°C and IP-link using FireWire. Matlab, FLIR ResearchIR Max and SDK softwares are used for thermal analysis and supporting cameras communication with the computer (6). The PASCO PS-3209 wireless sensor (5) is used in data collection mode for ambient temperature and relative humidity during thermographic measurements.
LabIR @ thermographic high-temperature applications paint, with high mechanical resistance for long-term uses and high emissivity is sprayed to cover the entire work surface of the workpiece, the cut-off wheel, and exposed metal parts of the equipment. The layer paint thickness is measured by TROTEC BB20. Infrared cameras are located in isolating boxes with IR windows (shown in Figure 3). The outside of the boxes is also coated with paint to minimize the reflections from cameras.
A problem in the quantitative thermographic control of elastic abrasive cutting is the identification and suppression of thermal reflections in thermograms. The approach for thermal measurements of the process at an angle from 40 to 60″C was applied. Cold image subtraction and/or background subtraction is used as image processing methods for reflection reduction in thermograms.
After conducting the experiments for thermographic measurement to verify the calculated maximum temperatures of the cut-off wheel, workpiece, and cut piece and derive the corresponding correlation dependencies, the need to use a second infrared camera was eliminated. For the needs of elastic abrasive cutting online thermographic quality monitoring, only one camera is sufficient (camera (3) in Figure 3b.
Thermographic measurements were also performed with other approaches, which is not part of the present study. These relate to quantity thermography, such as the use of IR polarizing filters and deep learning to assess the condition of the elastic abrasive cutting process.
IRT used to detect the cut-off wheel wear can help abrasive cutting process automation and dynamically control.
The introduction of an online thermographic inspection system allows continuous monitoring of temperature evolution and thus prevents damage to the workpiece or machine. The following are illustrated possible information criteria for use in such a system.
Figure 4 illustrates the possibility of the IRT system to measure and record the surface temperatures (optional maximum, minimum, average values) in the camera field of vision. Areas (regions of interest—ROI, lines, polygons, etc.) can be selected to identify the temperature distribution and evolution in the process of abrasive cutting in the form of graphs. Such a local inspection of the change in surface temperature significantly increases the visual resolution of the selected area. This visualizes the momentary disturbances from the spark’s temperatures. Figure 4a shows the temperature curves for the marked lines on the workpiece and the cut piece in a direction transverse to the workpiece axis and close to the cutting area. The temperature profile longitudinally on the axis of the workpiece in the area of the marked line is shown in Figure 4c. The temperature profiles for different lines passing through the axis of the cut-off wheel show the change in surface temperature near the cutting area and at the farthest end from this area. Figure 4d shows the regions of interest (ROI) for the workpiece, the cut-off wheel, and the cut piece whose maximum temperatures are measured.
Thermograms image with chosen regions and temperature distribution along with selections. (a) Thermogram from camera
Due to the lack of a standardized format for reading IR images, software for processing and computer analysis of thermographic images has been developed. So thermal images can be processed regardless of what type of camera they were shot. The wear of the cut-off wheels has been checked. For this purpose, they are divided into four categories: standard (new cut-off wheel, as a reference), slightly worn, critically worn, and worn, which can no longer be used. One or another classification can be prepared on the basis of different criteria for different applications of elastic abrasive cutting. During data processing, areas with elevated temperatures and possible causes of wear are identified. Thus, on the basis of the initial thermal histograms, criteria for diagnosing and evaluating the resources of the cut-off wheels are formed.
The thermal histogram family (according to the camera view of vision) of the entire thermogram or the thermal histogram family of a selected ROI can be used to account for deviations in the quality of the elastic abrasive cutting process relative to a pre-selected optimal process.
Figure 5 shows (according to the camera’s view) a raw thermogram with selected ROI (rectangular area), and the area of the cut-off wheel marked with a black outline. Figure 6 shows a raw 3D thermogram of the selected ROI. Figure 7 shows the family of thermal histograms for the same ROI.
Infrared image captured with a standard thermal camera.
3D thermogram of the selected ROI in
3D layered thermal histograms (a family) for IR image sequence of the selected ROI with the workpiece, cut-off wheel, and cut piece.
There are three density modes of temperature calculation in the histograms:
High: per each pixel;
Medium: average temperature using aperture size 3 × 3;
Low: average temperature using aperture size 5 × 5.
Medium and Low approximations automatically exclude any garbage colors detected inside the camera apertures.
The general form of the models describes the dependency between the workpiece temperature
where:
Factors | Factor levels | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
-1 | 0 | +1 | ||
120 | 150 | 180 | ||
1 | 2 | 3 | ||
22 | 91 | 160 |
Factor levels in the experimental design.
To build the models (4), multi-factor experiments were conducted using an orthogonal central-composite design with a number of trials
The models (4) were built using the measured values of the workpiece maximum instantaneous temperature, cut-off wheel maximum contact temperature, and cut piece temperature at the end of the cut-off cycle.
After statistical analysis of the experimental results by applying the multi-factor regression analysis method and QstatLab software [48], the following regression models for the workpiece temperature, cut-off wheel temperature, and cut piece temperature were built:
when machining С45 steels:
when machining 42Cr4 steels:
The models built extremely accurately describe the dependency between the variables and control factors. The values of the determination coefficients are
In Figures 8 and 9 the bar diagrams of measured and calculated maximum temperatures are presented, at different parameters of the abrasive cutting process for both materials with the same workpiece diameter. The maximum temperatures are the averages of five measurements for the cut-off wheel, the workpiece, and the cut piece. The error of the calculated values does not exceed 2% (under 20°C) in the worst case.
Temperature bar diagrams for different parameters of the elastic abrasive cutting of 42Cr4.
Temperature bar diagrams for different parameters of the elastic abrasive cutting of C45.
The analysis of the models built makes possible the evaluation of the effect of the operating conditions on the temperatures of the workpiece, cut-off wheel, and cut piece:
Among all factors under study, the workpiece rotational frequency has the highest effect on temperature in elastic abrasive cutting. As
As the cut-off wheel diameter
The compression force has the least effect on temperature. As it increases, the temperatures of the cut piece, cut-off wheel, and workpiece increase by 5–11%. The minimum effect of the compression force is related to the fact that when
The nature of influence of workpiece rotational frequency, cut-off wheel diameter and compression force on the temperature in elastic abrasive cutting are equal for the two materials under study (C45 and 42Cr4 steels). Nevertheless, the temperatures of cut-off wheel, workpiece, and cut piece are higher when machining 42Cr4 steel (by 4–7%), which is related to the higher hardness and strength of this material.
Each studied temperature parameter of the elastic abrasive cutting process has a specific meaning yet is insufficient for its optimum control. The optimum values of the temperatures of the cut piece, cut-off wheel, and workpiece for each material being machined will be obtained at different combinations of values of control factors (cut-off wheel diameter, compression force, and workpiece rotational frequency). Therefore, optimization by one parameter is irrelevant. Multi-objective optimization provides much more information so as to make a justified decision on the selection of optimum elastic abrasive cutting conditions. There are various algorithms for its implementation, which differ in the type and number of target parameters, as well as in the method for determining the optimal solution [45, 49]. To determine the optimum elastic abrasive cutting conditions, multi-purpose optimization was implemented as the area where the temperature parameters under study obtain minimum values were determined. The optimization problem is reduced to solving the following system of inequalities:
where
Functions
The optimum conditions of elastic abrasive cutting, providing the best combination of minimum values of the temperatures of workpiece, cut-off wheel, and cut piece, were determined by applying two methods—genetic algorithm and random search method with increasing density. The optimization problem was solved upon machining of С45 and 42Cr4 steels by using QStatLab software [48].
The defined optimum conditions of the elastic abrasive cutting process are presented in Table 2.
Steel, type | Optimization method | Control factors | Response variables | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C45 | Genetic algorithm | 150 | 2 | 91 | 863.15 | 168.53 | 199.2 |
Random search method with increasing density | 120 | 0.96 | 159.48 | 1057.03 | 133.02 | 133.02 | |
42Cr4 | Genetic algorithm | 150 | 2 | 91 | 864.56 | 176.67 | 212.20 |
Random search method with increasing density | 120 | 0.8 | 159.99 | 1034.02 | 140.97 | 146.35 |
Optimum conditions of elastic abrasive cutting.
This chapter considers the specifics of implementing the process of elastic abrasive cutting and analyzes the conditions for stabilizing the dynamic thermal phenomena accompanying it. The processes of heat generation and heat removal in abrasive cutting are generally analyzed, as well as the methods and tools applied to investigate temperature and thermal fluxes. An innovative approach to non-destructive thermal measurement and control of elastic abrasive cutting experimented for two types of structural steels by applying the methodology of planned experiment and multi-objective optimization has been proposed.
Latest trends show that there is a need to apply an automatic smart system for controlling thermal fluxes in the cutting zone so as to ensure a higher quality of machined surfaces and longer cutting tool life. This is also linked to the design of a new approach to non-destructive thermal control of abrasive cutting when developing a smart thermographic system.
The authors would like to thank for the financial support from National Science Fund under which Project No. DN 17/16 the present work was conducted.
a | cutting depth, mm |
bs | thickness of the cut-off wheel, mm |
ds | diameter of the cut-off wheel, mm |
dw | diameter of the workpiece, mm |
F | cut-off wheel compression force, N |
h | thickness of the layer being cut, mm |
L | length of the contact arc, mm |
ns | rotational frequency of the cut-off wheel, min−1 |
nw | rotational frequency of the workpiece, min−1 |
Td | temperature of the cut piece,oC |
Q | heat generated in cutting per unit time |
Qch | heat transferred to the chip |
Qd | heat generated as a result of deformation |
Qf | heat transformed from friction force |
Qp | heat transferred into environment |
Qs | heat transferred to the cut-off wheel |
Qw | heat transferred to the workpiece |
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The routine management of oral cancers is firstly surgical resection with or without postoperative adjuncts and other therapies such as the use of postoperative chemoradiation and radiation. Successful treatment of oral cancer patients is a complex issue that requires a multidisciplinary approach, including oral and maxillofacial surgeons, oral and maxillofacial radiologists, ENT specialists, medical and radiological oncologists, prosthodontists, dentists, speech therapists, supportive care experts, and also pathologists or, if possible, oral and maxillofacial pathologists.",book:{id:"8631",slug:"prevention-detection-and-management-of-oral-cancer",title:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Nihat Akbulut and Ahmet Altan",authors:[{id:"262769",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihat",middleName:null,surname:"Akbulut",slug:"nihat-akbulut",fullName:"Nihat Akbulut"},{id:"268500",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmet",middleName:null,surname:"Altan",slug:"ahmet-altan",fullName:"Ahmet Altan"}]},{id:"63395",title:"The Impact of Sequencing Human Genome on Drug Design to Treat Oral Cancer",slug:"the-impact-of-sequencing-human-genome-on-drug-design-to-treat-oral-cancer",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Of all the known cancers, oral cancer is the most preventable and it is the second most deadly cancer after the breast cancer. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:58,paginationItems:[{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. 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Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"