Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
Water is the second most important need for life to exist after air. As a result, water quality has been described extensively in the scientific literature. The most popular definition of water quality is “it is the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water” [1, 2]. Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose [3, 4].
2. Classification of water
Based on its source, water can be divided into ground water and surface water [5]. Both types of water can be exposed to contamination risks from agricultural, industrial, and domestic activities, which may include many types of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, hazardous chemicals, and oils [6].
Water quality can be classified into four types—potable water, palatable water, contaminated (polluted) water, and infected water [7]. The most common scientific definitions of these types of water quality are as follows:
Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and usable for domestic purposes [1, 7].
Palatable water: It is esthetically pleasing; it considers the presence of chemicals that do not cause a threat to human health [7].
Contaminated (polluted) water: It is that water containing unwanted physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substances, and it is unfit for drinking or domestic use [7].
Infected water: It is contaminated with pathogenic organism [7].
3. Parameters of water quality
There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological [8, 9]. They are summarized in Table 1.
3.1 Physical parameters of water quality
3.1.1 Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness of water [10]. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate materials in water [2].
Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically unacceptable, which makes the water look unappetizing. The impact of turbidity can be summarized in the following points:
It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses [11].
The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield them from the disinfection process [12].
Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases, reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish catching method [13, 14].
Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides [15].
The amount of available food is reduced [15] because higher turbidity raises water temperatures in light of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat. Consequently, the concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased since warm water carries less dissolved oxygen than cold water.
Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in suspension [10].
Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU [10]. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil [9, 16].
3.1.2 Temperature
Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by temperature [10]. Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen demand (BOD) are temperature dependent [11]. It also affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in water [17, 18]. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable [10, 19].
3.1.3 Color
Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such as soil, stones, and rocks impart color to water, which is objectionable for esthetic reasons, not for health reasons [10, 20].
Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions or colored glass disks [10]. One color unit is equivalent to the color produced by a 1 mg/L solution of platinum (potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6)) [10].
The color of a water sample can be reported as follows:
Apparent color is the entire water sample color and consists of both dissolved and suspended components color [10].
True color is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material [19].
Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless, which is equivalent to 0 color units [10].
3.1.4 Taste and odor
Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses [19]. These materials may come from natural, domestic, or agricultural sources [21].
The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by measuring a volume of sample A and diluting it with a volume of sample B of an odor-free distilled water so that the odor of the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 ml [19, 22]. The unit of odor or taste is expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:
TONorTTN=A+B/AE1
where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the threshold taste number.
3.1.5 Solids
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension [22]. These two types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the water sample passes through [22]. By definition, the suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the water [10].
If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated, the solids as a residue. This material is usually called total dissolved solids or TDS [10].
Total solidTS=Total dissolved solidTDS+Total suspended solidTSSE2
Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows:
freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
The residue of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a defined period of time and at a specific temperature is defined as fixed solids. Volatile solids are those solids lost on ignition (heating to 550°C) [10].
These measures are helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes [1, 22]. Figure 1 describes the interrelationship of solids found in water [22]. They are calculated as follows [10]:
Total solids:
Figure 1.
Interrelationship of solids found in water [22].
Total solidsmg/L=TSA–TSB×1000/samplemLE3
where TSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total dissolved solids:
Total dissolved solidsmg/L=TDSA–TDSB×1000/samplemLE4
where TDSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TDSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total suspended solids:
Total suspended solidsmg/L=TSSA–TSSB×1000/samplemLE5
where TSSA = weight of dish and filter paper + dried residue and TSSB = weight of dish and filter paper in milligram.
where VSSA = weight of residue + dish and filter before ignition, mg and VSSB = weight of residue + dish and filter after ignition, mg.
3.1.6 Electrical conductivity (EC)
The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry or conduct an electrical current [22]. Since the electrical current is carried by ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration [10] of ions increases. Therefore, it is one of the main parameters used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation and firefighting.
Units of its measurement are as follows:
U.S. units = micromhos/cm
S.I. units = milliSiemens/m (mS/m) or dS/m (deciSiemens/m)
where (mS/m) = 10 umho/cm (1000 μS/cm = 1 dS/m).
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity [2, 10]. Typical conductivity of water is as follows:
Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m;
Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;
Seawater: 5 S/m.
The electrical conductivity can be used to estimate the TDS value of water as follows [10, 22]:
TDSmg/L≅ECdS/mor umho/cm×0.55–0.7E7
TDS can be used to estimate the ionic strength of water in the applications of groundwater recharging by treated wastewater [22]. The normal method of measurement is electrometric method [10].
3.2 Chemical parameters of water quality
3.2.1 pH
pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [9, 12]. It is a dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution [23]. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is [19, 20]. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions [2].
As shown in Figure 2, pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution [2, 24]. Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas [10]. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need [24].
Figure 2.
pH of water.
A change of 1 unit on a pH scale represents a 10-fold change in the pH [10], so that water with pH of 7 is 10 times more acidic than water with a pH of 8, and water with a pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 7. There are two methods available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric methods [10].
Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine [21]. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances [10].
Pollution can modify the pH of water, which can damage animals and plants that live in the water [10].
The effects of pH on animals and plants can be summarized as follows:
Most aquatic animals and plants have adapted to life in water with a specific pH and may suffer from even a slight change [15].
Even moderately acidic water (low pH) can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic insect gills, and damage membranes [14].
Water with very low or high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 or above 10 will kill most fish, and very few animals can endure water with a pH below 3 or above 11 [15].
Amphibians are extremely endangered by low pH because their skin is very sensitive to contaminants [15]. Some scientists believe that the current decrease in amphibian population throughout the globe may be due to low pH levels induced by acid rain.
The effects of pH on other chemicals in water can be summarized as follows:
Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly acidic water (lower pH). This is important because many heavy metals become much more toxic when dissolved in water [21].
A change in the pH can change the forms of some chemicals in the water. Therefore, it may affect aquatic plants and animals [21]. For instance, ammonia is relatively harmless to fish in neutral or acidic water. However, as the water becomes more alkaline (the pH increases), ammonia becomes progressively more poisonous to these same organisms.
3.2.2 Acidity
Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level [10]. Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates [10]. Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological activities [10].
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The level of acidity is determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using phenolphthalein as an indicator [10, 20].
3.2.3 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all titratable bases [10]. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime and soda needed for water softening (e.g., for corrosion control in conditioning the boiler feed water) [22]. Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a mixture of two of these ions in water. As stated in the following equation, the possibility of OH− and HCO3− ions together are not possible because they react together to produce CO32− ions:
OH−+HCO3−→CO32−+H2OE8
Alkalinity is determined by titration with a standard acid solution (H2SO4 of 0.02 N) using selective indicators (methyl orange or phenolphthalein).
The high levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of industrial or chemical pollution. Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources such as volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity in natural waters provide a buffering action that protects fish and other aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had natural alkalinity, a neutralization reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH of the lake water remains unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity should be at least 20 mg/L as calcium carbonate.
3.2.4 Chloride
Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater pollution [7]. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.
Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been connected to kidney and heart diseases [25]. Small amounts of chlorides are essential for ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life.
Sodium chloride may impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or calcium chloride are generally not detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L [10]. Standards for public drinking water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L. There are many methods to measure the chloride concentration in water, but the normal one is the titration method by silver nitrate [10].
3.2.5 Chlorine residual
Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and wastewater for disinfection [10]. While chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not harmful to human health. In drinking water, a residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The residual concentration which is maintained in the water distribution system ensures good sanitary quality of water [11].
Chlorine can react with organics in water forming toxic compounds called trihalomethanes or THMs, which are carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl3 [11, 22]. Chlorine residual is normally measured by a color comparator test kit or spectrophotometer [10].
3.2.6 Sulfate
Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of sulfate in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt) or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt) [11, 26]. If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects [26], but there is no significant danger to public health.
3.2.7 Nitrogen
There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen [10]. If water is contaminated with sewage, most of the nitrogen is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by microbes to form nitrites and nitrates [22]. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to the growth of plants and can be a growth-limiting nutrient factor [10].
A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the algae which degrades the water quality [22]. Nitrates can enter the groundwater from chemical fertilizers used in the agricultural areas [22]. Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes an immediate and severe health threat to infants [19]. The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s ability to hold oxygen which leads to a disease called blue baby or methemoglobinemia [10, 19].
3.2.8 Fluoride
A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental health [10, 19]. About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children [10].
Excessive amounts of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental fluorosis [11, 19, 26]. The maximum allowable levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on local climate [26]. In the warmer regions of the country, the maximum allowable concentration of fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to 2.4 mg/L is allowed.
There are four methods to determine ion fluoride in water; the selection of the used method depends on the type of water sample [10].
3.2.9 Iron and manganese
Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health problems, they impart a noticeable bitter taste to drinking water even at very low concentration [10, 11].
These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) ions. When these ions are exposed to air, they form the insoluble ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) forms making the water turbid and unacceptable to most people [10].
These ions can also cause black or brown stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures [7]. They are measured by many instrumental methods such as atomic absorption spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry, electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) [10].
3.2.10 Copper and zinc
Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small concentrations [10]. Actually, they are both essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals [25]. They can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to the water [10]. They are measured by the same methods used for iron and manganese measurements [10].
3.2.11 Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters [10]. The dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in producing lather with soap [11].
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters [9]. They enter water mainly from contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits [10, 27].
These ions are present as bicarbonates, sulfates, and sometimes as chlorides and nitrates [10, 26]. Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water. There are two types of hardness:
Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates can be removed by boiling, and
Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused mainly by sulfates and chlorides [10, 21, 22]
Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and more than 150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and water with less than 75 mg/L is considered to be soft.
From health viewpoint, hardness up to 500 mg/L is safe, but more than that may cause a laxative effect [10]. Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene diamine tetra acidic acid or (EDTA) and Eriochrome Black and Blue indicators. It is usually expressed in terms of mg/L of CaCO3 [10, 19].
Total hardnessmg/LasCaCO3=calcium hardnessmg/LasCaCO3+magnesium hardnessmg/LasCaCO3E9
An accepted water classification according to its hardness is as in Table 2 [19].
No.
Types of water quality parameters
Physical parameters
Chemical parameters
Biological parameters
1
Turbidity
pH
Bacteria
2
Temperature
Acidity
Algae
3
Color
Alkalinity
Viruses
4
Taste and odor
Chloride
Protozoa
5
Solids
Chlorine residual
6
Electrical conductivity (EC)
Sulfate
7
Nitrogen
8
Fluoride
9
Iron and manganese
10
Copper and zinc
11
Hardness
12
Dissolved oxygen
13
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
14
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
15
Toxic inorganic substances
16
Toxic organic substances
17
Radioactive substances
Table 1.
Parameters of water quality.
Water classification
Total hardness concentration as mg/L as CaCO3
Soft water
<50 mg/L as CaCO3
Moderately hard
50–150 mg/L as CaCO3
Hard water
150–300 mg/L as CaCO3
Very hard
>300 mg/L as CaCO3
Table 2.
Classification of water according to its hardness.
3.2.12 Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution [10]. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. For example, the saturation concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L [22].
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.
There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen concentrations: the colorimetric method—quick and inexpensive, the Winkler titration method—traditional method, and the electrometric method [10].
3.2.13 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen [10, 22]. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction [22].
When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water, the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD [22].
The complete decomposition of organic material by microorganisms takes time, usually 20 d or more under ordinary circumstances [22]. The quantity of oxygen used in a specified volume of water to fully decompose or stabilize all biodegradable organic substances is called the ultimate BOD or BODL.
BOD is a function of time. At time = 0, no oxygen will have been consumed and the BOD = 0. As each day goes by, oxygen is used by the microbes and the BOD increases. Ultimately, the BODL is reached and the organic materials are completely decomposed.
A graph of the BOD versus time is illustrated as in Figure 3. This is called the BOD curve, which can be expressed mathematically by the following equation:
Figure 3.
BOD curve [22].
BODt=BODL×1−10−ktE10
where BODt = BOD at any time t, mg/L; BODL = ultimate BOD, mg/L; k = a constant representing the rate of the BOD reaction; t = time, d.
The value of the constant rate k depends on the temperature, the type of organic materials, and the type of microbes exerting the BOD [22].
3.2.14 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances [22]. It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be available in just 2 h [10]. COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample [22].
3.2.15 Toxic inorganic substances
A wide variety of inorganic toxic substances may be found in water in very small or trace amounts. Even in trace amounts, they can be a danger to public health [11]. Some toxic substances occur from natural sources but many others occur due to industrial activities and/or improper management of hazardous waste [22]. They can be divided into two groups:
Metallic compounds: This group includes some heavy metals that are toxic, namely, cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), thallium (Tl), and selenium (Se) [22, 28]. They have a wide range of dangerous effects that differ from one metal to another. They may be acute fatal poisons such as (As) and (Cr6+) or may produce chronic diseases such as (Cd, Hg, Pb, and Tl) [21, 29, 30, 31, 32]. The heavy metals concentration can be determined by atomic absorption photometers, spectrophotometer, or inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for very low concentration [10].
Nonmetallic compounds: This group includes nitrates (NO3−) and cyanides (CN−), nitrate has been discussed with the nitrogen in the previous section. Regarding cyanide, as Mackenzie stated [11] it causes oxygen deprivation by binding the hemoglobin sites and prevents the red blood cell from carrying the oxygen [11]. This causes a blue skin color syndrome, which is called cyanosis [33]. It also causes chronic effects on the central nervous system and thyroid [33]. Cyanide is normally measured by colorimetric, titrimetric, or electrometric methods [10].
3.2.16 Toxic organic substances
There are more than 100 compounds in water that have been listed in the literature as toxic organic compounds [11, 22]. They will not be found naturally in water; they are usually man-made pollutants. These compounds include insecticides, pesticides, solvents, detergents, and disinfectants [11, 21, 22]. They are measured by highly sophisticated instrumental methods, namely, gas chromatographic (GC), high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC), and mass spectrophotometric [10].
3.2.17 Radioactive substances
Potential sources of radioactive substances in water include wastes from nuclear power plants, industries, or medical research using radioactive chemicals and mining of uranium ores or other radioactive materials [11, 21]. When radioactive substances decay, they release beta, alpha, and gamma radiation [34]. Exposure of humans and other living things to radiation can cause genetic and somatic damage to the living tissues [34, 35].
Radon gas is of a great health concern because it occurs naturally in groundwater and is a highly volatile gas, which can be inhaled during the showering process [35]. For drinking water, there are established standards commonly used for alpha particles, beta particles, photons emitters, radium-226 and -228, and uranium [34, 35].
The unit of radioactivity used in water quality applications is the picocurie per liter (pCi/L); 1 pCi is equivalent to about two atoms disintegrating per minute. There are many sophisticated instrumental methods to measure it [35].
3.3 Biological parameters of water quality
One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the presence or lack of living organisms [10, 15]. Biologists can survey fish and insect life of natural waters and assess the water quality on the basis of a computed species diversity index (SDI) [15, 19, 36, 37]; hence, a water body with a large number of well-balanced species is regarded as a healthy system [17]. Some organisms can be used as an indication for the existence of pollutants based on their known tolerance for a specified pollutant [17].
Microorganisms exist everywhere in nature [38]. Human bodies maintain a normal population of microbes in the intestinal tract; a big portion of which is made up of coliform bacteria [38]. Although there are millions of microbes per milliliter in wastewater, most of them are harmless [37]. It is only harmful when wastewater contains wastes from people infected with diseases that the presence of harmful microorganisms in wastewater is likely to occur [38].
3.3.1 Bacteria
Bacteria are considered to be single-celled plants because of their cell structure and the way they ingest food [10, 37]. Bacteria occur in three basic cell shapes: rod-shaped or bacillus, sphere-shaped or coccus, and spiral-shaped or spirellus [19]. In less than 30 min, a single bacterial cell can mature and divide into two new cells [39].
Under favorable conditions of food supply, temperature, and pH, bacteria can reproduce so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain 20 million cells per milliliter after just 1 day [22, 37]. This rapid growth of visible colonies of bacteria on a suitable nutrient medium makes it possible to detect and count the number of bacteria in water [39].
There are several distinctions among the various species of bacteria. One distinction depends on how they metabolize their food [38]. Bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism are called aerobic bacteria, while those live only in an oxygen-free environment are called anaerobic bacteria. Some species called facultative bacteria can live in either the absence or the presence of oxygen [37, 38, 39].
At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly. As the temperature increases, the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to the optimum temperature for the species) [38]. The majority of the species of bacteria having an optimal temperature of about 35°C [39].
A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, namely, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, leptospirosis, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera [19]. Sometimes, the absence of good sanitary practices results in gastroenteritis outbreaks of one or more of those diseases [19].
3.3.2 Algae
Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll [37, 39]. They are autotrophic organisms and support themselves by converting inorganic materials into organic matter by using energy from the sun, during this process they take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen [38, 39]. They are also important for wastewater treatment in stabilization ponds [22]. Algae are primarily nuisance organisms in the water supply because of the taste and odor problems they create [2, 16]. Certain species of algae cause serious environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green algae can kill cattle and other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing those species [37, 39].
3.3.3 Viruses
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information necessary for their own reproduction [19]. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic microscope [39]. Viruses are parasites that need a host to live [39]. They can pass through filters that do not permit the passage of bacteria [37]. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis [19, 25, 37]. Most of the waterborne viruses can be deactivated by the disinfection process conducted in the water treatment plant [19].
3.3.4 Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animal [19], consume solid organic particles, bacteria, and algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as food by higher level multicellular animals [37]. Aquatic protozoa are floating freely in water and sometimes called zooplankton [37]. They form cysts that are difficult to inactivate by disinfection [19].
3.3.5 Indicator organisms
A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria called coliforms [20]. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and millions are excreted with body wastes [37]. Consequently, water that has been recently contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms [19].
A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is Escherichia coli or E. coli [22]. Even if the water is only slightly polluted, they are very likely to be found. There are roughly 3 million of E. coli bacteria in 100 mL volume of untreated sewage [10]. Coliform bacteria are aggressive organisms and survive in the water longer than most pathogens. There are normally two methods to test the coliform bacteria—the membrane filter method and multiple-tube fermentation method [10, 37]. Since the test of coliform bacteria is very important for public health, the first method will be described in details in the coming section.
3.3.5.1 Testing for coliforms: membrane filter method
A measured volume of sample is filtered through a special membrane filter by applying a partial vacuum [10, 39].
The filter, a flat paper-like disk, has uniform microscopic pores small enough to retain the bacteria on its surface while allowing the water to pass through. The filter paper is then placed in a sterile container called a petri dish, which contains a special culture medium that the bacteria use as a food source [39].
Then, the petri dish is usually placed in an incubator, which keeps the temperature at 35°C, for 24 h. After incubation, colonies of coliform bacteria each containing millions of organisms will be visible [10]. The coliform concentration is obtained by counting the number of colonies on the filter; each colony counted represents only one coliform in the original sample [10, 39].
Coliform concentrations are expressed in terms of the number of organisms per 100 mL of water as follows:
coliformsper100mL=number of colonies×100/mLof sampleE11
4. Water quality requirements
Water quality requirements differ depending on the proposed used of water [19]. As reported by Tchobanoglous et al. [19], “water unsuitable for one use may be quite satisfactory for another and water may be considered acceptable for a particular use if water of better quality is not available.”
Water quality requirements should be agreed with the water quality standards, which are put down by the governmental agency and represent the legislation requirements. In general, there are three types of standards: in-stream, potable water, and wastewater effluent [19], each type has its own criteria by using the same methods of measurement. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established minimum standards for drinking water that all countries are recommended to meet [25].
5. Conclusion
The physical, chemical, and biological parameters of water quality are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods. The classification of water according to its quality is also covered with a specific definition for each type.
\n',keywords:"water quality, physical parameters, chemical parameters, biological parameters, radioactive substances, toxic substances, indicator organisms",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69568.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69568.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69568",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69568",totalDownloads:9674,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:32,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:10,impactScorePercentile:97,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 2nd 2019",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 16th 2019",datePublished:"July 29th 2020",dateFinished:"October 14th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69568",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69568",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of water",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Parameters of water quality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Physical parameters of water quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Turbidity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Color",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Taste and odor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.5 Solids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.6 Electrical conductivity (EC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Chemical parameters of water quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.1 pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.2 Acidity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.3 Alkalinity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.2.4 Chloride",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.5 Chlorine residual",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.6 Sulfate",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.2.7 Nitrogen",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.2.8 Fluoride",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"3.2.9 Iron and manganese",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.2.10 Copper and zinc",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.2.12 Dissolved oxygen",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.2.13 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"3.2.14 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"3.2.15 Toxic inorganic substances",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.2.16 Toxic organic substances",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"3.2.17 Radioactive substances",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"3.3 Biological parameters of water quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"3.3.1 Bacteria",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"3.3.2 Algae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"3.3.3 Viruses",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"3.3.4 Protozoa",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"3.3.5 Indicator organisms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_4",title:"3.3.5.1 Testing for coliforms: membrane filter method",level:"4"},{id:"sec_36",title:"4. 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European Water. 2007;17:51-62'},{id:"B35",body:'Cothern CR. Radon, Radium, and Uranium in Drinking Water. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2014'},{id:"B36",body:'Alabaster JS, Lloyd RS. Water Quality Criteria for Freshwater Fish. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Butterworths; 1984'},{id:"B37",body:'Nathanson JA. Basic Environmental Technology: Water Supply. New Delhi: Printice-Hall of India; 2004'},{id:"B38",body:'Wiesmann U, Choi IS, Dombrowski E-M. Fundamentals of Biological Wastewater Treatment. Darmstadt: John Wiley & Sons; 2007'},{id:"B39",body:'Mara D, Horan NJ. Handbook of Water and Wastewater Microbiology. London: Elsevier; 2003'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nayla Hassan Omer",address:"naylahomer@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Water and Environmental Engineering, Sudan University for Science and Technology, Khartoum, Sudan
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1. Introduction
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The mutual referencing of statements is a presupposition to comprehend the stated facts in a communication situation. Be it theories or methods, descriptions or explanations, texts or maps—relationships always create, explicitly or implicitly, these nexuses with which particularities are being contextualized. Contextualization generates meaning. However, neither the creation of relationships nor the creation of meaning is grounded in objective and independent criteria, neither in science nor in everyday life. They are, on the other hand, not completely arbitrary, but depend on particular social-cultural, temporal (historical) and spatial (geographical) contexts.
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The referential contexts emphasize in addition how, why, and that complementarities are fundamental for comprehensive reasoning. Complementarities can be dialectic; the decisive point is that they simultaneously express a mutually excluding and complementing relationship, as is the case of the dualism between wave and particle or of impulse and location in physics. One characteristic of complementarity is that the so far unconnected (or differently connected) components do already exist. Every social construction of space, for instance, presupposes spatial rules, patterns, and conventions which are independent properties compared with the social rules, patterns, and conventions being applied when taking possession of social space. Among others, spatial rules ground in geometry, topology, or algorithmic computation. This is equally true for every statistical analysis. The result of a model run or a statistical analysis presumes the selected technique which itself is based on concrete procedural rules (e.g., that interactions among agents and between agents and their environment are taken into consideration). The process of computing a number is usually not reflected in the result, except it is made explicit. In this respect, a mathematical emergence of reality does not differ from a textual or (carto-) graphical emergence of reality and in all cases we refer to a priori objectives, reflections, and so on. What makes a difference is the nature of translation.
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For modelling geographical phenomena from a social scientific perspective, an understanding of relations and complementarities is crucial because both spatial and social facts do rely heavily on their inner-temporal dynamics and develop in time differently [1]. Social-spatial network processes and mechanisms may obey common rules of homophily or of addressing roles and positions. The quality of the processes and mechanisms, however, together with its concrete manifestations of allocations of social, cultural, economic, and spatial capital is influenced by the idiosyncratic peculiarity of their local, temporal, and community compositions.
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With these introductory remarks, we aim to highlight the underlying principles in the creation of meaning and intentionality derived from abstract information [2] and dedicated to be used in scientific, political and everyday-life communications. The notion of communication is used here as a means of providing us with the capability to deal with our perceived and interpreted environment in a meaningful way. This aim implies a closer look into the functions and purposes of models and quantifications, and is tied to the challenges that arise due to the referencing of complementarities, of numbers and words, of quantifications and qualifications.
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2. The nature of models and quantifications and their impacts
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2.1. The peculiarity of quantities and quantifications
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In contrast to the common understanding of quantities which are assumed to devaluate the individual as an abstract number and negate its qualities, it is Lewin ([3], p. 150) who appreciates the peculiarity of quantification: “It is the increased desire, and also the increased ability, to comprehend concrete particular cases, and to comprehend them fully, which, together with the idea of the homogeneity of the physical world and that of the continuity of the properties of its objects, constituted the main impulse to the increasing quantification of physics.” Numbers, quantifications and their emergence through quantitative methods are one possibility for raising a kind of uniqueness to facts, phenomena, and events which cannot be realized by the other approaches. “There is nothing more abstract and singular than numbers. Beyond numbers no further abstraction is thinkable, because abstracting from numbers would mean to disregard singularity. This in turn would mean to give up the Self, because the Self is only possible in contradiction to ‘Another’” ([4], p. 4; translation A.K). It is worth noting that contemporary sociological and philosophical approaches to modern societies increasingly take the concept of singularity into account. [5, 6]. Weiss [4] also points out that quantity (the single part) and quality (the whole) conflate; they can be distinguished analytically, but need to be mutually related in order to understand both sides of the coin—and the coin.
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The complementarity of quantity and quality, of quantification and qualification, is realized through translation, and this procedure must be recalled when statements and numbers as well as their manifold representations are captured and utilized. Detractors of quantification tend to create an asymmetry between the two worlds. They argue that if a qualitative phenomenon is being tied to a number it will lose its eigenvalue—the only thing that counts henceforth is its numerical value. The processes and mechanisms of its creation, their cultural, geographical or temporal differences maintain obscured [7]. Though this problem definitely exists, it is not a problem of the quantification itself but a problem of exposing the cultural, political, social and scientific circumstances of its creation. Therefore, the use of numbers and words incorporates presuppositions about what is perceived as relevant and valuable.
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2.2. Challenges of transformability of methods, numbers, and models
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Measurements, quantifications and models result in one or many but always concrete single cases, as has been stated above. What they bear must be contextualized. From an epistemological perspective, it is the well-known threefold “context of discovery,” “context of justification,” and “context of utilization.” Contextualization, in addition, must refer to other measurements and models in order to verify and validate model results, but also to utilize them comparatively in connection with other approaches [8]. What follows is not a competition between outcomes and paradigmatic settings but an abductive approaching to the explicit problem(s) at hand.
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This may sound trivial. Indeed, the claim for transformability of methodological approaches, of modelling aims and types among and between modelling paradigms, scientific and epistemological explanations has been uttered many times over the past six or so decades. One such utterance, apart from that of Thomas Kuhn [9], was made by Ludwik Fleck, a Polish physician who refused to accept an “absolute truth” as an epistemological counterpart of scientific exploration. He insisted on three social factors which inherently determine scientific reasoning ([1], p. xxii):
The “weigh of education”: knowledge foremost consists of learnt items, being, however, then subtly transformed by learning and communication.
The “burden of tradition”: new recognition is primarily coined by already existing recognition.
The “effect of the recognition sequence”: what has been once conceptualized theoretically and/or methodologically restricts the opportunities of new concepts.
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Incorporating these social factors into the evaluation of research results may help to relax the researcher from unobtainable truths and to focus more strictly on the processes and purposes of model production.
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2.3. Utilization of knowledge, numbers and models
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Taking the challenges of contextualization, translation and transformation explicitly into account would also mean having to deal with knowledge and models in a different way. The qualitative experience with social phenomena and problems feeds mainly on very subjective and local living conditions; it is, however, simultaneously an amalgamation of aggregated knowledge as “socialized subjectivity” [10]. This kind of knowledge which refers to local and subjective-social living conditions can be termed “local knowledge.” Local knowledge, though derived from a different epistemology and perspective (ethnography and natives in developing countries) [11], can be transferred to contemporary (post)modern, globalized and localized living conditions as well. Local knowledge of people having, for example, a different social or economic status, living in impoverished or wealthy regions is, apart from scaling, important for social-spatial network analysis because it incorporates another mode of observation and perception. While knowledge about socioeconomic inequality or disparate living conditions in scientific and political contexts is mostly a perspective of people who are not affected by these disparities (a second order observation), local knowledge of socially discriminated and excluded people offers a first order observation.
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In addition to mutual relationships between different modes of recognition, ordering, and understanding, it is important to account for the relationships within the quantitative methodology. It can be confirmed that “calculating is existing equality of opportunity” ([12], p. 43) because societal problems such as discrimination and inequality can be—and must be—made comparable through exact differentiation and objectivation which can then be used for opinion-forming in the political arena. As long as statistical analyses are considered as an instrument among others, one would be able to agree with the above quote. If not, the “equality of opportunity” turns out to be misused as ideology, representing an interest- and power-driven inequality of opportunity, since there is no longer explicit advice for a reduction of complexity.
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A reduction of complexity is another and inevitable step in perceiving and grasping our world. It is, however, simultaneously necessary to deal with this reduction of complexity in an explicit and deliberate way. Explicit means to not only publish the results of an analysis but also the process of its realization. Deliberate means taking a critical attitude with regard to the chosen method(s) (see, among others, [13] for a detailed description of the creation of the “risk of poverty threshold” and its implications, and [14] with delineation of measuring poverty in London in the nineteenth and twentieth century).
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Another problem of the internal confirmatory referencing of quantitative methods is the danger of not only making the measured values absolute but also the models and techniques applied. This problem can be phrased as “to explain the real through the impossible.” Economics can serve as an example here: “Economics creates mathematical models which could never be built in reality but are used nevertheless to compute and reduce complex economic processes to a few numbers. Here too, they try to describe the real through the impossible. […] Neoclassical economics assumes a kind of market harmony. If markets are left to their own resources then everything develops well. Dummy arguments are used to confirm this opinion by misusing mathematics in order to circulate ideology” ([15], p. 112f, translation A.K). The critical point is not that quantitative methods deal with artificial experimental settings or models, but that they immediately equate models with reality. Instead, models— through their construction and focus—create a reality through their use in science and everyday life, which will be explained in more detail in the next section. In addition, the methodological and technological progress must also be thought of explicitly.
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2.4. The purpose and meaning of models
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For an appropriate appreciation of quantification and modelling, a different kind of concluding translation between method and epistemology seems to be necessary. Statistics often assumes an absence of ideologies and normative values which is not true when considering the modes of acquiring, producing, and publishing data and results, respectively. The basic instruments with which we observe, describe, explain, and interpret the world are models—there is no immediate access to our spatial and social environment.
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This must be briefly explained. I agree with Schurz ([16], p. 56) who argues for a hypothetical-constructivist realism approach. According to this realism, our perception and imagination of reality is not a priori given, but constructed and conditioned through active cognition (which is referred to as “epistemic” constructivism). Contrary to an ontological constructivism which conclusively claims that reality too is not a priori given, the hypothetical-constructivist realism does not link perception and reality so tightly. Instead, it assumes a structural correspondence which transforms information between perception and reality, which is neither complete nor unambiguous. Taking such a corresponding linkage into consideration, it leads to an understanding of models that does not claim a straightforward coincidence of models with the reality, the nature, or the world. Models are not simply simplified representations of reality; they are images (imaginations) which we make from our environment. We constantly construct and reconstruct our environmental entry by using many and different instruments and tools proactively and interactively. These instruments and tools in turn influence our ways of (re-)construction. This making of is not always an act of creation, we also (and maybe mainly) use images (imaginations) made by others, be it maps, news articles, social network blogs, novels, theater plays, and the like. The application of images differs with respect to experience, social roles and positions, and many more contexts.
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If this assumption of how reality can be accessed is true, then the role and meaning of models changes significantly. Models, then, are created, developed, and applied to generate reality, not to represent it (although representation remains one, but only one important characteristic). In so doing, they untie from an assumed objective, true or total reality which has to be imitated by applying certain sets of rules. They establish a kind of independence. Models, moreover, reduce complexity in order to make the subject matter concrete. Hence, it is not the unimaginable, opaque complexity addressed theoretically to “reality” which is under investigation in models and computationally translated to quantities. Complexity of reality is a metaphor which will act as a counterpart to models, theories and quantifications. To compare it with system theory, we can conceive of characteristics of systems because they emerge as distinct objects structurally and functionally. Initially, we are not able to talk about a system’s environment—it is just the unassigned other side of the system.
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If the function of a model is not to represent or imitate the complexity of an unknown reality, then a model inhabits inherently its own justification by explicitly expressing its purpose, assumptions, and ways of reducing complexity. This is quite similar to map-making by applying rules of generalization or to statistical analysis by deliberately selecting variables and techniques in order to achieve a certain result.
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The aim of this line of thought is to avoid absolute external reality as a reference in modelling, but instead putting the inherent purposes, assumptions, framing conditions, parameter settings, and so on in the foreground. In so doing, it is a realization of a modelling epistemology that has been claimed by several researchers, among others Epstein [17], by arguing for a “generative social science” which accounts for letting the phenomenon of interest grow in a simulation model of interacting agents, or Küppers et al. [18] who equate simulation models epistemologically with a “pragmatic construction of reality,” whereby reality emerges inside the models (further hints are given in [19]).
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It would therefore be more appropriate to refer to “originals” instead of “reality” which are being generated and represented by models. Originals refer to other originals and in doing so there is no need to refer to an absolute truth/reality. This is in line with Stachowiak’s [20] General Model Theory, whereby models are defined through three characteristics: (1) a model is always a representation of a natural or artificial original, and the original can itself be an original; (2) a model does not encompass all attributes of an original, but only those which seem to be relevant for the model purpose; (3) a model does not conflate with the original inherently, but depends on the purpose, thus on the questions ‘whereto,’ ‘for what and whom,’ ‘when,’ and ‘where.’
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2.5. The risk of instrumentalizing models
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Without relationships and associations, models and numbers tend to be used as ideology or sheer instruments. They become stylized facts, and the images (imaginations) they produce induce a kind of a factual inevitability. A social capital value derived from network analysis, a poverty threshold, or a correlation between voter turnout and social status is equated with reality that not even one of the parameters would represent as a single case accidentally. A related problem is given with the use of the notion of “optimization”—model optimization is often equalized with empirical optimization, misappropriating the purpose(s) and premise(s) of the model.
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Complementary to the ideologization of models, we have to take the ideologization through models into account. Members of a social community or milieu potentially identify with scientific and political model results or analyses, be it confirmatory or deprecatory or something in between. Mechanisms of self- and external exclusion are one of the most negative and sustainable effects of stigmatized identification.
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3. Social capital as a reference in social-spatial network modelling
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The facts and problems that have been addressed so far, in order to adequately deal with models in general and geosimulation models in particular, will now be put into the context of social-spatial network modelling. The contextualization of information and the mutual transformation of complementary reference units in social network analyses are, inter alia, challenged by the difficulty of translating terms into numbers—in other words, of quantifying notions of social capital, solidarity or trust. Before introducing a geosimulation network modelling approach that attempts to explicitly struggle with this difficulty methodologically we begin with a brief delineation of the theoretical problem.
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“Social interactions in collective human relations are commonly understood as a fundamental condition for human beings to live a satisfactory life. Establishing a personal identity and autonomy on the one hand, and trust, solidarity and commitment on the other hand require social-normative rules which function as a glue that helps agents to connect to one another. While the nature of social interaction is seen as an unquestioned fact its valuation in operational terms is much harder to achieve. One apparently and generally accepted approach to operationalize the value of social interactions is given by the theory of social capital. A huge body of theoretical reflections as well as empirical studies [21, 22] consider transferring the concept of economic capital into the social realm as a suitable methodology for coping with social relations” [23].
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“The size and composition of social networks rely to a large part on the characteristics of the actors involved, i.e. their capabilities, needs and aspirations to collaborate with others. They also depend on the reasons for cooperation, the kinds of problems, and the (in)tangible infrastructure necessary to communicate via different channels. An important additional issue, however, comes with the nature of network mechanisms themselves – the process of how relations between actors emerge structurally and which determinants are thought to be relevant” [23]. There are several different approaches which relate the analysis of network mechanisms to social facts, one of which is dedicated to social capital.
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Bourdieu ([24], p. 248) defines social capital as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition.” This definition is in favor of an actor-centered and utilitarian perspective that not only presupposes an affiliation to one or many social networks as a constituent characteristic, but also assumes knowledge about the structure and function(s) of these. Networks vary significantly in size and complexity; they can be concrete and manageable as, for instance, families and cliques as well as abstract and opaque, as is the case for associations, organizations, labor markets, or electoral rolls. [25]
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Furthermore, it is remarkable that the unit of value, the currency, is implicitly given by solidarity, reciprocity, and trust, expressed explicitly as network connections, however. “The volume of the social capital possessed by a given agent thus depends on the size of the network of connections he can effectively mobilize and on the volume of the capital (economic, cultural or symbolic) possessed in his own right by each of those to whom he is connected” [25]. This quantitative relation—the more connections one has the higher his/her social capital is—sounds odd because it makes no qualitative difference in terms of network structure (density of relations) or the nature and value of relations (positions and roles of agents, weights of directions). “Resources” within the social capital context are understood as the availability of network relationships, which are, however, not specified—neither quantitatively nor qualitatively. A functional approach to social capital differs from an actor-centered one and accounts more suitably for assigning value to social relation: “Social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity, but a variety of different entities having two characteristics in common: They all consist of some aspect of a social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of individuals who are within the structure” ([26], p. 302).
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An understanding of social capital is commonly embedded into a broader conceptualization of capitalizing social relations. While this idea is tempting with economic capital, it is less so with social capital. “The three functions of capital and money, respectively, are (i) a means of exchange, (ii) a means of value hedge and preservation, and (iii) a unit of calculation.” Accumulation may play a major role in all of these functions, but is not restricted to them. The worth of capital also stretches to the functions of distribution and circulation within a commodity and service economy [27]. Taxation and social security contributions are other examples of how capital is used. In addition, economic capital accumulation implies accumulation of both surplus and debt. The execution of all these functions requires not only a general usability of capital but also a (statistical) scale of measurement that enables comparisons and evaluations across a diverse field of objectives, and of spatial and temporal scales. All this is not given—or not sufficiently so—with social capital. It is possible to weigh and to qualify the direction of network relations, but still no adequate measures are available which account for the latent variables associated with social capital. In other words, it makes no sense to say “we must double solidarity or trust by doing X.” It would, however, be a scientifically fruitful endeavor to develop indexes of social capital—based on trust, solidarity, network relations, etc.—with the aim of investigating social networks comparatively.” [25]
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In so doing, a strategy of obscuring or fuzziness is not constructive as can sometimes be detected in qualitative empirical social network research. For example, Dill ([28], p. 85) claims for his own approach that a definition should be a clear and simple one: “Social capital is the sum of intangible merits and goods within a community” (translation A.K.). In fact, this definition is anything but clear and simple. What can be accepted as “intangible merits” in communities and by whom? Who or what defines communities, and why are we dealing now with communities instead of networks? Are they identical? Who is producing and who is consuming intangible goods, based on which distribution rules? How does one sum up intangible goods? This definition is different from the accumulation and the “unit of calculation” concept because it provides no clues about distributional rules (it is a simple sum), the nature of intangible goods, and the nature of communities (which is much harder to specify than talking about social networks). The distinctive property of social capital in comparison with human or economic capital is, according to Dill [28], totally idealistic nature.
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The following chapter presents one attempt to operationalize the qualities that are associated with social capital in quantitative terms in the context of a social-spatial network. It seeks to address the problem of team assembly mechanisms (the topological space) with its potential impacts on the spatial distribution of these teams (the chorological space) in terms of the success experienced in conducting their projects.
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\n
\n
4. An agent-based geosimulation model of a semi-empirical social network
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\n
4.1. Introductory remarks
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The basic idea of the approach to translate the qualitative characteristics of social capital into quantitative properties is given with the number of face-to-face meeting opportunities. Though we are aware of the fact that the creation and continuation of social relations today are significantly influenced, or even determined, by social media technologies occupying virtual spaces, we are convinced that meeting opportunities of physically present people also have a strong impact on the process of tying relationships between them. The purpose of investigating networking mechanisms is, therefore, threefold: first, the geosimulation model simulates processes that represent the evolution of a large(r) network derived from a finite number of small(er) team networks. This evolution is thought to represent an increase of network connections, that is, an increase of social capital. Second, the model seeks to carve out the statistical meaning of our core variable number of face-to-face meeting opportunities as a latent variable that points to one condition of creating and allocating social capital. Third, since face-to-face communication takes place in physical space, the geosimulation model is used to analyze potential theoretical relationships between a network-based and a place-based geography.
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With respect to our interest of studying networking mechanisms, we argue that the evolution toward a large connected network contributes to overcoming isolated and fragmented efforts toward a common goal. Achieving synergies through effective trans-local knowledge transfer is a goal that has been investigated in (social) network analysis for some time [29, 30, 31]. In this respect, agent-based simulation is an appropriate method to explore the underlying processes that lead to these networking mechanisms [32].
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As a first step of this investigation, we selected and then adapted to our own needs a theoretical reference model developed by Guimera et al. [33] and made available as a NetLogo model by Bakshy and Wilensky [34]. The question raised ([33], p. 699) remains evident to some degree in our context too: “Is there a large connected cluster comprising most of the agents or is the network composed of numerous smaller clusters?” The ideal size does not necessarily correspond simply to exactly one all-encompassing network: “Successful teams evolve toward a size that is large enough to enable specialization and effective division of labor among teammates but small enough to avoid overwhelming costs of group coordination” ([33], p. 697). Where our empirical research is concerned, we are less interested in economic costs than in the creation of sustainable social interactions.
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These assumptions are taken as relevant premises for networking mechanisms. In so doing, our focus shifts to the parameters that influence or determine the construction of large(r) social networks that are initially small and more or less isolated due to the design of the social project. These mechanisms are understood as operators of translating social capital into quantitative units. The parameters used can be divided into three general domains: (i) actor-based parameters, (ii) linkage-based parameters and (iii) place-based parameters.
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\n
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4.2. The empirical case studies
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The empirical case studies for which an agent-based simulation model was constructed, one which relies theoretically on the prototype model, derives from an Austrian social project entitled “Keep the Ball Rolling.” This project aims to enhance social well-being at a regional level by encouraging the local population to put into practice ideas that they are convinced are relevant. Individuals or small teams are called to submit project proposals that help reduce social injustice and promote social cohesion. Successful teams are awarded a grant to fund their projects, and in addition receive organizational support. The project started in the Lungau region (Salzburg) in 2011 and was taken up by Steirische Eisenstrasse (Styria), Mühlviertler Alm (Upper Austria), and Mostviertel Mitte (Lower Austria) regions [35, 36]. The empirical data used for the following simulation models are from the Styrian and Upper Austrian regions.
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The project proposals are presented by the teams at three jury meetings. The successful candidates must implement their projects within 18 months. Every jury session is followed by a public celebration where the successful projects are presented. Because the implementation of a project is supported scientifically by a team of researchers for the duration of the project, several further meetings, ranging from small informal meetings to larger stakeholder workshops, are offered. Every team leader is invited to participate in a semi-standardized questionnaire designed to obtain knowledge about the project team in terms of its size and composition.
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The analysis is concerned with how the number of such meetings (1) determines the team assembly mechanisms, (2) correlates with other determinants and (3) correlates with a place-based geography.
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\n
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4.3. The model design
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In order to analyze the development of collaborative socio-spatial network structures of initially small(er) and unconnected teams in two Austrian regions, a simulation model was constructed that includes some of the general ideas of the original model [33]. However, there are a number of major differences between our model and the original one: (1) The number of teams is initialized at three time steps and not stepwise; with this adaptation, we represent the selection process of successful teams. (2) Teams can vary in size. (3) Teams can also vary in network structure, while the original model only allows the implementation of teams of three actors that are fully connected, the “Keep-The-Ball-Rolling” project does not have such restrictions. (4) Individual agents (and not only teams of three agents) are inserted as new potential collaborators; this feature will play a crucial role in the future modelling process when data sets are available that will be collected approximately 2 years after the official end of the social project (data for the Mühlviertler Alm region are currently missing, while data for the Steirische Eisenstrasse are not yet fully edited). Therefore, we do not refer to this characteristic of the model in this paper. (5) The original teams can be merged, either by a team leader (i.e., the leader of a project team) or by a team member (which is not possible in the reference model) who is selected stochastically for a new connection. This adaptation was implemented due to the nature of events that are realized during the different types of project meetings which can consist of stakeholder workshops, project presentations and informal meetings, as well as ad hoc assistance from the staff of the regional offices. Although we do not consider these different event properties explicitly, they remain important to justify the “connecting role” of both agent types, that is, team leaders and team members. The original model takes only team leaders as connectors into account.
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The construction of the two regional socio-spatial network models is based on standardized questionnaires that were conducted at the beginning of the project in each region. Every team leader of a project who was awarded a grant to participate with her/his project and who took part in the survey was asked about her/his team collaborators. We also know the team leader’s home address (but not those of the collaborators, which affects the analysis). The numbers of actors and network ties are given in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Number of …
\n
Team leaders
\n
Team members
\n
Network ties
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Styrian region
\n
79
\n
396
\n
441
\n
\n
\n
Upper Austrian region
\n
59
\n
418
\n
655
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Number of registered team leaders, team members, and network ties among and between them in the Steirische Eisenstrasse (Styrian region) and the Mühlviertler Alm (upper Austrian region).
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The two models are initialized with these settings of nodes and edges. In the style of the reference model, a six-dimensional parameter space is used to analyze the networking mechanisms among team leaders, team members and between them. The aim of this procedure is to detect common patterns of relevance of and relationship between the six parameters that seem to determine the behavior of social networks in terms of their structure and dynamic. Table 2 gives an overview of the parameters and the ranges of values within which the further simulation results have been analyzed.
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\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameter
\n
Description
\n
Interval of analysis
\n
\n\n\n
\n
selAgents
\n
Probability of selecting agents per event who are willing to collaborate
Probability of selecting team leaders or team members per event who are willing to collaborate
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[20, (30), 80] %
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\n
\n
maxSelAgents
\n
Potential maximum number of agents per event who are willing to collaborate
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[4, (4), 12] abs.
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\n
\n
conTeamLeader
\n
Probability of team leaders actually connecting with other agents
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[5, (15), 35] %
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\n
\n
conTeamMember
\n
Probability of team members actually connecting with other agents
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[0, (10), 30] %
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\n
\n
numEvents
\n
Number of events that enable the establishment of new ties over a complete simulation run
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[1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 40, 80, 160] abs.
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\n\n
Table 2.
Description of parameters used in the simulation models.
Values in round brackets indicate the increment value; for example, the parameter values for selAgents are 20, 50 and 80.
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The parameter selAgents determines the likelihood that agents attending an event are willing to collaborate; for example, selAgents = 50% means that 50% of all attendees of a workshop are willing to collaborate. The parameter selAgentType specifies which agent type—the team leader or the team member—is more likely to be willing to collaborate. If selAgentType = 50%, both agent types are equally likely to be willing to collaborate; if selAgentType < 50%, more team leaders are likely to be willing to collaborate. The interval of both parameters has a large range in order to detect network differences because of asymmetric probabilities. The maximum number of agents who are likely to collaborate, maxSelAgents, is a conservative estimate based on our experience of events we have organized in both regions. These three parameters affect the behavior of the agents, while the following two affect the relationship between them. The conTeamLeader and conTeamMember parameters determine stochastically how agents connect among themselves. If, for example, conTeamLeader = 10%, then in 10% of all cases team leaders connect with other team leaders, and in 90% of all cases they connect with team members. The same rule applies to conTeamMember.
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The last parameter of Table 2, numEvents, determines the number of events that take place during a simulation run. This is our core parameter for implementing social capital as a quantitative approximation. Events are defined here as face-to-face meetings and hence exclude Internet-based communications. The range of values varies between 1 event and 160 events. Taking into account that one simulation run takes 160 steps, which represents a time period of 160 weeks or almost 3 years (i.e., the project time of approx. 80 weeks and the post-project time of another 80 weeks when a posteriori questionnaires are conducted to evaluate the sustainability of the projects), the number of events varies between just one meeting during or after the social festival, and meetings on a weekly basis.
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The social network simulation models were created using NetLogo 6.0 [37]. The analysis of the modelling results has two stages: first, a statistical analysis composed of a multivariate linear regression analysis and a cluster analysis was conducted. Second, a simulation analysis consisting of representative simulation runs investigated the behavior of the social networks by considering the network parameters ‘closeness centrality’ and ‘betweenness centrality.’ Figure 1 represents the simulation process graphically. The model used here is available as an updated version at OpenABM (https://www.openabm.org/model/5583/version/1).
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Figure 1.
Flow diagram of the simulation model.
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4.4. Some selected model results
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All possible combinations of values (that is, 3888 in this case) within the intervals of the six variables were computed, which led to 3888 mean values across all variations. These mean values were then used to compute average bivariate correlations and measurements of determination. The aim was to determine the strength and direction of relationships of the six independent variables by which the versatile network structures can be explained. The emergence of these different network structures consists of both the initial network relations of the original teams (empirical data) and the network relations created during the simulation (modeled data).
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The method used to create multiple regressions was “stepwise selection,” which avoids multicollinearity to some degree. Table 3 reveals that our core parameter numEvents is the most relevant independent variable for all three dependent variables representing the linkages between nodes. The measurement of determination (R2) confirms this statement. The parameter numEvents is, however, more relevant to explain the variation of the distribution of the links among team leaders than among team members. On average, team leaders benefit more than team members from an increase in the number of workshops and meetings. This is due in part to an implicit bias, occurring because there are fewer team leaders than team members, which quickly leads to a higher number of linkages. This assessment is confirmed by the contrary fact of there being only a few events (1–8): under this condition, team leaders are far more involved than team members in creating a large connected social network. This fact has to be taken into account to avoid lock-in effects of a well-informed stakeholder group. The statistical influence of the remaining five parameters is significantly less relevant in explaining the variation of ties among and between the two groups when compared with numEvents, as is illustrated in the last column of Table 3.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Dependent variable
\n
Most relevant independent variable
\n
R2 of most relevant independent variable
\n
R2 of all included independent variables
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Number of connections among team leaders (Styria)
\n
Number of events r = 0.785
\n
0.617
\n
0.759
\n
\n
\n
Number of connections among team leaders (Upper Austria)
\n
Number of events r = 0.779
\n
0.606
\n
0.751
\n
\n
\n
Number of connections among team members (Styria)
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Number of events r = 0.633
\n
0.401
\n
0.525
\n
\n
\n
Number of connections among team members (Upper Austria)
\n
Number of events r = 0.623
\n
0.388
\n
0.505
\n
\n
\n
Number of connections among all actors (Styria)
\n
Number of events r = 0.756
\n
0.572
\n
0.687
\n
\n
\n
Number of connections among all actors (Upper Austria)
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Number of events r = 0.735
\n
0.540
\n
0.652
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Regression patterns of the three dependent edge-related variables for the Steirische Eisenstrasse (Styria) and the Mühlviertler Alm (Upper Austria).
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The cluster analysis aims to explore further structures that have been unknown so far. The cluster algorithm used here is the “Ward method,” which yields more or less evenly distributed clusters. A variation of 4–6 clusters was applied, and the solution with five clusters provided good results with respect to a good discrimination of the values and interpretation of the results. As Tables 4 and 5 illustrate for both regions in a very similar way, the highest numbers of connected agents (cluster 5 in both cases) are achieved when numEvents is the highest (which is not surprising), the likelihood of selected agents is relatively high, the proportion of team leaders is higher than that of team members, the maximum number of potentially selectable agents is relatively high, and the likelihood that agents will establish ties is high. If more team members are likely to be selected (selAgentType > 50%), then a considerable decrease of realized linkages follows. The least relevant parameters are conTeamLeader and conTeamMember (although they are responsible for the relevant discrimination between cluster 4 and cluster 5 in the upper Austrian case study).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Dependent variables
\n
Cluster 1
\n
Cluster 2
\n
Cluster 3
\n
Cluster 4
\n
Cluster 5
\n
\n\n\n
\n
number of ties among team leaders
\n
700
\n
1041
\n
156
\n
1263
\n
1415
\n
\n
\n
number of ties among team members
\n
805
\n
2075
\n
83
\n
3402
\n
9074
\n
\n
\n
number of all ties
\n
2132
\n
4248
\n
497
\n
7824
\n
10,423
\n
\n
\n
Independent variables
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
numEvents
\n
73
\n
118
\n
18
\n
141
\n
160
\n
\n
\n
selAgents
\n
58
\n
58
\n
47
\n
70
\n
73
\n
\n
\n
selAgentType
\n
52
\n
50
\n
51
\n
40
\n
32
\n
\n
\n
maxSelAgents
\n
7
\n
7
\n
6
\n
8
\n
8
\n
\n
\n
conTeamLeader/conTeamMember
\n
20/15
\n
20/15
\n
20/15
\n
19/13
\n
20/25
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Cluster analysis results for the Styrian case study. Values represent mean values.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Dependent variables
\n
Cluster 1
\n
Cluster 2
\n
Cluster 3
\n
Cluster 4
\n
Cluster 5
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Number of ties among team leaders
\n
184
\n
932
\n
1004
\n
1299
\n
1364
\n
\n
\n
Number of ties among team members
\n
141
\n
1458
\n
5293
\n
2682
\n
10,459
\n
\n
\n
Number of all ties
\n
817
\n
4056
\n
7229
\n
12,152
\n
12,844
\n
\n
\n
Independent variables
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
numEvents
\n
22
\n
104
\n
133
\n
155
\n
160
\n
\n
\n
selAgents
\n
47
\n
60
\n
66
\n
70
\n
72
\n
\n
\n
selAgentType
\n
51
\n
51
\n
38
\n
34
\n
34
\n
\n
\n
maxSelAgents
\n
6
\n
7
\n
7
\n
9
\n
9
\n
\n
\n
conTeamLeader/conTeamMember
\n
20/15
\n
20/13
\n
20/22
\n
20/4
\n
21/25
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Cluster analysis results for the upper Austrian case study. Values represent mean values.
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Although numEvents appears to be a highly relevant determinant in the development of large network compositions, it is also highlighted in the cluster analysis results that team members benefit significantly from an increase in the number of events. A comparison of cluster 1 and cluster 2 for the Steirische Eisenstrasse reveals that almost doubling numEvents leads to a considerably higher increase of tied team members (approx. 2100 compared with 800) than of tied team leaders (approx. 1500 compared with 700).
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In addition to the statistical analysis, a simulation analysis was performed in order to investigate the process of the network creation. For this purpose, two common centrality measures were used, namely the closeness centrality and the betweenness centrality. Both centrality measures characterize an agent’s position or role in the entire network. In NetLogo, closeness centrality is defined as “[…] the inverse of the average of an [agent’s] distances to all other [agents]” [38]. Distances are defined as shortest paths. Betweenness centrality, by contrast, refers to the mediator function of an agent (for example, mediating communication flows). To calculate the betweenness centrality of an agent, “[…] you take every other possible pairs of [agents] and, for each pair, you calculate the proportion of shortest paths between members of the pair that passes through the current [agent]. The betweenness centrality of an [agent] is the sum of these” [38].
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Based on typical and representative simulation runs of the abovementioned behavior space analysis in NetLogo, a data subset with 32 cases has been extracted. Extraction here means that extreme values of parameters have been excluded; for example, numEvents was set to 80 in one case and to 8 in another. Figure 2 illustrates the results of agents that have a high closeness centrality (“high” defined as above the threshold value of 0.5) for the Steirische Eisenstrasse region. The two maps differ in the number of events during the simulation run.
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Figure 2.
Distribution of high closeness centrality agents for numEvents = 80 (left) and numEvents = 8 (right) in the Styrian study area.
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Sixteen out of the 32 simulation runs were executed using a high number of meeting events (left-hand side), while the other 16 used a low number of events (right-hand side). When we compare the two graphs of Figure 2, the most obvious fact is that the variation of results with numEvents = 80 is considerably larger than with numEvents = 8. The case representing the lowest number of agents gaining a high closeness centrality (green graph in the left diagram) is characterized by a high number of selected team leaders (because selAgents is high and selAgentType is significantly below the 50% threshold value) and by high linkage percentages for both agent types. The case with the highest number of agents gaining a high closeness centrality (red graph in the left diagram) differs in the relationship of selAgents and selAgentType which is now exactly the opposite. These results highlight the important contribution of team leaders in two ways: (1) they are important as central nodes within the social network; (2) they also act as multipliers for team members to achieve a central position in the network.
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Fluctuations for cases with numEvents = 8 (right diagram of Figure 2) are far less significant. Here, values range from 30 (blue graph) to 55 (red graph) (there are six different combinations of parameter values that lead to 30 agents gaining high closeness centrality). The most relevant determinants to explain the differences are selAgents and conTeamMember – one node-related and one linkage-related parameter. A comparison of the two diagrams of Figure 2 convincingly shows that even a high number of events supplied do not guarantee a sufficiently high number of agents who are tightly linked together if the other parameter values do not foster successful collaboration efforts.
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\n
\n
4.5. The geographical dimension of the social network geosimulation model
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The statistical and simulation analyses reveal that the construction and (sustainable) consolidation of social networks are influenced by a high number of factors whose inter-relationships are quite complicated in terms of generating a large(r) connected network. Offering a high number of events does not automatically ensure that a high proportion of agents will gain high centrality in order to provide for efficient knowledge transfer within the social network. In fact, even only a few events can result in a reliable number of durable linkages among agents.
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However, one must take the specific sequence of the three jury meetings into account. Due to the inclusion of new team leaders and team members at predefined time steps, a temporary decline in the number of agents with high betweenness and/or closeness centrality can arise. Fluctuations are large(r) if the number of events provided is high because meetings are likely to take place between jury sessions, too.
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Therefore, the organization of events to foster collaboration is a challenging undertaking, as social network analysis has shown. The supply of opportunities to meet each other in order to exchange knowledge and experience has, in addition to its qualitative component (obligatory stakeholder meeting vs. informal team meeting), a quantitative tendency. Setting aside all the network-based determinants discussed so far, one should not forget the geographical domain, that is, the geospatial distribution of the relevant actors. In other words, a translation from a space-of-flows geography to a space-of-places geography seems appropriate.
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Figures 3 and 4 are representative extracts of the spatial distribution of agents with high betweenness centrality (yellow) and high closeness centrality (violet), and remaining team leaders (red) for a high and low numbers of events (numEvents = 80 and numEvents = 8 respectively). Linkages are hidden and the scale of resolution of the agents’ locations, which is based on the questionnaire, is the municipal level. Distribution within the municipalities is for visualization purposes only.
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Figure 3.
Distribution of agents with high betweenness centrality (yellow) and high closeness centrality (violet) for numEvents = 80 (left) and for numEvents = 8 (right) in the Steirische Eisenstrasse. Colors of municipalities indicate less than 2% of all projects (light green); between 2 and 20% (green); more than 20% (dark green).
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Figure 4.
Distribution of agents with high betweenness centrality (yellow) and high closeness centrality (violet) for numEvents = 80 (left) and for numEvents = 8 (right) in the Mühlviertler Alm region. Colors of municipalities indicate: Less than 5% of all projects (light green); between 5 and 15% (green); more than 15% (dark green).
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One important conclusion that can be drawn from the distribution patterns is that the vertical structures of the social networks do not completely coincide with the structure of the places where the team leaders reside and where the projects were implemented. The initial network pattern is characterized by many small and largely unconnected teams each with one leader and a couple of members who are, of necessity, linked to the leader. This vertical structure was then reiterated as team leaders connected to one another or to other team members. Agents with high closeness and/or betweenness centrality are disproportionately more often located in municipalities with comparatively fewer implemented projects (light green colored areas). This is true both for situations with a high number of events and those with a low number. If a high number of meetings were to be offered (maps at the left-hand side), then the distribution of agents with high betweenness centrality (= important communicators) would be more even than the distribution of the projects. The result is true for the Styrian as well as the Upper Austrian study area. In fact, this statement can be extended to the situation of a low number of offered meetings if the closeness centrality (=strong ties between agents) is taken into consideration, as can be seen in the maps at the right-hand side of Figures 3 and 4. The peculiar relationship between the two geographies immediately prompts the conclusion that the decisions about adequate venues for meetings should be made by taking the whole project region into account and not concentrating mostly on the region’s larger towns.
\n
Another conclusion that can be drawn is that with a more even spatial distribution of highly centralized agents, a proper coverage of network geography and place-based geography can be achieved in terms of communications (space of flows) and localized decisions (space of places). If this is true, then local projects can benefit from each other thanks to this type of knowledge dissemination. Ultimately, personal engagement in one’s own local social environment also needs to be appreciated by rotating meeting locations across the entire region, because then “peripherally located” agents can act as hosts and can proudly present their project work in immediately visible form.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
The basic intention of this contribution is threefold: first, and mainly, it attempts to emphasize the epistemological purpose of models and quantities as well as quantifications. This then implies a specific justification for the creation and utilization of models. Second, the chapter relates these reasons to a concrete methodological application, which was the translation of the qualities of the concept of social capital to a possible quantitative representation. This has been done by the core variable number of face-to-face meeting opportunities in a concrete empirical case study. Third, a geosimulation model is presented which aims to simulate the networking mechanisms within a definite parameter space in order to analyze the relevance of our core variable. Furthermore, the mutual relationship between a topology-based and a place-based space ought to be investigated.
\n
Our concern was to establish an understanding of models and quantitative approaches which stress their adequateness in social scientific reasoning due to their characteristics in dealing with the subjects that matter. It has been argued that models do not refer to an absolute truth or reality that they do not represent or imitate reality but create their own reality and impact by their application within scientific communities. The hypothetical-constructivist realism appears to be a proper theoretical foundation to this argument. In fact, models and numbers attempt to make phenomena we observe or deduce theoretically tractable, graspable and visible. Since many social processes designed by models cannot be perceived straightforwardly or are unobservable in principle, it is the (communicative) relationship between model builders and model users that rewards their use, which is more important than looking for and looking at an intangible truth. “Occam’s razor may still be the ultimate quest, but in many social systems, evident complexity is so great that plausibility rather than validity may be the real quest” [38].
\n
The statistical and simulation results gained some plausibility to confirm our assumption that social capital can be represented by the quantitative measure of meeting events. However, further investigations are necessary. One issue is related to the composition of the empirical sample which has to be expanded to the team members in order to detect potential connections among this group. Consequently, the structure of the original social networks can be better represented in the geosimulation network model (the issue of calibration). Another still existing problem is the one-dimensional re-presentation of social capital. An incorporation of further sorts of capital (economic, cultural) would lead to an empirically more reliable model because of the consideration of mutual correlations between them. This, in turn, would improve the model results which influence our understanding of the empirical reality (the issue of verification and validation). Finally, the geographical context—in its two dimensions of topology and chorology—ought to be investigated more deeply. What interdependencies between networks and places in terms of spatial proximity and center-periphery relationships might have an impact on the size and composition of the network, and the distribution of actors on the allocation of social capital, should be further discussed. Though an integration of these issues will definitely improve our understanding and imagination of social networks which take social capital explicitly into account, the geosimulation model presented here justifies the continuation of research on this scientific path.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Chapters 2 and 4 are excerpts which were taken from my previous publications, cited as [23] and [39]. These excerpts have been extended and aligned to fit into the structure of this article. Permission of re-use is given. We acknowledge financial support by the Open Access Publication Fund of the University of Salzburg.
\n
\n',keywords:"generative power of models, translating social capital into quantities, network mechanisms, semi-empirical model, network-based and place-based geography",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61443.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61443.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61443",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61443",totalDownloads:1150,totalViews:220,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 18th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 18th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"November 28th 2018",dateFinished:"May 14th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Models in general and geosimulation in particular are epistemologically characterized by two principles: first, they produce reality through their existence and communication rather than simply representing it. Second, they reduce complexity in the process of mapping complexity. Since almost any current phenomenon is understood as complex without specifying how complex it is and in which sense, geosimulation models are important tools in solving this problem of specifying and representing complexity. This capability rests, among other things, upon its multilevel approach (bottom-up and top-down) and its ability to translate terms into numbers and thus into distinct singularities. A demonstration of such an understanding of models will be given by presenting a socio-spatial simulation approach in the domain of network analysis and social capital operationalization. Two Austrian regions serve as case studies using empirical and simulated data. The demonstration includes the endeavor to intertwine a place-based geography with a network-based geography.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61443",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61443",signatures:"Andreas Koch",book:{id:"7262",type:"book",title:"Spatial Analysis, Modelling and Planning",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Spatial Analysis, Modelling and Planning",slug:"spatial-analysis-modelling-and-planning",publishedDate:"November 28th 2018",bookSignature:"Jorge Rocha and José António Tenedório",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7262.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-240-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-239-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-795-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"246464",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Koch",fullName:"Andreas Koch",slug:"andreas-koch",email:"andreas.koch@sbg.ac.at",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The nature of models and quantifications and their impacts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. The peculiarity of quantities and quantifications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Challenges of transformability of methods, numbers, and models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Utilization of knowledge, numbers and models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. The purpose and meaning of models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. The risk of instrumentalizing models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Social capital as a reference in social-spatial network modelling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. An agent-based geosimulation model of a semi-empirical social network",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1. Introductory remarks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2. The empirical case studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3. The model design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.4. Some selected model results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.5. The geographical dimension of the social network geosimulation model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Schäfer L, Schnelle T, Fleck L, editors. Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache. 9th ed. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp; 2012\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Couclelis H. Ontologies of geographic information. International Journal of Geographical Information Science. 1785-1809;24:12. DOI: 10.1080/13658816.2010.484392\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Lewin K. The conflict between Aristotelian and Galileian modes of thought in contemporary psychology. Journal of General Psychology. 2002;5:141-177\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Weiss W. Gödels Unvollständigkeitssatz, die Vernunft, Metawahrheit(en) und Everetts Vielweltentheorie. Vienna: Wissenschaftliche Nachrichten des Bundesministeriums für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur; 2010. pp. 3-12\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Reckwitz A. Die Gesellschaft der Singularitäten. Berlin: Suhrkamp; 2017\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Rosanvallon P. Die Gesellschaft der Gleichen. Hamburg: Hamburger Edition; 2013\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Mau S. Das metrische Wir. Über die Quantifizierung des Sozialen. Berlin: Suhrkamp; 2017\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Christie M, Cliffe A, Dawid P, Senn S. Simplicity, Complexity and Modelling. Chichester: Wiley & Sons; 2011\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Kuhn T. The Structure of Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2012\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Bourdieu P, Wacquant L. Reflexive Anthropologie. Suhrkamp: Frankfurt a.M.; 1996\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Geertz C. Local Knowledge. London: Harper Collins Publishers; 1993\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Lotter W. Wir rechnen mit allem. 13th ed. brand eins; 2011. pp. 40-54; Heft 11\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Cremer G. Armut in Deutschland. C. H. Beck: München; 2016\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Armut LP. Ursachen, Formen, Auswege. C. H. Beck: München; 2017\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Link O. Die Welt lässt sich nicht berechnen. 13th ed. brand eins; 2011. pp. 110-115; Heft 11\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Schurz G. Einführung in die Wissenschaftstheorie. Darmstadt: WBG; 2008\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Epstein JM. Generative Social Science. Studies in Agent-Based Computational Modeling. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press; 2006\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Küppers G, Lenhard J, Shinn T. Computer simulation: Practice, epistemology, and social dynamics. In: Lenhard J, Küppers G, Shinn T, editors. Simulation. Pragmatic Construction of Reality. Dordrecht: Spinger; 2006. pp. 3-22\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Edmonds B, Meyer R, editors. Simulating Social Complexity. Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London: Springer; 2013\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Stachowiak W. Allgemeine Modelltheorie. Wien New York: Springer; 1973 (Reprint)\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Field J. Social Capital. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge; 2016\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Halpern D. Social Capital. Cambridge: Polity Press; 2005\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Koch A. Determinants of social networking mechanisms and their potential effects on a place-based geography: An agent-based simulation approach. GI_Forum. 2017;1:369-382. DOI: 10.1553/giscience2017_01_s369\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Bourdieu P. The forms of capital. In: Richardson J, editor. Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of sEducation (Translated by Richard Nice). New York; 1986. pp. 241-258. Retrieved from https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/bourdieu-forms-capital.htm (2018-03-19)\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Koch A. Capital, the social, and the institution – Bourdieu’s theory of social capital revisited. In: Kapferer E, Gstach I, Koch A, Sedmak C, editors. Rethinking Social Capital. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2016. pp. 3-17\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Coleman JS. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1990\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Hopkins R. The Power of Just Doing Stuff. Cambridge: UIT/Green Books; 2013\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Dill A. Gemeinsam sind wir reich. Wie Gemeinschaften ohne Geld Werte schaffen. München: Oekom Verlag; 2012\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Batagelj V, Doreian P, Ferligoj A, Kejžar N. Understanding Large Temporal Networks and Spatial Networks. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014\n'},{id:"B30",body:'de Nooy W, Mrvar A, Batagelj V. Exploratory Social Network Analysis with Pajek. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2005\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Robins G, Pattison P. Interdependencies and social processes: Dependence graphs and generalized dependence structures. In: Carrington PJ, Scott J, Wasserman S, editors. Models and Methods in Social Network Analysis. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge; 2005\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Namatame A, Chen S-H. Agent-Based Modeling and Network Dynamics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Guimera R, Uzzi B, Spiro J, Amaral LAN. Team assembly mechanisms determine collaboration network structure and team performance. Science. 29 April 2005;308:697-702\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Bakshy, E, Wilensky U. NetLogo Team Assembly model. http://ccl.northwestern.edu/ netlogo/models/TeamAssembly. Center for Connected Learning and Computer-Based Modeling. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University; 2007\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Gstach I, Kapferer E, Koch A, Sedmak C, editors. Sozialatlas Steirische Eisenstraße. Mandelbaum Verlag: Wien; 2013\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Gstach I, Kapferer E, Koch A, Sedmak C, editors. Sozialatlas Mühlviertler Alm. Mandelbaum Verlag: Wien; 2015\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Wilensky U. NetLogo. http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/. Center for Connected Learning and Computer-Based Modeling. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University; 1999\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Batty M. A generic framework for computational spatial modelling. In: Heppenstall AJ, Crooks AT, See LM, Batty M, editors. Agent-Based Models of Geographical Systems. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Springer; 2012. pp. 19-50\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Koch A. Quod erat expectandum: The modus operandi of models and quantifications. GI_Forum. 2018;1 (in print)\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Andreas Koch",address:"andreas.koch@sbg.ac.at",affiliation:'
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After that, it addresses the GPS modernization program including the new civilian and military signals and their significance. It continues by outlining the GPS signal characteristics and the sources of GPS measurement error. GPS receivers as well are briefly described. Then, it gives an overview of the GLONASS and describes its modernization program. Additionally, it delves into many aspects the GLONASS, including GLONASS signal characteristics, the GLONASS radio frequency (RF) plan, pseudorandom (PR) ranging codes, and the intra-system interference navigation message. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"
\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of 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