Patient-reported outcome measures and performance-based tests for hip conditions.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5934",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Selected Studies in Biodiversity",title:"Selected Studies in Biodiversity",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The present book offers an overall up-to-date overview of the biological diversity, comprising many interesting chapters focussing on the different aspects of biodiversity. Most of the chapters include findings of investigations and observations on biodiversity, whilst a few are based on statistically and theoretically derived information. The book produced sufficient information on the occurrence and distribution of many plant and animal species or groups of organisms with environmental estimates from a wide variety of interesting terrestrial and aquatic habitats. With 18 interesting and elaborately prepared chapters, the present book would definitely be an ideal source of scientific information to the advanced students, junior researchers, scientists and a portion of the public involved in ecology and other research areas involving biodiversity studies. It will also help to the development of the growing awareness of the close linkage between the conversation of biodiversity and economic development.",isbn:"978-1-78923-233-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-232-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-261-4",doi:"10.5772/66032",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"selected-studies-in-biodiversity",numberOfPages:400,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"769199b9338f44051322d1c76ea2c84b",bookSignature:"Bülent Şen and Oscar Grillo",publishedDate:"June 20th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5934.jpg",numberOfDownloads:24338,numberOfWosCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:58,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:118,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 2nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 23rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"196641",title:"Dr.",name:"Bülent",middleName:null,surname:"Şen",slug:"bulent-sen",fullName:"Bülent Şen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196641/images/system/196641.png",biography:"Bülent Şen graduated from Science Faculty of Ankara University and granted by The Turkish Government to carry out his post-graduate studies abroad. He was accepted by Bristol University (United Kingdom) and he completed his Ph.D. course under the supervision of world-famous phycologist professor F.E.Round. He continued to produce researchers both on algal ecology and algal culture since then and one of his conspicuous research brought him an award of Bold Award Committee (USA ) in 1991. He supervised many MSc and Ph.D. thesis and produced over 100 articles and five books. He became a professor in 1994 and was appointed as a dean of Fisheries Faculty. He has been vice rector between 2008-2012. Professor SEN is a member of Board of Turkish Journal of Botany published by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. He has also been a member of many international phycological associations and editor of NWSA Journal.",institutionString:"Fırat University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51992/images/1749_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Oscar Grillo is a food technologist with an international PhD in applied and environmental botany. Since 2003 he has been working as a researcher at the Stazione Sperimentale di Granicoltura per la Sicilia, a governmental institute of agronomic research, mainly working with computer vision applied to food matrices and plant structures. Currently, he is collaborating with the Sardinian Germplasm Bank of the Biodiversity Conservation Centre of the University of Cagliari on projects devoted to wild plant seed characterization and identification by image analysis. He also works as a supervisor for many MSc and PhD students. He is the author of about 50 research works published in many peer-reviewed journals and about 70 international conference papers. Dr. Grillo is a referee for a few peer-reviewed journals, and many times was invited as a visiting professor by national and international universities and research centres. In 2011 he was the co-editor of five volumes published by InTech, and in 2014 the editor of the last one.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"841",title:"Biodiversity",slug:"environmental-sciences-ecology-biodiversity"}],chapters:[{id:"56873",title:"Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa: Experience from Selected Protected Areas in Zimbabwe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70470",slug:"impacts-of-climate-change-and-climate-variability-on-wildlife-resources-in-southern-africa-experienc",totalDownloads:3374,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Climate change and variability pose a threat to wildlife resources in semi-arid savannahs. With examples from selected protected areas in Southern Africa, this chapter highlights studies on detected climate changes particularly rainfall and temperature, outlines the predicted and observed impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in savannah ecosystems and highlights the adaptation and mitigation strategies and implications for conservation. Literature indicates that Southern Africa is characterised by highly variable, erratic and unpredictable rainfall and increasing temperature coupled with an increasing trend in climate-related extreme events such as frequent droughts, cyclones and heat waves. Drought, in particular, has led to death in several wildlife species. This has implications on long-term survival of the species. Changes in rainfall and temperature patterns influence habitat quality and consequently abundance of distribution of wildlife species. Large herbivores such as elephants and hippopotamus in particular are vulnerable to climate change due to their ecology, whereas other species are less vulnerable. Climate-related extreme events, coupled with other anthropogenic stressors, interact to influence changes in abundance and distribution of wildlife resources. Understanding the influence of these climatic factors on wildlife resources is vital for adaptive management and protection of biodiversity.",signatures:"Olga L. Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, Shakkie Kativu and Godwell\nNhamo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56873",authors:[{id:"202318",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga Laiza",surname:"Kupika",slug:"olga-laiza-kupika",fullName:"Olga Laiza Kupika"},{id:"202328",title:"Prof.",name:"Edson",surname:"Gandiwa",slug:"edson-gandiwa",fullName:"Edson Gandiwa"},{id:"202330",title:"Prof.",name:"Shakkie",surname:"Kativu",slug:"shakkie-kativu",fullName:"Shakkie Kativu"},{id:"202334",title:"Prof.",name:"Godwell",surname:"Nhamo",slug:"godwell-nhamo",fullName:"Godwell Nhamo"}],corrections:null},{id:"58231",title:"Biological Conservation and Nature Protection Strategies in Spanish Atlantic Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72515",slug:"biological-conservation-and-nature-protection-strategies-in-spanish-atlantic-region",totalDownloads:966,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the fact that the loss of biodiversity continues to be an unresolved problem at a global level, it is possible to identify new alternatives and initiatives in biodiversity conservation. From the environmental strategic framework created worldwide, an important World Network of Biosphere Reserves has been implemented under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, which in the European Union in general, and in Spain in particular, is strongly interrelated with Natura 2000 network that is created under Directive 92/43/EEC. In the present work, the importance of the Spanish Atlantic region for biodiversity is assessed, contextualizing the networks of protected areas created in this territory and valuing the created synergies that have favored the start-up of projects and agreements aimed at reducing the loss of biodiversity and achieving sustainability.",signatures:"Javier Ferreiro da Costa and Pablo Ramil-Rego",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58231",authors:[{id:"61861",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Ramil-Rego",slug:"pablo-ramil-rego",fullName:"Pablo Ramil-Rego"},{id:"212065",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Ferreiro da Costa",slug:"javier-ferreiro-da-costa",fullName:"Javier Ferreiro da Costa"}],corrections:null},{id:"57718",title:"Methods for Biodiversity Assessment: Case Study in an Area of Atlantic Forest in Southern Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71824",slug:"methods-for-biodiversity-assessment-case-study-in-an-area-of-atlantic-forest-in-southern-brazil",totalDownloads:2828,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Populations and species are disappearing due to disturbances in the environment caused by human activities. Given, the obvious risk of loss of diversity, it is increasingly necessary to take actions concerning preservation, in which safety features are necessary for measuring the variation of diversity in space and time. The aim of this study was to evaluate the structure and diversity in the arboreal component and natural regeneration in an area of Araucaria Forest in Southern Brazil. The vegetation sampling was performed by analyzing 180 subunits of 10 × 10 m, where all the arboreal individuals and natural regeneration were inventoried. Different alpha and beta indexes of diversity were calculated. The Margalef, Shannon, and the Beta indexes were underestimated, possibly influenced by the size of sample unit. Index Menhinick represented the diversity in a very real form, even in small sampling units. The indexes of Simpson and MacIntosh denote low dominance and the equity indexes showed high uniformity in species.",signatures:"Maria Raquel Kanieski, Solon Jonas Longhi and Philipe Ricardo\nCasemiro Soares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57718",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57718",authors:[{id:"219216",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Raquel",surname:"Kanieski",slug:"maria-raquel-kanieski",fullName:"Maria Raquel Kanieski"},{id:"220250",title:"Dr.",name:"Solon Jonas",surname:"Longhi",slug:"solon-jonas-longhi",fullName:"Solon Jonas Longhi"},{id:"220251",title:"Dr.",name:"Philipe Ricardo",surname:"Casemiro Soares",slug:"philipe-ricardo-casemiro-soares",fullName:"Philipe Ricardo Casemiro Soares"}],corrections:null},{id:"57691",title:"Seabed Biodiversity Shifts Identify Climate Regimes: The 2011 Climate Regime Shift and Associated Cascades",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71599",slug:"seabed-biodiversity-shifts-identify-climate-regimes-the-2011-climate-regime-shift-and-associated-cas",totalDownloads:1028,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Using search programs for a long-term SCUBA taxonomic database (3865 dives) for Strait of Georgia seabed sites, 1077 taxa were screened to select rare or highly abundant taxa and to present the data according to climate regime categories. Ocean Niño Index (ONI) climate regime shifts are defined here as the year of the end of the first La Niña closely paired with an El Niño by ≤2 months separation, where anomalies for both El Niño and La Niña exceed 1.0 on the ONI scale. For both rare and abundant taxa, patterns of increased or decreased abundance frequently correspond to years defining climate regimes. Cascading effects of climate regime shifts may occur via changes in community composition. The sea star wasting disease (SSWD) syndrome eliminated urchin predators so that urchins have decreased abundance of a kelp species that is nursery habitat for spot prawns. We conclude that 2011 was a climate regime shift. This 2011 regime shift coincided with loss of 11 seabed species in the Strait of Georgia, none of them at their southern range extreme.",signatures:"Jeffrey B. Marliave, Donna M. Gibbs, Laura A. Borden and Charles J.\nGibbs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57691",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57691",authors:[{id:"58445",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Marliave",slug:"jeffrey-marliave",fullName:"Jeffrey Marliave"},{id:"58447",title:"Mr.",name:"Charles",surname:"Gibbs",slug:"charles-gibbs",fullName:"Charles Gibbs"},{id:"58448",title:"Mrs.",name:"Donna",surname:"Gibbs",slug:"donna-gibbs",fullName:"Donna Gibbs"},{id:"217091",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Laura",surname:"Borden",slug:"laura-borden",fullName:"Laura Borden"}],corrections:null},{id:"60787",title:"Safeguarding Marine Biodiversity in a Changing World: Maltese Small-Scale Fisheries and Alien Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76609",slug:"safeguarding-marine-biodiversity-in-a-changing-world-maltese-small-scale-fisheries-and-alien-species",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Right in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, the Maltese Islands are well situated for monitoring regional marine biodiversity changes. Among the latter are the increasing alien species coming in through the Suez Channel and the Straits of Gibraltar or brought in through various anthropogenic vectors. The non-native species that turn into invasive do not only affect native marine communities but also the aging and shrinking Maltese small-scale fisheries (SSF) community. SSF are predicted to go extinct and with them their well-known colorful artisanal fishing boats with the eyes of Osiris, which were thought to protect them. In the meantime, large-scale fishing activities have been growing through EU and national legislations, promoting profits over long-term conservation of natural resources and cultural heritage of small fishing communities. This chapter considers the relevance of a changing marine environment and the challenges ahead to safeguard Mediterranean biodiversity, which provides its goods and services to man. The role of well-managed sustainable small-scale fisheries in overcoming some of these challenges is considered.",signatures:"Adriana Vella and Noel Vella",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60787",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60787",authors:[{id:"203424",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Vella",slug:"adriana-vella",fullName:"Adriana Vella"},{id:"203509",title:"Dr.",name:"Noel",surname:"Vella",slug:"noel-vella",fullName:"Noel Vella"}],corrections:null},{id:"55991",title:"Biodiversity of Amphipoda Talitridae in Tunisian Wetlands",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69523",slug:"biodiversity-of-amphipoda-talitridae-in-tunisian-wetlands",totalDownloads:1136,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although wetlands were remarkable habitats with their fauna and flora diversity, few studies have been devoted to the study of amphipod biodiversity in this ecosystem type. The amphipod communities of six wetland types belonging to 117 stations were studied with respect to species composition, abundance and their relationship with environmental parameters. Amphipods were collected during spring. At each station, eight quadrats of 50 × 50 cm2 were randomly placed. Animals were preserved in alcohol at 70°C. In the laboratory, the specimens collected were identified and counted. Physicochemical parameters (organic matter, particle size, heavy metals) of sampled soils were determined. The results showed that the highest species richness was observed in lagoons with the presence of eight species namely Orchestia montagui, Orchestia gammarellus, Orchestia mediterranea, Orchestia stephenseni, Orchestia cavimana, Platorchestia platensis, Deshayesorchestia deshayesii and Talitrus saltator, whereas in the hill lakes and dams banks, no specimens were collected. The biodiversity of amphipod species depends on climatic (temperature, humidity) and edaphic (organic matter, particle size, heavy metals) factors.",signatures:"Jelassi Raja, Khemaissia Hajer and Nasri-Ammar Karima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55991",authors:[{id:"201013",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",surname:"Jelassi",slug:"raja-jelassi",fullName:"Raja Jelassi"},{id:"202179",title:"Dr.",name:"Hajer",surname:"Khemaissia",slug:"hajer-khemaissia",fullName:"Hajer Khemaissia"},{id:"202180",title:"Prof.",name:"Karima",surname:"Nasri-Ammar",slug:"karima-nasri-ammar",fullName:"Karima Nasri-Ammar"}],corrections:null},{id:"55746",title:"Biodiversity Restoration and Renewable Energy from Hydropower: Conflict or Synergy?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69134",slug:"biodiversity-restoration-and-renewable-energy-from-hydropower-conflict-or-synergy-",totalDownloads:934,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Hydropower plants have a negative impact on biodiversity by transforming stream habitat and hydrology and thereby affecting aquatic organisms negatively. The negative effects can be mitigated by releasing water into the old river bed. This study investigates if the measure of releasing water creates costs and if ecological conditions at the old river bed contribute to such an impact. To this end, we used the cost-minimization framework in economics for deriving hypotheses. Tests were made with data from a survey to 76 hydropower plants in Sweden with questions on existence of a cost, size of the plant, type of water release from reservoirs, characteristics of the dried downstream old river bed, and official statistics on ecological status of the downstream dried segments. The results showed that 42% of the plants reported no cost, measured as impact on electricity production, from release of water into downstream old river bed. We applied logit and probit models to explain the probability of a cost. Significant results were obtained were the electricity produced and program for minimum water discharges increase the probability of loss in electricity production, but favorable ecological conditions in the old river bed decrease the probability of a cost.",signatures:"Wondmagegn Tafesse Tirkaso, Ing‐Marie Gren, Leonard Sandin,\nJoel Segersten, David Spjut and Erik Degerman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55746",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55746",authors:[{id:"201941",title:"Prof.",name:"Ing-Marie",surname:"Gren",slug:"ing-marie-gren",fullName:"Ing-Marie Gren"}],corrections:null},{id:"60711",title:"Determinants of Orchid Occurrence: A Czech Example",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74851",slug:"determinants-of-orchid-occurrence-a-czech-example",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Orchids are an endangered plant group, protected in the whole world. Questions of their conservation are therefore highly discussed, but not all factors affecting their survival and distribution are known so far. The purpose of this study was to determine the environmental factors influencing the existence of certain orchid species in their localities in our model area—South Bohemia. Our data were analyzed using the MaxEnt program, which produces species distribution models (SDMs) and allows predicting potential occurrence of orchids in yet unknown localities. This program also determines the environmental factors affecting species presence. This is important for better protection of orchids, because only by knowing these factors, we can find new localities or improve management plans. We studied two orchid species growing in South Bohemia: Dactylorhiza majalis and Platanthera bifolia. The main factors affecting their occurrence were the consolidated layer of ecosystems, habitat heterogeneity, cover of arable land, and vertical heterogeneity. We determined areas, where new sites are most likely to be discovered and show them in the maps of the area. This approach can help in finding new localities of orchids and in understanding, which environmental factors influence the occurrence of these endangered orchid species.",signatures:"Zuzana Štípková, Kristina Kosánová, Dušan Romportl and Pavel\nKindlmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60711",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60711",authors:[{id:"61312",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Kindlmann",slug:"pavel-kindlmann",fullName:"Pavel Kindlmann"},{id:"227131",title:"MSc.",name:"Zuzana",surname:"Štípková",slug:"zuzana-stipkova",fullName:"Zuzana Štípková"},{id:"227132",title:"MSc.",name:"Kristina",surname:"Kosánová",slug:"kristina-kosanova",fullName:"Kristina Kosánová"},{id:"227133",title:"Dr.",name:"Dušan",surname:"Romportl",slug:"dusan-romportl",fullName:"Dušan Romportl"}],corrections:null},{id:"57597",title:"Dark-Colored Forest Bee Apis mellifera in Siberia, Russia: Current State and Conservation of Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71603",slug:"dark-colored-forest-bee-apis-mellifera-in-siberia-russia-current-state-and-conservation-of-populatio",totalDownloads:951,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A comprehensive research of two dark-colored forest bee populations in Siberia, identified during a screening study, was conducted using morphometric and molecular genetic methods. The first population is an isolated Yenisei population located in the taiga zone in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, on which bees have not been imported for a long time (50–60 years). The second population is located in the northern areas of the Tomsk region, where beekeeping is more developed. All studied bees had a variant PQQ of the COI–COII mtDNA locus. However, some morphometric parameters of some bee colonies deviated from the Apis mellifera mellifera standard, which is probably due to the features of population formation. As a result of the analysis of the variability of 18 microsatellite loci, possible potential DNA markers specific for determining the bee subspecies and/or ecotypes of the dark-colored forest bee have been identified. An algorithm for the search and a comprehensive study of the dark-colored forest bee are proposed.",signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Aksana N. Kucher, Olga L. Konusova,\nEkaterina S. Gushchina, Vadim V. Yartsev and Yury L. Pogorelov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57597",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"222119",title:"Ms.",name:"Ekaterina",surname:"Gushchina",slug:"ekaterina-gushchina",fullName:"Ekaterina Gushchina"},{id:"222120",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadim",surname:"Yartsev",slug:"vadim-yartsev",fullName:"Vadim Yartsev"},{id:"222121",title:"Dr.",name:"Yury",surname:"Pogorelov",slug:"yury-pogorelov",fullName:"Yury Pogorelov"}],corrections:null},{id:"56778",title:"Integration of Ecological and Socioeconomic Factors in Securing Wildlife Dispersal Corridors in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, Southern Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70443",slug:"integration-of-ecological-and-socioeconomic-factors-in-securing-wildlife-dispersal-corridors-in-the-",totalDownloads:1116,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) are being established throughout southern Africa to integrating biodiversity conservation and rural development at the transboundary landscape scale. Among the nine TFCAs that have been established over the past 20 years, the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) TFCA) is the most grandiose in terms of size (≈ 520,000 Km2), number of partner countries involved (five), elephant (Loxodonta africana) population (≈ 199,031, which is the largest on the African continent), and encompasses 36 protected areas of various categories, interspaced by communal and private lands. The TFCA concept aims to ensure that key ecological processes continue to function where borders have divided ecosystems, and wildlife migration corridors. Attainment of this ecological objective is however being constrained by the anthropogenic threats, mostly poaching, and habitat fragmentation. These threats are being aggravated by the increasing human population, climate variability and underdeveloped rural livelihoods. To restore ecological processes, the following tactics have been recommended: (a) strengthening of transboundary law enforcement to effectively reduce poaching, and illegal offtake of timber; (b) establishment of “Stepping Stones” in the form of conservancies and fishing protected zones at wildlife crossing point on the major river systems; (c) reducing dependence on wood-fuel, and ensuring sustainable provision of affordable and reliable modern sources of energy; (d) adoption of the commodity-based trade standards in the production of beef for the export market to reduce the impact of veterinary fences on the dispersing wildlife; (e) implementation of early-season burning around all the sensitive biomes to protect them from the destructive late dry season fires; (f) adoption of conservation agriculture as a tool for improving land husbandry, intensification of agriculture, and decreasing the likelihood of cutting down forested areas to plant new agriculture fields; and (g) reducing the impact of climate variability on wildlife by providing artificial water – guided by environmental impact assessments. To enhance the socioeconomic development of the local communities and win them as allies in securing the wildlife dispersal corridors, the following actions should be adopted: (a) promotion of community-private partnerships in ecotourism development – alongside the establishment of a revolving loan fund to enable local communities’ access flexible source of capital for investment in ecotourism and auxiliary business opportunities; (b) promotion of biodiversity stewardship as an incentive for the local communities to commit their land to the sustenance of the wildlife dispersal corridors; (c) reducing human wildlife conflicts, through macro, meso and micro-level land-use planning to spatially delineate land committed to various categories, including protected areas, wildlife dispersal areas, and developed and communal areas; and (d) promotion of harmonised enabling policies and legislation to facilitate slowing down of human population growth, which is one of the prime triggers of habitat fragmentation in the KAZA TFCA.",signatures:"Simon M. Munthali, Nicholas Smart, Victor Siamudaala, Morris\nMtsambiwa and Eleanor Harvie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56778",authors:[{id:"76161",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon Muchina",surname:"Munthali",slug:"simon-muchina-munthali",fullName:"Simon Muchina Munthali"}],corrections:null},{id:"61062",title:"Usefulness of Plant Biodiversity in the Cities of Togo",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76776",slug:"usefulness-of-plant-biodiversity-in-the-cities-of-togo",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In an increasingly urbanized environment, the need for greenery and flowers is being more and more felt for esthetic reasons and ecological benefits. In Togo, more than six hundred species of horticultural plants are identified and composed of approximately 59% of dicotyledons (49 families, 145 genera, and 315 species) and 37.37% of monocotyledons. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms account for less than 6%. The spectrum of morphological types indicates that herbs are account for 55%, while trees and shrubs represent 15%. More than 50% of the species of this flora is exotic horticulture. A species distribution is made according to their decorative parts and their place of use. Across the country, 55 plantings are recorded and unevenly distributed in cities. Apart from their ornamental purpose, ornamental plants are used for feeding, traditional and industrial cosmetics in psychotherapy, horticultural therapy, and in traditional and conventional medicine. In this study, 79 species from 39 families are reported as medicinal plants. The Apocynaceae and Fabaceae (six species), the Euphorbiaceae and Liliaceae (five species), the Arecaceae and Verbenaceae (four species) are the best represented families. Production systems in ornamental horticulture in Togo are very diverse in terms of speculation, access to land (variable surfaces, direct or indirect forms of tenure, acquisition methods, land use, etc.) and socio-economic profiles of farmers (men, women, young, old, people with little or no qualifications, rural to urban, etc.). The family horticultural production system, which represents over 90% of 55 horticultural farms of this study, is the main production system. It is characterized by areas of less than 0.1 hectare and farms in relative land insecurity (97% of land used belongs to the state). Throughout the system, there is a salaried labor representing 5–8% of turnover. Temporary and permanent employees are paid on weekends or at the end of the month. Farmers use gardening equipment and processing plant more or less modern including clippers, shears, pruners, and sprayers. Production units provide direct employment (more than 3 employees per unit) and directly to several hundred people. Horticulture in urban and peri-urban areas improves the living conditions of farmers (income) and the population (embellishment of streets, maintenance or creation of green area buffer) despite some negative externalities associated particularly with the use of prohibited pesticides and uncontrolled use of spaces along the roads. Its survival is threatened by many constraints, including the extension of urban housing and road building. In Togo, beneficial effects of ornamental horticulture may be more noticeable if the political authorities, private stakeholders, and the researchers work together to organize the sector. It could thus participate effectively in the formal economy and the emergence of true development plans at the municipal level.",signatures:"Radji Raoufou and Kokou Kouami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61062",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61062",authors:[{id:"160134",title:"Dr.",name:"Aboudou Raoufou",surname:"Radji",slug:"aboudou-raoufou-radji",fullName:"Aboudou Raoufou Radji"}],corrections:null},{id:"57889",title:"Towards an Integrative Taxonomy of the Genus Alstroemeria (Alstroemeriaceae) in Chile: A Comprehensive Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71823",slug:"towards-an-integrative-taxonomy-of-the-genus-alstroemeria-alstroemeriaceae-in-chile-a-comprehensive-",totalDownloads:1243,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The genus Alstroemeria encompasses approximately 80 species endemic to South America, with 2 centers of diversity (Chile and Brazil). In Chile, Alstroemeria represents one of the most diverse genera of vascular monocotyledons, comprising more than 50 recognized or accepted taxa (36 species, 11 subspecies and 10 varieties) from which ca. 82% are endemic to the Mediterranean zone of central Chile, one of the world’s diversity hotspots. The taxonomy of the genus is very difficult due to the great variability of the vegetative and floral traits. Moreover, a number of taxa have been recently described and several nomenclatural changes have been proposed. In order to elucidate the taxonomy of some Chilean complexes of Alstroemeria, an integrative approach including morphology, colorimetry, cytogenetic, multivariate statistical analyses of morphological variation and DNA-molecular studies have been conducted. In this chapter, we review the literature concerning these approaches; a checklist of the species growing in Chile is provided including all published names, references to the original protologues, accepted names, synonyms and the biogeographic status (endemic or native) of the accepted taxa; maps illustrating the diversity of the genus in South America and its distribution in Chile were constructed.",signatures:"Victor L. Finot, Carlos M. Baeza, Eduardo Ruiz, Oscar Toro and Pedro\nCarrasco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57889",authors:[{id:"51657",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Finot",slug:"victor-finot",fullName:"Victor Finot"},{id:"218963",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos M.",surname:"Baeza",slug:"carlos-m.-baeza",fullName:"Carlos M. Baeza"},{id:"218964",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Ruiz",slug:"eduardo-ruiz",fullName:"Eduardo Ruiz"},{id:"224011",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Carrasco",slug:"pedro-carrasco",fullName:"Pedro Carrasco"},{id:"224013",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Toro",slug:"oscar-toro",fullName:"Oscar Toro"}],corrections:null},{id:"60808",title:"Ecosystem Services Provided by the Little Things That Run the World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74847",slug:"ecosystem-services-provided-by-the-little-things-that-run-the-world",totalDownloads:1712,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Highest extinction risk and consequently biodiversity loss are predicted to occur in invertebrates, specifically insects, and these declines are expected to cascade onto ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Although this knowledge is intrinsically present in more traditional communities, in more urban environments, mapping ecosystem services can be an important tool to raise people’s awareness on the importance of preserving insect diversity. After an extensive revision of the available literature, we used a rule-based approach to assess the provisioning, regulating and maintenance, and cultural services delivered by insects. We followed the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) and identified several potential indicators that may help underpin the mapping and valuation of the services delivered by insects. From our search, we extracted a total of 73 indicators, divided as 17 Provisional indicators, 27 Regulation and Maintenance indicators, and 29 Cultural indicators. We concluded that insects are providers of services in the three major ‘Sections’ of ecosystem services defined by CICES. Despite the lack of recognition of provisioning and cultural services, the indicators provided may help to raise awareness on the importance of the little things the run the world, in order to preserve traditional and technological uses of insects and their services.",signatures:"Olga Maria Correia Chitas Ameixa, António Onofre Soares, Amadeu\nM.V.M. Soares and Ana I. Lillebø",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60808",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60808",authors:[{id:"194620",title:"Prof.",name:"Amadeu",surname:"M.V.M. Soares",slug:"amadeu-m.v.m.-soares",fullName:"Amadeu M.V.M. Soares"},{id:"220986",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Ameixa",slug:"olga-ameixa",fullName:"Olga Ameixa"},{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",surname:"Soares",slug:"antonio-soares",fullName:"António Soares"},{id:"220988",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Lillebø",slug:"ana-lillebo",fullName:"Ana Lillebø"}],corrections:null},{id:"60753",title:"Commercial Harvesting of Marula (Sclerocarya Birrea) in Swaziland: A Quest for Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76606",slug:"commercial-harvesting-of-marula-sclerocarya-birrea-in-swaziland-a-quest-for-sustainability",totalDownloads:1250,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"All across sub-Saharan Africa rural communities, and especially women, are harvesting natural products for income generation purposes. In recent times, the degradation of ecosystems in terms of loss of biodiversity has become a major concern, especially when the harvesting of the species in question has become commercialized as is the case of marula harvesting in Swaziland. This chapter reports on some of the findings of a study conducted to explore the impact of commercial harvesting on the future availability of marula. If current levels of harvesting are unchecked, overconsumption or even depletion of marula in Swaziland will deepen the existing poverty levels among the rural poor, particularly women, who are proportionately more dependent on marula for their livelihoods.",signatures:"Alfred Francis Murye and André J. Pelser",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60753",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60753",authors:[{id:"50604",title:"Prof.",name:"Andre",surname:"Pelser",slug:"andre-pelser",fullName:"Andre Pelser"},{id:"228756",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfred",surname:"Murye",slug:"alfred-murye",fullName:"Alfred Murye"}],corrections:null},{id:"61616",title:"Synopsis of Mangle Species in Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76975",slug:"synopsis-of-mangle-species-in-mexico",totalDownloads:1187,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this documentary research work is to contribute to better knowledge of the mangrove species that are located in our country, as well as to provide readers with written and illustrated information on these species. The species described are Avicennia bicolor Standl., Avicennia germinans (L.) L., Conocarpus erectus L., Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertner, Rhizophora harrisonii Leechm., and Rhizophora mangle L. The mangroves present in Mexico comprise three families, four genera, and six species. They have a distribution in the 17 coastal states of the country, the largest number of species in the state of Chiapas. The data obtained that are included in the information are identity, distribution, taxonomy, diagnosis, distribution, uses, and protection. In the case of Avicennia bicolor Standl. and Rhizophora Harrisonii Leechm., the information is more scarce, since their distribution is limited to the state of Chiapas.",signatures:"Basáñez Muñoz Agustín de Jesús, Serrano Solis Arturo, Martínez\nCortés Esmeralda, Cuervo López Liliana, Capistrán Barradas\nAscención and Naval Ávila Celina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61616",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61616",authors:[{id:"120695",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Serrano",slug:"arturo-serrano",fullName:"Arturo Serrano"},{id:"219218",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Agustin",surname:"Basañez",slug:"agustin-basanez",fullName:"Agustin Basañez"},{id:"231695",title:"Ms.",name:"Esmeralda",surname:"Martinez",slug:"esmeralda-martinez",fullName:"Esmeralda Martinez"},{id:"231696",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",surname:"Cuervo",slug:"liliana-cuervo",fullName:"Liliana Cuervo"},{id:"231697",title:"Dr.",name:"Ascencion",surname:"Capistran",slug:"ascencion-capistran",fullName:"Ascencion Capistran"},{id:"231698",title:"Dr.",name:"Celina",surname:"Naval",slug:"celina-naval",fullName:"Celina Naval"}],corrections:null},{id:"57678",title:"Positive Rules Can Lead to Positive Behaviours: Students’ Perceptions of Messages on Information Boards in Protected Areas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71602",slug:"positive-rules-can-lead-to-positive-behaviours-students-perceptions-of-messages-on-information-board",totalDownloads:1024,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main purpose of this research was to investigate primary school students’ perceptions of pictograms displayed in protected areas. The aim was to determine if and how students understand the concept of protected areas and the role pictograms and comic strips, displayed on information panels in protected areas, play in understanding (un)acceptable human activities in such areas. Altogether, 353 fourth-graders and fifth-graders (8–11 years of age) from central Slovenia filled in the questionnaire. Students were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups faced with a set of positive pictograms, negative pictograms or a comic strip and asked to answer two open questions. Many students participating in the research perceived protected areas as areas where many human activities are prohibited. The concept of protected areas was sufficiently understood by 36.8% of the students. The results confirmed the main hypothesis that students faced with a set of positive pictograms perceived protected areas as areas where a number of human activities are acceptable, but they also realized which activities are unacceptable. Similar results were obtained for students faced with the comic strip. On the other hand, those faced with negative pictograms tended to be more preoccupied with listing unacceptable human activities and were able to list significantly fewer acceptable activities.",signatures:"Gregor Torkar, Saša Mezek and Janez Jerman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57678",authors:[{id:"216053",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregor",surname:"Torkar",slug:"gregor-torkar",fullName:"Gregor Torkar"}],corrections:null},{id:"56942",title:"Prey Selection of Pseudorasbora parva (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846) in a Freshwater Ecosystem (Lake Eğirdir/Turkey)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70471",slug:"prey-selection-of-pseudorasbora-parva-temminck-and-schlegel-1846-in-a-freshwater-ecosystem-lake-e-ir",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the present study, food spectrum of the topmouth gudgeon, Pseudorasbora parva and it food preference to different prey species were investigated in Lake Eğirdir, Turkey. Fish specimens were collected in April, May, June, July and August (2010–2011). Diet analysis was carried out on 88 fish specimens. The benthic larvae of Chironomus sp., the corophiid amphipod Chelicorophium curvispinum and the zooplankter Nitocra hibernica were found to dominate food items. In addition, the fish consumed zooplankton (especially cladocera and copepoda), phytoplankton, annelida, malacostraca and insecta species. Unindentified eggs were also found in the stomachs. Phytoplankton, particularly Gomphonema (V = 0.255, X2 = 13.058, p < 0.01) sp. due to its abundance, was a significant component in the 8.0- to 8.9-cm length sized topmouth gudgeon with distinct preference to the cladocerans Daphnia cucullata (V = 0.191, X2 = 7.331, p < 0.01) and Bosmina longirostris (V = 0.228, X2 = 10.404, p < 0.01), annelids (V = 0.201, X2 = 8.105, p < 0.01) and Trichoptera larvae (V = 0.157, X2 = 4.963, p < 0.01) in 2010 food diet. In return, invasive species topmouth gudgeon is preferable to Cladoceran in the diet of other planktivorous fish (especially Anatolian endemics Aphanius anatoliae type) in Lake Eğirdir. High value of Shannon diversity index was determined in May (H′=1.80) and August (H′=1.70). Fullness index was highest in April, whereas feeding density was lowest in July. Schoener’s indices of diet overlap were estimated between different size classes and months for topmouth gudgeon. The high value of these indices (C = 0.87) indicates that the species principally feeds on the similar in the size classes >8 cm (8.0–8.9 cm, 9.0–9.9 cm, 10.0–10.9 cm, 11.0–11.9 cm).",signatures:"Meral Apaydin Yağci, Ahmet Alp, Abdulkadir Yağci, Vedat Yeğen\nand Mehmet Ali Turan Koçer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56942",authors:[{id:"183600",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meral",surname:"Apaydın Yağcı",slug:"meral-apaydin-yagci",fullName:"Meral Apaydın Yağcı"},{id:"207341",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmet",surname:"Alp",slug:"ahmet-alp",fullName:"Ahmet Alp"},{id:"207342",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdulkadir",surname:"Yağcı",slug:"abdulkadir-yagci",fullName:"Abdulkadir Yağcı"},{id:"207343",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedat",surname:"Yeğen",slug:"vedat-yegen",fullName:"Vedat Yeğen"},{id:"207344",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Ali Turan",surname:"Koçer",slug:"mehmet-ali-turan-kocer",fullName:"Mehmet Ali Turan Koçer"}],corrections:null},{id:"56977",title:"Importance of Underutilized Field Crops for Increasing Functional Biodiversity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70472",slug:"importance-of-underutilized-field-crops-for-increasing-functional-biodiversity",totalDownloads:1203,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the suggestions to include two or three crops into crop rotation that is widely considered to support the richer biodiversity on fields, industrial field crop production systems are still based mainly on monoculture, where the farmers produce permanently mainly one crop. Review and analyses of different possibilities showed that more diverse functional (also important for diverse nutritional and health products of food) biodiversity of underutilized field crops needs to be established, especially if beneficial social and economic effects of introducing underutilized crops into small-scale farms are taken into account. We can conclude that functional biodiversity based on rich crop rotations associated with underutilized crops increases biodiversity in the soil and has an effect on richer and sustainable behavior of cultural plants with good balance of pests and plant diseases.",signatures:"Franc Bavec, Urška Lisec and Martina Bavec",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56977",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56977",authors:[{id:"170270",title:"Prof.",name:"Franc",surname:"Bavec",slug:"franc-bavec",fullName:"Franc Bavec"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2719",title:"Biodiversity Enrichment in a Diverse World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"819b482d198dba210de22b9d66be3d79",slug:"biodiversity-enrichment-in-a-diverse-world",bookSignature:"Gbolagade Akeem Lameed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2719.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"142349",title:"Dr.",name:"Lameed",surname:"Gbolagade Akeem",slug:"lameed-gbolagade-akeem",fullName:"Lameed Gbolagade Akeem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1369",title:"Changing Diversity in Changing Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a9f3c1cbb7119a88079a1c07838455f8",slug:"changing-diversity-in-changing-environment",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo and Gianfranco Venora",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1369.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3821",title:"Biodiversity",subtitle:"The Dynamic Balance of the Planet",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7233b40924b0a40793d6f2bd6db38356",slug:"biodiversity-the-dynamic-balance-of-the-planet",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1850",title:"Diversity of Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee698d03ccce547bc8cdb4f13ebb2822",slug:"diversity-of-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Mahamane Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1850.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103960",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahamane",surname:"Ali",slug:"mahamane-ali",fullName:"Mahamane Ali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3007",title:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29534b458d8a76a366f9ab1e70038d1a",slug:"biodiversity-conservation-and-utilization-in-a-diverse-world",bookSignature:"Gbolagade Akeem Lameed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"142349",title:"Dr.",name:"Lameed",surname:"Gbolagade Akeem",slug:"lameed-gbolagade-akeem",fullName:"Lameed Gbolagade Akeem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2272",title:"The Functioning of Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e5a5f3530094a30a6870fab307c18cb",slug:"the-functioning-of-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Mahamane Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2272.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103960",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahamane",surname:"Ali",slug:"mahamane-ali",fullName:"Mahamane Ali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6893",title:"Endemic Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3290be83fff5bc015f5bd3d78ae9c6c7",slug:"endemic-species",bookSignature:"Eusebio Cano Carmona, Carmelo Maria Musarella and Ana Cano Ortiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6893.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared 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by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tThe importance of education and care in the early stages of life has long been debated and documented. However, in a world that faces ongoing crises and challenges, early childhood education is in a constant quest for pedagogies that respond to acute problems such as:
\r\n\r\n\ta. Environmental crises which result in food & water shortages
\r\n\tb. The growth of digital environments which can educate and empower as well as exploit and destroy (mobile learning, STEM education, tablets, etc.).
\r\n\tc. Social, racial, class, and gender-based discriminations that restrict the developmental potential and the prosperity perspectives
\r\n\td. Health hazards and illnesses such as the laters COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\te. Armed conflicts with casualties and displacements of populations seeking refuge
\r\n\tf. Lack of physical spaces that will support and nourish development and learning, etc.
\r\n\tEducation in the post-modern era strives to address the above issues and develop policies, curricula, methodologies, and strategies to contribute to an environmentally and socially sustainable future. It embraces multiple perspectives and worldviews and seeks to touch on inequalities and discriminations in favor of equity. In this direction, children’s s agency lies at the heart of democratic approaches. Educational processes adopt forms of interactions that actualize learning as “becoming” and place it in a continuum between past, present, and future. This book intends to feature innovative approaches that employ transformative elements (targets, methods, materials, ideas, etc.) and embrace the concept of child development as “becoming” in an ever-changing and challenging world.
\r\n\r\n\tWe invite authors to contribute original research or research review papers that present innovative approaches addressing personal and social transformation. All aspects of early childhood education will be considered, including research methodology for the early years.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-949-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-948-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-950-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"351c41dca5c8c997f15e758f2e035178",bookSignature:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki and Associate Prof. Michail Kalogiannakis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11281.jpg",keywords:"Early Childhood Education, Preschool, STEAM, Environmental Sustainability, Social Sciences, Social Sustainability, ICT, Digital Devices, Education for Equity, Gender Issues, Post-modern Epistemology, Social Constructivism",numberOfDownloads:65,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool\r\nEducation, University of Crete in Greece. He graduated from the Physics Department\r\nof the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University\r\nParis-7 and University Paris-5 and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5.\r\nHis research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching\r\nand learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, and games simulations.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"81575",title:"Caring about Early Childhood Education",slug:"caring-about-early-childhood-education",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80874",title:"Postmodernist Ideas and Their Translation into a Critical Pedagogy for Young Children",slug:"postmodernist-ideas-and-their-translation-into-a-critical-pedagogy-for-young-children",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"338161",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Wilkinson",slug:"john-wilkinson",fullName:"John Wilkinson"}]},{id:"82431",title:"Next-Generation Science and Engineering Teaching Practices in a Preschool Classroom",slug:"next-generation-science-and-engineering-teaching-practices-in-a-preschool-classroom",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The clinical presentation of hip pathology is frequent and can be complex. Over the past decade research has uncovered new insights into biomechanical alterations associations with GT, FAI and hip OA that enables clinicians to better understand the condition and management options. We provide an overview of the most significant discoveries as well as unpack the evidence for effective conservative management. Clinical outcome tools used to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments and track change over time in these hip conditions are reviewed.
\nGluteal tendinopathy, also referred to as “greater trochanteric pain syndrome”, is a chronic, debilitating musculoskeletal condition affecting the tendinous insertion of the gluteus medius and/or minimus muscles at or above their attachments into the greater trochanter of the femur [1]. The hallmark features of this extra-articular hip condition are pain and tenderness to palpation at or around the region of the greater trochanter [1, 2, 3]. Prevalence rates of GT have been reported at 18% of those aged 50–79 years presenting to general practitioners [3]. Individuals with GT are most frequently over the age of 40 years [4] and typically experience pain during walking, stair climbing and/or lying on the affected side [1, 2, 3].
\nThe trochanteric bursae were previously considered the primary structure implicated in greater trochanteric pain [5]. However, new evidence from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [6, 7], ultrasound [8, 9] and surgical case series’ [7, 10] has led to a contemporary understanding of the pathological mechanisms of the gluteal tendons underpinning greater trochanter pain. This progressive understanding of tendon involvement has necessitated important advances regarding biomechanical considerations associated with GT.
\nThe gluteal tendons are vulnerable to anatomical compression against the (i) underlying greater trochanter, as they wrap over the borders of its bony facets into their respective insertions [11], and (ii) from the overlying iliotibial band (ITB), particularly as the hip moves into adduction. With increasing adduction of the femur relative to the pelvis, the insertion of the gluteus minimus and medius muscles on the greater trochanter are moved away from their respective origins on the ilium, placing longitudinal tensile and transverse tensile strain through the tendon fibres passing over the greater trochanter. In addition, the ITB exerts progressively higher compressive forces at the greater trochanter as the hip moves into hip adduction (4 N at 0°, increased by nine-fold to 36 N at 10° and 106 N at 40°) [12], which has direct consequences for gluteal tendon loading. Excessive tensile and compressive loads are accepted to be detrimental for tendon health and particularly relevant for the development and perpetuation of tendinopathy [13]. Thus, dynamic control of hip adduction is pertinent in the assessment and management of GT [14].
\nLike other tendinopathies, muscle weakness is a feature of GT [15]. Strength deficiencies of 32% of the hip abductor muscles on the symptomatic hip and 23% on the asymptomatic hip have been identified in individuals with clinically and MRI diagnosed GT compared to age- and sex-comparable controls [15]. The primary functional role of the hip abductor muscles is to maintain alignment of the pelvis in the frontal plane during gait, to eccentrically control the provocative position of hip adduction [16]. The relationship between hip adduction angle and hip abductor tendon loading in GT highlights the importance of abductor muscle strength for adequate eccentric control of hip adduction in this patient group [16]. Clinicians often evaluate hip abductor function by visually evaluating a patient’s ability to maintain and control position of the pelvis in single leg stance (SLS) [17]. Further, SLS kinematics are considered relevant for control of single leg loading during gait.
\nData from three-dimensional motion capture analysis identified that individuals with GT exhibit greater lateral pelvic shift and hip adduction in preparation for SLS, and more hip adduction and less contralateral pelvic elevation during SLS in the frontal plane when compared to age and sex matched controls [18] (Figure 1). Though these findings may be, in part, explained by hip abductor muscle weakness [18], they also provide important insight into why single leg stance is provocative for many individuals with GT. Specifically, the increased potential tensile and compressive load through the gluteal tendons as the muscles work to control the position of the pelvis on the femur, is a likely relevant mechanism for tendon overload and pain.
\nIn preparation for single leg stance (SLS) individuals with gluteal tendinopathy exhibit greater lateral pelvic shift over the stance limb (and subsequently greater hip adduction angle) and maintain a position of single leg stance with greater contralateral pelvic drop (and subsequently hip adduction angle).
To date, only one study has evaluated
Subgroups have been identified in individuals with gluteal tendinopathy during walking [
Evidence for the management of gluteal tendinopathy is continuing to emerge. Historically, as a result of limited understanding of the pathology and associated impairments in GT, treatment had been simplistic, targeting symptoms or the presumed pathological involvement of the trochanteric bursae. More recently, drawing from contemporary evidence in other tendinopathies and an understanding of tendon structure and function, exercise interventions for GT have been refined and are beginning to be tested in randomised controlled trials with promising results. The most recent systematic review at the time of print concluded that poor quality and insufficient data prevented any conclusions to be drawn regarding optimal treatment for greater trochanteric pain syndrome including GT [23]. Studies in this review and others describe interventions of surgical tendon repair, ITB release and bursectomy, corticosteroid injection, home exercise, shock wave therapy and dry needling [23]. Issues arise when interpreting the collective results of these studies with respect to GT, as the samples are diverse with respect to co-morbidities (e.g. hip OA, lumbar pathology), symptom duration, and most importantly, clinical and imaging diagnosis specific to GT. Further, very few interventions have been evaluated in randomised controlled trials.
\nThe strong focus on corticosteroid injection in GT arises from the original theory that trochanteric pain was due to an inflammatory process within the trochanteric bursae. However, the effectiveness and safety of the use of corticosteroid injection in tendinopathy is debatable. Evidence from a high quality systematic review pooling 41 studies evaluating the effect of corticosteroid injection on upper limb, patella and Achilles tendinopathies suggests that while cortisone improves symptoms in the short term, there are no long term effects at 13–26 weeks or ≥ 52 weeks [24]. While these findings cannot be directly inferred to GT, a similar attenuation effect of symptom relief in response to corticosteroid injection has been demonstrated in three clinical trials in greater trochanteric pain syndrome [25, 26, 27], questioning the efficacy of corticosteroid use in GT.
\nGiven that tendon is a metabolically active tissue that maintains its integrity in response to tensile loading, exercise and load modification appear to be important aspects of effective treatment in management of tendinopathy [28]. In order to modify tendon load in the lower limb, addressing lower limb biomechanics and neuromuscular control is considered an effective clinical strategy [14]. Specific to GT, modifying compressive load at the greater trochanter is thought to be particularly relevant [5, 27].
A recent clinical trial demonstrated that a progressive exercise program incorporating functional training, targeted strengthening and dynamic motor control of the pelvis, delivered with patient education over 8-weeks under supervision of a physiotherapist, was superior to a wait-and-see approach or corticosteroid injection [27]. These results are promising and contribute to the body of evidence for treatment of GT. Importantly, they also add to the contemporary conversation that emphasises the need for patient education in management. As outlined, it is evident that hip abductor muscle strength, biomechanical and neuromuscular patterns be considered in the assessment and management of GT. However, data from individuals with GT highlights that the kinematic presentation of GT is heterogeneous [19, 20]. Thus a ‘one size fits all’ approach to assessment and management is unlikely to be effective. Clinicians should evaluate patients who present with GT with respect to specific biomechanical and neuromuscular impairments, and tailor treatment and load modification based on the principles of tendinopathy treatment.
\nFAI syndrome is a motion related condition of the hip joint and is associated with hip pain and impaired function in younger active adults [30]. FAI is characterised by abnormally shaped hip bones (i.e. head of femur and/or acetabulum), which can lead to mechanical impingement during movement [30]. Repetitive mechanical impingement is thought to lead to chondral stresses that cause irreversible structural pathology [31]. FAI syndrome is considered a principal determinant of future development of hip osteoarthritis [32].
\nEvidence for altered hip joint biomechanics during movement in individuals with FAI syndrome is mounting [33]. Gait has been well studied in this population. Findings from systematic reviews [31, 33] and empirical studies provide moderate evidence for less sagittal plane hip range of motion (ROM) [34], primarily driven by a lower peak hip extension angle [35], during gait in individuals with FAI syndrome compared to healthy controls. Lower peak hip internal rotation angle [35, 36] and lower peak hip external rotation joint torque [35] have also be reported during stance in FAI syndrome compared to healthy controls. However, the biomechanical adaptations exhibited by individuals with FAI syndrome during gait are generally small on average, and consequently of uncertain clinical significance.
\nHip joint biomechanics during squatting [37, 38, 39] in FAI syndrome also differs only subtly from individuals without pain or FAI morphology. Though some studies report that individuals with FAI syndrome are unable to squat as deep as controls [37, 39], hip flexion range is not significantly reduced during task completion [37, 38, 39]. Individuals with FAI syndrome place the hip in a more adducted position during squatting [38] and step ascent [40], which may be secondary to hip abductor muscle weakness commonly reported in FAI syndrome cohorts [41]. Biomechanical comparisons during these more demanding tasks targeting positions of impingement (i.e. squatting and step ascent) have extended knowledge regarding altered hip joint biomechanics in individuals with FAI syndrome. Nevertheless, the implications of these alterations, including any relationship with pain and/or function and/or joint structure remain unclear.
\nIndividual variation in movement strategy and interaction between adjacent body segments (i.e. pelvis, trunk) may account for the small between-group differences observed in hip joint biomechanics when comparing individuals with FAI syndrome to healthy controls. Failure to consider such factors may explain the modest effects of conservative treatment [42] and the unrestored hip function observed post-operatively [36]. Reduced sagittal plane pelvis range of motion has been identified during squatting in FAI syndrome compared to healthy controls [39], and has been proposed as a risk factor for symptom presentation [43]. Greater anterior pelvic tilt has also been reported in FAI syndrome during squatting [37] and step descent [44] compared to healthy controls. This biomechanical alteration may be counterproductive for pathology since an increase in anterior pelvic position will promote hip flexion and thus impingement.
\nFew studies have considered pelvic and trunk control in the frontal plane despite the implications for hip joint loading [45]. Control of frontal plane pelvic alignment during single leg support is necessary to prevent movement into impingement. Pain and/or hip abductor muscle weakness, both features of FAI syndrome, could hinder control of the pelvis in the frontal plane. On the other hand, altered frontal plane control of the trunk may moderate provocative hip joint contact forces (i.e. reduced demand on hip abductor muscles), and has been observed in cohorts with hip osteoarthritis [22, 46]. Recent findings from a step ascent task corroborate that control of adjacent segments may play an important role in symptom management in FAI syndrome [40]. When individuals with FAI syndrome were sub-grouped based on trunk and pelvis dominant strategies, those who exhibited lateral trunk lean and maintained neutral pelvis alignment reported no pain and prevented the hip from moving towards an impinging position. It is reasonable to suggest that this strategy may alleviate load on the abnormal hip joint structures. In direct contrast to this, 86% of participants who exhibited poor pelvis control, inherently moving the hip into an impinging position, reported moderate levels of pain [40]. Control of—and interaction between—adjacent body segments may play an important role in symptomatic and structural preservation or deterioration in FAI syndrome. Further, altered hip joint function remains unresolved post-operatively [36], suggesting that a hip-only treatment focus may be misguided. Functional biomechanics is modifiable, and could be changed by conservative interventions and rehabilitation programs [47].
\nFAI syndrome is a complex condition [48] with no common pathological pathway [30]. Patient presentation is heterogeneous, which may explain the modest treatment effects [42]. Different biomechanical strategies are used by separate subgroups of participants to perform a task [38, 49], albeit some more advantageous than others for symptoms and function. As with established hip OA [50], no conservative treatment is likely to be effective for all individuals with FAI syndrome. Maximum efficacy will only be attained with interventions catered to the individual. More research must be done to improve understanding of the patient-specific biomechanical alterations associated with FAI syndrome in order to better manage the disease and its consequences.
\nBiomechanical alterations in individuals with FAI syndrome are subtle but may relate to enhanced protection for the hip, albeit with possible long-term consequences. It comes as no surprise that individuals with FAI syndrome exhibit less prominent biomechanical alterations than individuals with structural damage and hip OA [51]. Individuals with FAI syndrome have less severe morphological deformities and accordingly, exhibit more subtle biomechanical modifications. The absence of longitudinal studies means that it is not known whether these small biomechanical alterations are precursors to the larger deviations observed in those with established hip OA.
\nArthroscopic hip surgery is the most common treatment for FAI syndrome [52]. Despite a dramatic upsurge in the number of surgeries performed over the past decade [52], surgical intervention for FAI syndrome does not completely restore hip joint function to that of healthy controls [36] or uniformly improve pain [53], despite correction of the hip’s bony abnormalities. This may be because surgery corrects the local mechanical issue (i.e. correction of the bony abnormalities until impingement free motion is obtained), but without resolution of the altered movement strategies adopted pre-operatively.
\nFindings from the only large randomised controlled trial comparing hip arthroscopy and best conservative care for the treatment of FAI syndrome support the short-term efficacy of arthroscopic hip surgery [54]. However, patients in both groups reported significant improvements in hip-related quality of life at 12-months, and the costs associated with surgery were higher than with conservative care [54]. Non-surgical treatments for FAI syndrome, such as exercise, activity adaptation and education, are globally recommended [48], and attractive given the relatively low harmful risks and associated costs. Identification of non-surgical interventions to reduce the burden of hip OA in its early stages, including FAI syndrome, is an important public health priority [55]. At present, conservative treatment effects for FAI syndrome are also modest [42, 56], likely due, in part, to a lack of understanding regarding the underlying mechanisms associated with clinical and structural decline.
\nTheoretically, an adequately designed, evidence-based, appropriately administered conservative management program may have the potential to alleviate symptoms, and in turn prevent disease progression, thus postponing or negating the need for surgery [56]. Current clinical practice entails combinations of physiotherapist-led rehabilitation, education, and activity modification for the management of FAI syndrome [48, 56]. There is little evidence from randomised control trials to guide conservative care for FAI syndrome, which means that conservative treatments are largely based on clinical theory and/or extrapolation of evidence from other clinical conditions.
\nPotential targets for conservative treatment include the abnormal movement patterns and hip muscle weakness seen in patients with FAI syndrome [31]. Gait assessment alone is unlikely to provide clear information to guide treatment of FAI syndrome. However, the biomechanical alterations at the hip joint and adjacent segments apparent during more demanding tasks (e.g. squatting, step ascent and descent) may be relevant in the clinical management of this patient population. Altered movement patterns in the form of altered hip joint biomechanics have been identified during tasks with similar demands in these patients post-operatively [36]. Pre-operative treatments addressing these biomechanical abnormalities may also have scope to improve surgical outcomes.
\nRetraining of deep hip muscle function (e.g. quadratus femoris, obturator internus) is a common objective of non-operative management [57] and post-operative rehabilitation [58] for FAI syndrome. Conservative care commonly targets deep hip external rotator muscle strengthening and neuromuscular retraining with the aim of improving dynamic hip joint stability [57]. Although experimental evidence suggests that activation of these deep muscles may contribute to dynamic stability in a healthy hip [59], it is less clear if adaptations in neuromuscular control are associated with FAI syndrome. Cross-sectional data acquired during gait provide preliminary evidence of the extent and nature of FAI-related changes to deep hip muscle activation [49]. However, an improved understanding of deep hip muscle function during more demanding, provocative tasks is needed to provide a comprehensive recommendation for retraining.
\nHip strength assessment may be important in the clinical management of FAI syndrome. Evaluation of agonist/antagonist and/or between-limb strength ratios could be particularly beneficial clinically, as body size normalisation and control normative data for individual movement directions are not required. Reduced abduction strength in FAI patients [41] may have important implications as the abductor muscles control the position of the pelvis relative to the femur [60]. This is critical to prevent movement (i.e. contralateral pelvic drop) into a position that impinges the hip joint during single leg weight bearing tasks, such as those commonly required in sport where FAI syndrome has been identified (e.g. soccer, dancing, football) [61]. Treatment programs targeting the primary abductor muscles may improve pelvic-femoral stability during single leg task performance in individuals with FAI syndrome, though any implications of such treatments for symptoms and joint structure are not yet clear.
\nClinical interventions to restore normal musculoskeletal function around the hip joint may be beneficial, but future research is needed to determine whether these features can and should be changed, and whether this improves outcomes. Cam impingement has been proposed as a modifiable risk factor for hip OA [32]. Optimising treatments relies on the identification of novel treatment targets to slow femoral lesion progression and prolong the development of structural damage and early hip OA.
\nA critical step in the clinical management of individuals with FAI syndrome is to identify which biomechanical and neuromuscular features are: (i) positive and should be encouraged; (ii) negative and should be discouraged; and (iii) potentially positive prior to surgery to compensate for the abnormal morphology but should be a target for treatment following surgery to prevent further impairments. It would be precipitous to categorise these features without the support of longitudinal data. Nevertheless, it is abundantly clear that the widespread implications for FAI-related clinical practice depend on the appropriate classification of any modifiable targets for treatment.
\nThe evaluation of conservative management programs, that include a range of techniques to modify joint motion/loading/function such as joint mobilisation techniques, hip bracing, and targeted exercise programs (including range of motion, strengthening, and/or neuromuscular retraining) are required on a range of outcomes in FAI syndrome (including any modifiable risk factors). Though the evidence underpinning these treatments is still in its infancy, the development of conservative treatments, including post-operative rehabilitation strategies and pre-operative training programs that aim to improve surgical outcomes, is a critical component as we move towards improving treatment outcomes.
\nHip OA is a major public health problem and affects one in four adults over their lifetime [62]. The condition substantially impairs quality of life and causes pain and physical dysfunction. Around the world, hip replacement surgery for hip OA is on the rise, and the burden of OA on society and health care cost will continue to rise due to the ageing population and escalation in obesity rates [63]. Therefore, treatments that reduce symptoms and delay the need for joint replacement are critical.
\nKinematic and kinetic alterations are reported in people with hip OA compared to healthy controls. There is marked interest in hip joint loading as a culprit for disease progression, arguably due to the evidence in knee OA. Higher knee joint loading has been implicated in structural joint degeneration in middle-aged people at risk of early knee OA [64] and in individuals with established with knee OA [65]. However, few longitudinal studies have evaluated the association between hip joint biomechanics during gait and alterations in hip joint structure [66, 67]. A 12-month longitudinal study of women concluded that higher cumulative hip joint loading assessed as the number of steps per day, in the frontal plane, was associated with joint space narrowing at the hip joint [67]. However, there is insufficient evidence regarding which direction of loading magnitude change is detrimental for joint health (i.e. under- or over-loading). Recent investigations have highlighted the effect of sex, stage of disease and symptom severity on measures of joint loading, as well as the intricate relationships between these measures and hip joint load. Similar to other hip pathologies, hip OA is a heterogeneous disease, and exploration of patient and disease characteristics are needed to better understand moderators of
Measures of frontal plane loading appear to be dependent on sex. For example, in disease-free individuals the external hip adduction moment is typically greater in females as compared to males [68]. Between-sex differences in anatomy may explain these differences, at least in part. Females typically have a wider pelvis than males [69], which inherently increases the lateral distance of the centre of mass from the hip joint centre, and thus increases the hip adduction moment. However, any underlying anatomical differences appear secondary to disease stage when explaining difference in frontal plane moments. A series of cross-sectional studies indicate that between-sex differences in frontal plane loading are apparent in those with unilateral mild-to-moderate hip OA [70], while measures of hip joint loading are not different between men and women with end-stage hip OA [68]. The indirect effect of sex on hip joint loading earlier in the disease process was also detected in meta-regression analysis of a systematic review. Studies with a greater proportion of men demonstrated a greater average standardised mean difference for reduced frontal plane loading between people with hip OA compared to controls [71]. Given that loading may be relevant for disease progression, it may be clinically pertinent to consider sex-specific interventions for hip OA.
\nMeasures of hip joint loading are also dependent on disease severity. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis of 13 studies suggests that people with hip OA appear to underload compared to controls [72]. Moreover, the sub-group analysis indicates that people awaiting total hip replacement (i.e. greater disease severity) underload the hip joint compared to controls; whereas people with less severe disease have comparable measures of joint loading in the sagittal and frontal plane [73]. These observations are consistent with empirical investigations determining the influence of disease severity on measures of hip joint loading [71]. Understanding the effect of joint loading on joint structure and symptoms is imperative to guide conservative hip OA management.
\nSlow walking speed is a risk factor for mortality [74] and chronic functional limitation in older adults [75]. A systematic review of 17 studies estimated that people with hip OA have a self-selected walking speed of 0.95 m/s, a markedly 26% slower than controls [76]. In light of critical walking speed estimates of 1.0 m/s [72], the observation that people with hip OA walk slower than critical walking speed estimates is alarming. Slower walking speed can be attributable to symptoms and a reduction in stride length in people with hip OA [76]. However, a recent cross-sectional study [73] investigating people with moderate radiographic hip OA with and without symptoms found that irrespective of symptoms, people with radiographic hip OA walk slower than disease-free individuals. These data question symptoms as a cause for reduced walking speed and instead, appear to reflect a longer-term adaptation hip joint degeneration. In addition to being an important marker of function [74, 75], walking speed also influences measures of hip joint loading. Investigators grapple with understanding whether alteration in measures of joint loading are predominately reflections of alterations in walking speed [77]. It appears that in addition to slower walking speed, neuromuscular adaptations are likely to underpin the reduction in hip joint loading in individuals with hip OA.
\nEvidence regarding pain during walking and how it influences movement strategies is emerging in OA literature [78]. In hip OA, the overall evidence supports the contention that people with hip OA, particularly at end-stage of the disease, underload during walking compared to controls [79]. The premise being that symptoms potentially cause people to walk slower. However, recent cross-sectional findings refute this logic [72], highlighting the complexities between symptoms and joint loading. In a study of people with unilateral mild-to-moderate radiographic hip OA, those who reported moderate pain during walking had higher frontal plane joint loading compared to people who reported less pain during walking [72]. These data suggest that people with mild or no pain during walking modified their gait biomechanics to exert lower frontal hip joint loading. Evidently, the relationship between symptoms and joint loading is intricate.
\n“
Exercise is advised for all people with hip OA irrespective of age, disease severity, symptoms and co-morbidities [81]. A recent meta-analyses in people with hip OA identified 12 RCTs and showed small-to-modest beneficial effects of exercise on pain (standardised mean difference [SMD] −0.28, 95% CI: −0.45 to −0.10) and physical function (−0.34 SMD, 95% CI: −0.50 to −0.18) compared to no exercise [84]. Notably, two trials including 154 people scheduled for total hip replacement [85, 86], had large improvements in pain (−0.63 SMD, 95% CI: −0.95 to −0.30) and physical function (−0.71 SMD, 95% CI: −1.04 to −0.39) following 8–10 weeks of exercise. In addition to beneficial effects on symptoms, exercise can potentially delay total hip replacement. A long-term follow-up of a clinical trial found that exercise combined with patient education can potentially reduce the need for total hip replacement by 44% in people with hip OA [87].
\nEvidence strongly supports the use of exercise as treatment for hip OA symptoms and can potentially prevent disease progression. In line with high quality evidence and clinical guidelines, physiotherapists in the UK [88] and Australia [89] typically recommend exercise in the management of hip OA. However, knowledge on the specifics of exercise prescription is a recognised barrier to exercise uptake [90]. Reintahl [91] eloquently likens exercise prescription to drug prescription. For example, the physician determines the type of medication, the amount or intensity, the frequency of intake and the duration of use. Exercise prescription typically follows the frequency, intensity, type, time, volume and progression (FITT-VP) principles [92], but evidence on best exercise prescription is lacking for treatment of hip OA symptoms. Below, we provide an update on the current evidence for dosage and type of exercise.
\nMeta-analyses from trials with high compliance to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) exercise guidelines with respect to dosage was −0.42 SMD (95% CI: −0.58 to −0.26) for pain, and studies with uncertain compliance to ACSM dosage was −0.05 SMD (95% CI, −0.35 to −0.25) for pain. Improvement in physical function of −0.41 SMD (95% CI −0.58, −0.24) was comparable to pain in trials with high compliance to the ACSM dosage guidelines while effect from trials with uncertain compliance was −0.23 SMD (95% CI, −0.52, 0.06) [84]. These data support the prescription of exercise in accordance with ACSM guidelines, particularly in relation to pain. A Cochrane review revealed that patients with OA are confused about their cause of pain, and they do not know what they should and should not do, and as a consequence, they avoid activity for fear of causing harm [93]. Collectively, health professionals can use existing evidence to reassure patients about the value of exercise to safely manage symptoms.
\nAll clinical trials to date include lower-limb strengthening [85, 86, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103], which is unsurprising given that hip and knee muscle weakness is widely established in people with hip OA [104]. However, only a few clinical trials in people with hip OA include aerobic exercise [96, 101, 103]. People with hip OA often present with co-morbidities, such as poor cardiovascular fitness and low psychological well-being, and these are associated with greater hip OA symptom severity [105, 106]. Aerobic exercise and muscle strengthening exercise address different impairments associated with hip OA symptoms and the adaptations people experience are distinctly different for each exercise type. Aerobic exercise may enhance the effects of strengthening exercise on hip OA symptoms by targeting cardiovascular fitness and psychological well-being [107]. In our own analysis, pain and physical function scores before and after exercise interventions in people with mild-to-moderate hip OA were sourced through publications and direct author contact. Changes in pain and physical function in studies that used a combination of aerobic and strengthening exercise are compared to those studies that used strengthening exercise only (Figure 3). This preliminary comparison provides support that greater effects on hip OA-related pain and physical dysfunction occur when a combination of aerobic and strengthening exercise is prescribed rather than strengthening exercise alone (Figure 3). Despite the clear rationale to support the premise that a combination of aerobic and muscle strengthening exercise could be more beneficial for hip OA symptoms then either exercise on its own, no clinical trials have directly tested this hypothesis.
\nChange in pain (top plot) and physical function (bottom plot) in people with mild to moderate hip osteoarthritis after a combination of aerobic and strengthening exercise or strengthening exercise alone.
Measuring patient-specific outcomes following an intervention or over a course of care is important for clinical research and best evidence-based practice. Outcomes that are most meaningful from the patient’s perspective, such as those that measure symptoms of pain and physical function during activities of daily living, are imperative [108, 109]. Other outcomes of impairments, such as strength, flexibility, range of motion are also important for clinicians and researchers to assess and monitor, but are more often used for clinical differential diagnosis or prognosis and are usually secondary outcome measures to pain and physical function [109, 110, 111].
\nMeasurement of pain and physical function are complex and cover multiple dimensions. For example, pain can be measured in multiple contexts including intensity, duration, type and location. Physical functioning can not only be measured in many contexts but it also crosses multiple domains. According to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), physical function spans
Many outcome tools for pain and physical function have been described for hip conditions and a selection of tools with the best level of measurement evidence is recommended [109]. Ideally, measure outcomes should be suitably valid, reliable and responsive to change. Known values of the minimum important difference (MID) are important for interpreting meaningful change and are useful to help set individual targets and goals with patients [113].
\nPatient outcomes can be measured using patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) and performance-based tests measured by the clinician/researcher. Pain is usually measured with PROMs, such as pain scales and questionnaires, however physical functioning can be measured with both PROMs and performance-based tests. Performance-based tests reflect what patients can do rather than what they think they can do, which is usually captured with PROMs. When assessing physical function, it is recommended that both PROMs and performance-based tests are used as they can encapsulate different information as they test different constructs of function [114].
\nPatient outcomes can be measured using individual-specific, condition-specific and/or generic outcome tools. There are several condition-generic, individual-specific PROMs that are useful in assessing and monitoring symptoms and function in people with a variety of hip conditions.
\nThe 11-point Numerical Pain Rating Scale (NPRS) can be used to track pain symptoms and can be customised to individual dimensions of pain. For example, average, current or greatest pain in the previous 24-hours or week can be measured ranging from 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst possible pain). Similarly, pain during an activity such as walking can be measured ranging from 0 (no pain on walking) to 10 (severe pain on walking). The MID for the NPRS (scale 0–10) in musculoskeletal conditions ranges from 1.5 points (small change) to 3.5 points (large change) [115] and in hip OA is defined as a change in pain during walking of 1.8 points [116].
\nThe Patient-reported functional scale (PRFS) [117] assesses current level of difficulty associated with 3–5 activities that the individual identifies as being important, each measured on an 11-point scale, where 0 is unable to perform the activity and 10 is able to perform the activity as normal. The MID for the PSFS ranges from 1.3 points (small change) to 2.7 points (large change [115].
\nPatient-perceived change following an intervention over time can be measured on a Global Rating of Change (GROC) scale, customised to the outcome to be measured, and used by the patient to rate their perceived overall change as worse, no change or better. If worse, the patient is asked to indicate how much worse, from very much worse to slightly worse. If better, then they are asked how much better, from slightly better to very much better. An example is the 11-point GROC [118] with a change scale ranging from −5 to +5. The GROC scale can be very useful to set individual levels of acceptable change over a stated time frame and to set individual treatment goals [119].
\nThere are also several condition-generic PROMs useful for assessing quality of life in a variety of hip conditions. These include the Medical Outcome Study 36 questions short form (SF-36) [120], the EuroQol (EQ-5D) [121] and the Assessment of quality of life (AQOL) [122]. Patient-specific quality of life questionnaires have also been developed for hip OA such as the Osteoarthritis Knee and Hip Quality of Life questionnaire (OAKHQOL) [123].
\nThe following sections will outline condition-specific PROMs and performance-based tests used to measure pain and physical function in the hip conditions outlined previously in this chapter. Outcomes are selected based on available clinical practice guideline recommendations, measurement property evidence and reported use within clinical trials. A summary of the outcomes presented across the three hip conditions including the outcome domains, scoring method, and where known, MID values are provided in Table 1.
\n\n | Condition | \nOutcome | \nItems | \nScoring | \nMID | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS) | \nAll | \nPain | \n1 | \n0–10 scale Higher scores indicate worst pain | \n1.5–3.5 points in musculoskeletal conditions [115]; 1.8 points for hip OA [116] | \n
Patient-Specific Functional Scale (PSFS) | \nAll | \nPhysical function | \n3–5 | \n0–10 scale Higher scores indicate higher function | \n1.3–2.7 points in musculoskeletal conditions [115] | \n
Global Rating of Change (GROC) Scale | \nAll | \nChange in condition | \n1 | \nVariable scales e.g. −5 to +5, higher scores indicate improvement | \nIndividualised e.g. moderately better/somewhat worse | \n
Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment-Gluteal tendon (VISA-G) | \nGT | \nPain, physical function | \n8 | \n0–100 mm VAS Higher scores indicate less pain and higher function | \n\n |
International Hip Outcome Tool (iHOT-33) | \nFAI | \nPain, physical function, quality of life | \n33 | \n0–100 mm VAS, where 100 indicates better quality of life score | \nBetween 6 mm [124] and 10 mm [125] in young adults after hip arthroscopy | \n
Hip and Groin Outcome Score (HAGOS) | \nFAI | \nPain, physical function, quality of life | \n37 | \n0–100 mm VAS where 100 indicates no problems | \nLess than 10 mm (10%) on each subscale in young adults after hip arthroscopy [125] | \n
Hip Outcome Score (HOS) | \nFAI | \nPhysical function | \n28 | \n0–100 mm VAS Higher scores on each subscale indicates higher levels of physical function | \n5-9 mm for ADL subscale; 6 mm for sports subscale in young adults after arthroscopic surgery [125, 126] | \n
Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) | \nHip OA | \nPain, stiffness, physical function | \n32 | \n0–4 point scale Higher scores on each of subscale indicate greater disability. | \n6/68 points on the physical function subscale in people with hip OA [127] | \n
Hip disability and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (HOOS) | \nHip OA | \nPain, physical function, quality of life | \n40 | \n0–4 point scale where 0 indicates extreme symptoms and 4 indicates no symptoms | \n\n |
30-sec single leg stance | \nGT | \nPain, physical function | \n1 | \nPain free; hold pelvis level up to 30 s | \n\n |
Single leg squat test | \nGT | \nPhysical function | \n1 | \nRated as good, fair, poor | \n\n |
Star-excursion balance test | \nGT | \nPhysical function, balance | \n1 | \nDistance reached in centimetres normalised to leg length with larger distances indicating greater balance and higher physical function | \n\n |
Stair Climb test | \nAll | \nPhysical function | \n1 | \nFaster time in seconds indicates higher level of physical function | \n\n |
30-sec chair stand test | \nHip OA | \nPhysical function | \n1 | \nGreat number of repetitions indicates higher level of physical function | \n2–3 repetitions in people with hip OA [128] | \n
40-m fast paced walk test | \nHip OA | \nPhysical function | \n1 | \nFaster time in seconds or greater speed in metres/second indicates higher level of physical function | \n0.2–0.3 m/s in people with hip OA [128] | \n
Timed Up and Go test | \nHip OA | \n\n | 1 | \nFaster time in seconds indicates higher level of physical function | \n0.8–1.4 s in people with hip OA [128] | \n
6-minute walk test | \nHip OA | \nPhysical function, aerobic capacity | \n1 | \nGreater distance covered in metres indicates higher level of physical function and aerobic capacity | \n\n |
Patient-reported outcome measures and performance-based tests for hip conditions.
ADL, activities of daily living; FAI, femoroacetabular impingement; MID, minimum important difference; OA, osteoarthritis; VAS, visual analogue scale.
A number of valid and reliable measures used in recent clinical trials to measure change in pain and function in patients following corticosteroid injections and exercise [129] and recommended in a systematic review [130] are promising suitable outcomes for people with gluteal tendinopathies. These include the Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment-Gluteal tendon (VISA-G) questionnaire [131] that evaluates the severity of disability using 8 items about current pain and function. Regarding performance-based tests, the single-leg stance test with light fingertip support is useful to assess provocation of pain during a 30-second period. A report of pain over the greater trochanteric region indicates a positive test. This test has excellent sensitivity (100%) and specificity (97.3%), making it an ideal screening out test when pain is negative [2]. Additionally, the pain-free time and the time the patient can maintain a level pelvis in single-leg stance can also be recorded to measure change over time. Other performance-based tests include the single leg squat test where the ability to single leg squat as far as possible 5 times with the non-support leg out front and arms folded across the chest is rated on 5 criteria as good, fair or poor [132] and the star-excursion balance test that evaluates the ability to stand on one leg and reach the other leg into eight directions as far as possible [133].
\nA number of specifically designed, reliable and well-validated PROMs are recommended for measuring outcomes in people with FAI by an international, multidisciplinary consensus statement endorsed by 25 clinical societies worldwide [48]. The International Hip Outcome Tool (iHOT-33) is a patient-derived questionnaire designed to measure hip-related quality of life in young adults with non-arthritic hip pain over four domains: symptoms and functional limitations; sports and recreational physical activities; job related concerns; and social, emotional and lifestyle concerns [124]. The hip and groin outcome score (HAGOS) was developed for physically active young to middle-aged adults [134] and contains 37 questions, covering six domains of pain; symptoms; physical function in daily living, sport and recreation; participation in physical function, sports and recreation, and hip and/or groin related QOL. The hip outcome score (HOS) [126] was developed to assess treatment outcomes of hip arthroscopy in young to middle-aged individuals and contains 28 questions, covering activities of daily living, and sport.
\nA clear recommendation of which performance-based tests should be used for this condition is yet to be made, however tests that are reliable and best discriminate between individuals with FAI and those without have been described [135]. This includes the 5-times sit-to-stand test where the time taken to transition from sitting to standing from a standard chair five times is recorded in seconds; and the stair ascend test where the time taken to ascend a flight of stairs as quickly as possible without using a handrail is recorded in seconds.
\nNumerous clinical practice guidelines, for example [83, 108, 111], and recommendations, for example [110, 136, 137] informed from high level measurement property evidence and expert consensus strongly recommend a number of condition-specific PROMs. The Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis (WOMAC) Index [138] measures pain, stiffness and physical function The Hip disability and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (HOOS) [139] consists of five subscales; pain, other symptoms, function in daily living, function in sport and recreation, and hip related quality of life. This scale incorporates items from the WOMAC scale so can also be extracted from this questionnaire.
\nThe Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) recommend performance-based measures of physical function representing typical activities relevant to individuals diagnosed with hip or knee OA [136, 137]. Comprehensive descriptions, including set up, equipment, preparation (environment, participant, and tester), procedures, verbal instructions and scoring are available on the OARSI website: http://oarsi.org/research/physical-performance-measures along with videos of each recommended test. The full set includes five tests and the first three were recommended as the minimum core set: (i)
Evidence supports exercise as a promising solution to the most important questions asked by patients with extra- and intra-articular hip pathologies and health professionals. Exercise can reduce hip symptoms and potentially prevent disease progression. Stakeholders, including but not limited to, health care professionals, research communities, consumer organisations, and local and national policy makers must make a deliberate effort to translate the positive message of exercise as a treatment for hip conditions. Research is ongoing to further empower patients and clinicians with evidence around best-prescription for exercise.
\nGiven the global grand challenges such as urban mobility, poverty alleviation, endemic violent conflict and the worsening of the ecological crisis, the current complex multidimensional corporate framework intensified the requirements of corporate social engagements. Thus, a common refrain of businesses nowadays is the necessity of adopting socially and ecologically responsible behaviours while ensuring their growth. Besides, since innovation is a key factor to heighten the company’s growth and competitive advantage, firms should invest in innovative as well as social matters to gain legitimacy and to respond to the different interested actors’ expectations. With the fourth industrial revolution, innovation has been the driver of sustainability. It shapes future production, strengthens competitiveness and improves human well-being as well as decreases the environmental damage [1]. Numerous examples of new innovative products and methods such as the BioMat project between Faurecia and Mitsubishi Chemical or the Flaxpreg project, developed in collaboration with PSA Peugeot-Citröen, Lineo and the French University of Reims Champagne Ardenne, show the strong bonds between innovation and corporate social engagements. Moreover, it underscores the crucial role of collaborations and strategic partnerships in developing a competitive advantage.
Innovation could help to better satisfy the needs of different stakeholders’ groups and to go beyond their expectations by getting involved in more strategic CSR policies. Innovation could, therefore, drive more socially responsible projects. According to [2] it is an urgent need to solve the socio-ecological problems. In a similar vein, [3] pointed out that innovation is commonly considered as the most viable path to support and strengthen the current standards of living while treating and overcoming environmental crises. Therefore, numerous studies assumed that innovation supports social practices [4, 5, 6], which complies with the circular economy (CE) plan launched by the European Commission in 2014. This plan aims to unlock the related growth while boosting the European Union competitiveness using new business opportunities as well as novel methods of production and consumption. Nevertheless, due to resources scarcity, conflicting interests, and the riskiness of innovative investments, firms might face difficulties to balance and define their priorities. For instance, [3] pointed out the lack of an innovative potential broad overview in the field of circular economic-related technological developments.
Due to the importance of the innovative and social strategies application, numerous investigations about these two crucial investments were conducted. Nevertheless, very few studies have explored the innovation-corporate social responsibility (CSR henceforth) association. These studies show mixed results. While certain studies tested the synergetic effect that might occur between innovation and CSR, others have debated their positive or deleterious linkage. For instance, London [7] claimed that understanding and analyzing community problems help to identify which efficient solutions should be applied and which resource can be used for social benefit. Through this identification, firms can generate new approaches and products that allow them to create new markets. Therefore, social needs are determinant factors of corporate innovation orientations and success, while innovation is the solution to solve social matters. Yet, according to Mithani [8], managers’ engagement in CSR can weaken innovation investment initiatives. He argued that corporate innovation and social investment effects on economic growth follow a specific pecking order in the Indian market. This lack of convergent empirical evidence was explained in previous research by three main reasons:
First, the diversity of innovation classifications such as the process and product innovation [9], the responsible innovation [10] or the exploratory and exploitative innovation [11]. According to Desjardins [12] there are 10 types of innovation.
Second, the dynamism of the CSR conception. Indeed, the CSR concept has been developing since its appearance [13]. Each version responds to certain criteria that influence innovation differently. These versions can be classified into two fields: the strategic CSR and the responsive CSR [9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. As a result, the CSR-innovation direct linkage alters depending on the CSR conception that - on its turn - changes based on the legal and social framework as well as the corporate commitment and proficiency.
Third, the moderating and mediating effects of several factors such as corporate cognitive-governance or ethnic and cultural diversity. For instance, Costa et al. [11] pointed out that innovation and CSR synergy occurs only if the enterprise has a high level of social commitment. In a similar vein, Domínguez-Escrig et al. [19] highlighted the association between Stewardship behaviours and innovation success. Their findings show a mediating role of radical innovation in managers’ social behaviours and innovation success relationship.
Due to the importance of the innovative and social strategies application, further investigations about the linkage between these two crucial investments have to be conducted. One explanation of this lack of interest is the intricacy of the CSR concept and its misunderstanding. Weller [20] pointed out that numerous managers who implement ethical strategies and socially responsible ones do not understand their meaning. Dahlsrud [21] provided in his study 37 different definitions of CSR. Despite the complexity of the various CSR descriptions and corporate frameworks, academic research and international organizations have shared five common CSR dimensions. Using coding schemes, he claimed that the different used terms refer generally to these dimensions, which are the stakeholder dimension, the social dimension, the economic dimension, the voluntariness dimension, and the environmental dimension. In fact, the divers’ used dialects are the real reason beyond the lack of one universality definition. These confluent definitions enable us to understand the construction of CSR in specific contexts. Yet, they fail to give guidance on how to face CSR challenges and how to consider it while developing business strategies.
The current chapter contributes to this debate on CSR definition. Specifically, we focus on the development of CSR conception over time and how it does shape our understanding of the CSR-Innovation association. Then we analyze how taking into account the cognitive and individual characteristics of top managers, and board directors could help to set a more inclusive framework of this association.
Our chapter is organized as the following. Section (2) presents the evolvement of the CSR and innovation nexus based on the evolutionary CSR concept. In this section, we distinguish between the strategic and responsive CSR. We analyze the moderating effects of the managerial characteristics on CSR-innovation association in section (3). In the penultimate section, we present our empirical investigation. The last section concludes the chapter.
Since the second half of the 20th century, the corporate responsibility towards ecological and social matters has attracted a lot of interest, especially with the meta-environments in which firms operate nowadays [22, 23].
First, corporate sustainability has been presented as an exception [24]. In order to survive, firms have to provide continuously several resources and energies mobilized in a strategic plan, consistent with the framework rules and norms; otherwise, it will eventually fade. In other words, companies need to allocate their resources to create value and competitive advantage through a greater network development as well as an innovation encouragement [25]. According to the slack resources theory, due to the resources scarcity firms should arbitrate to select sustainable investments. Nevertheless, combining the divergent goals of stakeholders to find the optimal resources allocation function is the hardest mission for every company.
With the increase of multiple pressures and law evolvement, firms’ ethical and social practices no longer present a simple voluntary decision, which explains the CSR development over time. Visser [13] considered that CSR versions missed the promotion of our community and ecosystem health, quite the contrary, they made it worse. Specifically, they failed to introduce innovative tools dealing with the existing environmental issues. He argued that the CSR understanding has been evolving according to overlapping ages1: The age of Greed, the age of philanthropy, the Marketing age and the Management age. While the three first ages have introduced a responsive CSR stream, the management age has established CSR in the core of business. It generates a strategic CSR.
When the firm is involved in CSR activities that meant to exclusively respond to stakeholders’ basic needs and reporting standards, its CSR policy is responsive. However, when more pioneering initiatives are undertaken and going beyond standards and regulations, CSR activities are strategic [9, 27, 28]. We should also mention that another more civil version of CSR is taking place, namely the transformative CSR [13]. Nonetheless, we consider that this version is still in an embryonic stage for the profit-oriented enterprises.
The coexistence of these ages depends on the space–time setting. Hence, to explain the CSR and Innovation nexus we have to understand the evolvement of the CSR concept and its continuous interaction with corporate innovation.
The responsive CSR concept has been used in recent studies. Porter and Kramer [14] considered CSR as responsive if it has two goals: good corporate citizenship and risk mitigation. Put differently responsive CSR has no specific plan and strategy that allow the firm to create a competitive advantage. Indeed, there is no specific study that provides a clear development of responsive CSR conception. Vishwanathan et al. [18] described the non-strategic side of CSR as a blind spot to CSR researchers. Indeed, investigations’ focus has been oriented to the strategic CSR. Researchers consider that firms which do not apply CSR strategically are applying it responsively.
This narrow development of responsive CSR made the firms’ classification absolute. From a theoretical perception, a company is whether strategic or responsive, while in reality, it can be both especially since responsive CSR versions can share some strategic CSR criteria. We should point out there is no sole definition of the strategic CSR, which makes the responsive CSR understanding more blurred. For instance, Visser [13] argued that responsive CSR is meant to orient its activities in specific areas that are not specifically related to the core business. He identified the following forms of non-strategic CSR: the defensive, charitable and promotional CSR strategies.
Bocquet et al. [9] found that responsive CSR lessens the different corporate innovation types while strategic CSR promotes them. In contrast, Bocquet et al. [17] underlined the positive effect of the responsive CSR on the technological innovation for the SMEs. Thus, to give better insights into these controversial results, we analyze the interaction between innovation and the responsive CSR version previously mentioned.
In the following, we address the different strategies of responsive CSR and their influence on innovation strategies.
As business requires creativity, it is assumed to be naturally innovative [29]. Yet, what makes the ages different is to which goal this business creativity is directed. The first age of the CSR development is the age greed, in which CSR was perceived as a tool to serve shareholders’ interests by taking into account only aligned stakeholders’ interests. During this age, and consistent with the shareholder theory, CSR activities were defensive as they were undertaken only to protect the financial result.
For example, according to “Fortune” magazine, the American company Enron was one of the most innovative firm from 1996 to 2001. It was listed among the 100 best American companies by the same magazine. Enron practice of CSR was widely known, specifically its green model. It built a great image that hides the true nature of its practices. However, its collapse was unavoidable since it was the result of greed. Some studies considered the Enron scandal as a juncture in the CSR understanding [30, 31]. They analyzed the CSR evolution after the post-Enron era.
After the 2008 Crisis, economic actors realized that they misunderstood CSR conception. Miller [32] considered the confusion between legitimate economic rationality and greed, more specifically excessive desire, is the main trigger of crisis. It is straightforward to see that Enron only acted socially responsible when it is financially profitable. Hence its scandal has been one of the greatest examples of CSR in the age of greed.
Even though CSR activities also have to generate cash-flows, considering the financial performance as the sole gain could never foster sustainability and innovation. Indeed, enhancing financial performance provides more funds for innovation investments. Nevertheless, defensive CSR cannot provide a good understanding of multiple needs of different groups, which increases agency conflicts. Furthermore, it cannot rebuild the corporate reputation, which in return threatens innovation success, especially in casino economies2 where high-risk levels are taken. Bertrand et al. [33] described the defensive CSR as a “poor vector” of innovation.
The second age of the CSR development is the philanthropic age, where CSR is presented as a charitable action. Carnegie [34] claimed in his article “The Gospel of Wealth” that wealthy investors have to use their fortune for the community’s well-being and empowerment. In line with Stiglitz’s [35], wealth should be distributed equally to avoid the inequality costs and, therefore, recession. Put differently, we need charities to drive growth. The charitable actions can help innovation improvement. Bereskin and Hsu [36] emphasized that the corporate philanthropy with universities and non-profit organization improves the corporate research partnerships and strengthen its network. Thus, innovation efficiency is increased. Charity and philanthropy are mobilized to establish collaborations. Yet, to take advantage of the corporate philanthropy and boost corporate creativity, a long-term strategy of charity should be elaborated [37]. Otherwise, the charity can lead to waste the financial resources and consequently limits innovation investments.
Despite the beatific view of charitable CSR, it has failed to face systemic problems and solve social and ecological matters. This failure was due to two main reasons.
First, charitable activities’ goals do not incorporate the improvement of the financial performance and since companies are for-profit organizations, increasing their gain, and using their cash flows to create a competitive advantage should be out of the question. Therefore, non-strategic social actions can damage the corporate competitive position. Protecting and improving financial results should be neither out nor the core of the CSR scope. In other words, companies should capture private benefits from their social strategies while responding to the philanthropic criterion, which is one of the strategic CSR dimensions, named ‘specificity’ [38].
The second reason is the limited capacity of firms to respond to all social and ecological needs. Non-strategic philanthropy is like trying to fill a bucket, which is leaking from the inside. Porter and Kramer [14] underlined that no business is able to solve all of society’s challenges or bear its costs. Therefore, each company has to select issues that cross its business and field of knowledge. Furthermore, CSR actions must fit the corporate missions and goals. Investing in generic social issues with no dynamic effects and which are neither significantly influenced by the enterprise’s operations nor affect its long-term competitiveness is a waste of corporate wealth. De Silva and Wright [39] indicated that strategic philanthropy is most often associated with open innovation. Accordingly, profit companies are likely to collaborate and co-create value with non-profit organizations through open innovation approaches.
The Marketing CSR also called promotional CSR is another form of responsive CSR. A promotional CSR is a reputation-building CSR. It encompasses social practices public relations’ opportunities with the aim of enhancing corporate reputation and brand image. It focuses generally on the stakeholders’ perception of the company and tries to find an optimal strategy that satisfies the interested actors and gives the firm a sound depiction. Therefore, it improves the financial result, provides more environmental support, reduces reputational risk, and builds a greater trust level [40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. The main aim of promotional CSR is to guarantee and promote more ‘Visibility’. Singh and Dhir [45], cause-related marketing has become an emerging field of research.
According to the founder of Virgin Group Richard Branson, “Young people today want to see change. They want a better world”3. Hence, being socially responsible is the best promotional way used by firms to achieve stakeholders’ satisfaction. Promotional CSR should start from the inside with an integrated marketing model. Moreover, it is likely to promote exploratory innovation, especially with the reputational risk mitigation. Lefebvre [46] underlined that social marketing is an evolutionary concept planned to foster innovation. Responsible marketing is most often positively associated with more marketing innovation. However, in practice, markets-makers and practitioners face challenges to align social/human and business issues. Hence, the spread of innovation that aims to solve the relative concerns become harder Lefebvre [47].
This CSR version might look sound. Nevertheless, it has several deficiencies. According to Singh and Dhir [45], around two-thirds of customers believe that companies’ spending on marketing is quite large compared to the social matters spending. They are not focusing much on real social issues. With limited knowledge of social or environmental matters, firms might apply CSR actions for greenwashing. Indeed, without a real social goal, using chaotic and disordered actions in a responsive way can only have a short-term impact. Thus, ensuring a corporate gain from the applied action might be harder. In the worst cases, CSR leads to antithetical results. Esper and Barin Cruz [48] discussed how CSR could be a hypocrisy tool to influence the market perception. With the presence of a large gap between the way in which a company shows off and the way in which it acts, stakeholders could be manipulated and suffer manoeuvering hypocrisy, which leads to social scandals and trust collapse.
This CSR’s poor understanding and active talking about CSR commitment while covering profitable practices that are socially and environmentally dubious trapped not only small businesses but also multinationals. Volkswagen test cheating, Siemens bribe scandal, BAE corruption scandal, General Motors defective ignition switches, Mitsubishi products falsified data, as well as Wells Fargo account fraud scandal and so on, are businesses that have gone responsibly astray. Brenkert [49] pointed out that we need to rethink CSR efforts to close the immoral gaps.
To conclude, a large body of research has highlighted the negative results of cosmetic CSR practices. In fact, CSR can be considered as a double-edged sword. It could generate extra costs that hamper corporate survival and innovativeness. Hence, firms have to select the appropriate social practices that foster the firm’s position and enhance its profit and growth. In other words, companies should view CSR strategically.
Under the high social pressure, several firms have undertaken CSR initiatives that go beyond CSR regulations and standards to gain the stakeholders’ trust. CSR could have positive influences if it is used strategically. According to the institutional theory, the corporate framework is based on the cohesion of the interdependent components. Hence, enterprises are affected and could affect their environment. To face CSR challenges and reach the optimal CSR practices effects firms should classify social acts into three main streams [14]:
The generic social impact is generated by social matters which are not affected by the company’s actions. The CSR practices do not influence the company competitiveness. Investing in this category is by no means strategic.
The value chain social impact: where we find the possible actions through which the firm can influence its environment. Given the tremendous social issues, no firm has the capacity to solve the whole social problems. Therefore, it should select social programs that can be affected by the company’s actions. The value chain social impact actions can be strategic or responsive it depends on the ability of the company to benefit the community while reinforcing its strategy.
The third stream is the social dimensions of competitive context: In this category, we find the social issues that influence significantly the firms’ competitiveness. The CSR actions under this group are strategic.
Based on this classification companies should select more strategic CSR activities that affect the competitive context of the company and improve the social environment. Along the same line, Burke and Logsdon [38] pointed out that social action could create a measurable economic benefit under the five following conditions: the centrality, the specificity, the proactivity, the voluntarism, and the visibility. To establish strategic CSR companies’ social actions should be within its field of knowledge. In other words, firms have to prioritize social issues based on their salience to the business activity. Enterprises have to create a shared value, to capture private benefits due to social actions. These actions should be in line with the corporate environmental evolvement and should reflect the firm’s anticipation of its framework evolution.
The efficiency of these actions will depend closely on the identification of the key stakeholders; the firm has to be concerned about their interests. More recently, Vishwanathan et al. [18] introduced a more inclusive framework for strategic CSR where they considered strategic CSR as the intersection between the social enhancing activities and the financial performance-enhancing actives. Accordingly, financial performance enhancement is a multidimensional result that depends on all CSR determinants, namely the firm’s reputation enhancement, the stakeholder reciprocation, the risk mitigation, and the innovation capacity improvement.
Strategic CSR conception was developed first by Burke et al. [50]. It means relating CSR to the corporate core business, the implementation of social management systems, and the setting of social targets, auditing, and reporting. In the same line, Athanasopoulou and Selsky [51] defined strategic CSR as a continuous process that takes into account its own effect. More precisely, a company can pursue its business goals while considering the stakeholders’ engagement through strategic CSR [52]. Thus, the efficient implementation of CSR strategies depends on corporate activities, skills, and capabilities. While other CSR versions can have different opposite linkage with innovation depending on their strategic application, innovation enhancement is one of the strategic CSR pillars. Vishwanathan et al. [18] explained how strategic CSR enhances the firm reputation, increases stakeholder reciprocation, mitigates firm risk, and strengthen innovation capacity. These effects cannot be achieved through the non-strategic CSR.
The reputation enhancement: It is one of the most used mechanisms to explain the positive effect of CSR on the firm’s competitive position and financial performance increasing. The legitimacy theory and the signal theory give it a robust theoretical foundation. Axjonow et al. [40] described CSR as a tool for reputation management. Indeed, if CSR succeeds to improve financial performance through enhancing the corporate reputation, then it has satisfied one of the strategic CSR pillars. Abugre and Anlesinya [53] stressed that reputation enhancement is a mechanism that mediates the CSR and financial performance link. For Zerbini [27] and Janney and Gove [54], reputation is a strategic asset. In the 21st century, social reputation and digital reputation play an important role in the CSR promotion
The stakeholder reciprocation: One of the main and well-known theories that have supported the CSR positive effect is the Stakeholder theory [55]. Applying strategic management aim to optimize the different stakeholders’ satisfaction. McWilliams and Siegel [56] indicated that when firms are engaged in CSR, their actions should be beneficial to at least certain stakeholders. Hence, selecting the key stakeholder groups is crucial to apply strategic CSR. While the reputation improvement mechanism has to be visible externally, the stakeholders’ reciprocation mechanism aim is creating benefit for the existent stakeholders. This mechanism has to improve the cooperation between the firm and its stakeholders [18].
Lins et al. [57] found that during crises trust between stakeholders and companies is built through socially responsible investment (SRI). Employees’ productivity is higher for socially responsible firms and creditors have more faith in these firms’ transparency. In the same line, Hasan et al. [58] concluded that social considerations of the principal stakeholders are precious especially for firms that dispose of higher discretionary cash levels. Similarly, Govindan et al. [59] proved that CSR practices influence the suppliers’ selection, which affects corporate competitiveness.
The risk mitigation: CSR strategies should reduce information asymmetry [43], which limits the agency conflicts. Harjoto and Laksmana [42] pointed out that CSR serves as a control mechanism for corporate risk. Consistent with Vishwanathan et al. [18], CSR engagement leads to get in touch with diverse stakeholders, which extends the company’s connections and gives access to new information. This information reduces corporate-specific risk. Besides, Mayberry [44] marked that CSR strategies reduce firms’ risk and grant insurance-like benefits. Recently the environmental risk was given greater consideration, Zhou et al. [60] focused on the carbon risk management as one of [61] emphasized that natural resources such as the water for the food and beverage sector create conflicts between industries and stakeholders. Indeed, legislation in Europe has been considering the social risk management through several enacted laws. Jung et al. [62] documented a positive relationship between the carbon risk and the cost of the corporate debt. Failing to respond to the Carbon Disclosure Project increases the environmental risk, which leads to an increase in the debt cost.
The innovation capacity improvement: Previous research and practitioners endorse that innovation enhances corporate competitiveness. It enables companies to differentiate and overcome competitors. Nevertheless, innovation is risky. Its success requires some specific capacities such as the deep comprehension and support from the stakeholders, which can be achieved through the strategic social practices. For instance, Flammer [63] highlighted how responsible companies are favoured and receive more government procurement contracts due to the stakeholders’ interest consideration. Moreover, employees are more motivated, they feel safer and more comfortable in responsible firms, which drives better information sharing. Furthermore, the stakeholders’ synergy, built through CSR, promotes identifying new opportunities. Interacting and understanding stakeholders’ needs should lead to greater innovation opportunities detection. Cegarra-Navarro et al. [64] presented, in their alternative model, innovation enhancement as a CSR mechanism that improves financial performance. Their results support the mediating role of innovation in the CSR-CFP relationship, which is confirmed by Bocquet et al. [9]. Halkos and Skouloudis [65] underlined that strategic CSR is a multifaceted construct that provides a variety of opportunities to innovate regardless of the innovation type. Strategic CSR should lead to thinking-out-of-the-box in a way that improves the corporate creativity and enhances innovation capacities.
It is straightforward to notice that the enhancement of the innovation capacity influences its intensity and initiative. The other mechanisms also can affect innovation success. For instance, a better relational with different stakeholders groups helps the firm to understand their desire and expectations and generates more innovation opportunities. In a similar stream, Porter and Kramer [14] underlined that strategic CSR is a source of innovation and competitive advantage creation. Its effect on innovation can be more pronounced when the company improves its CSR process, which in turn drives social innovation [66]. One of the examples that can show how strategic CSR fosters innovation is Denmark’s biggest energy company Orsted. In 2012 and after the financial crisis the price of natural gas was dropping by 90%. To face these circumstances, Oersted’s board hired as a new CEO Henrik Poulsen a former executive at LEGO. While several companies adopted crisis management strategies to overcome the situation, Poulsen detected the opportunity and need for crucial change. The company at this level switched based on their new innovative responsible strategy from black energy to the green one. It was a radical transformation with the new core business, new management methods and new process that grants sustainable growth.
Similarly, Ecolab was a company that sells food safety services and cleaners with a modest growth level, around 10% annually in the early 2000s. When Douglas M. Baker Jr. became the CEO in 2004 he felt that moving to the adjacent markets will not provide the desired growth. In line with Bocquet et al. [9], strategic CSR has to understand and consider the stakeholders while making strategies. Ecolab started its transformation by asking customers among others to understand the real needs and what is really lacking in the market. Through this understanding and collaboration with Nalco Company, Ecolab was able to present new products and cover $12 billion market cap in 2011.
These examples not only reflect the strong positive association between the strategic CSR and the innovation but also reveal the vital role of the managerial characteristics of this relation.
CSR and innovation are the key drivers of responsible and sustainable competitive advantages. Hence during this last decade investigations about their linkage presented a significant strand of research. Based on several real examples, studies [17, 67, 68, 69] highlighted the crucial influence of the managerial characteristics (the entrepreneurial orientations, cognition, perspective, culture, and so on) on the CSR and innovation nexus. Indeed, managers’ characteristics provide the exact CSR age to which the firm belongs. Yang et al. [68] focused on the managerial cognition association with the CSR and innovation link. According to their study, the proactive environmental strategy focus is positively linked to two factors the managers’ perceived business and social pressures. This association prompts the corporate innovation capacities. Similarly, Pedersen et al. [69] tested the mediating effect of organizational values such as the management style or the organizational structure and culture on the CSR and innovation nexus. They concluded that the CSR and innovation association depends deeply on the managers’ rooted values and flexibility.
The age of CSR in which the company is positioned depends on the managerial characteristics. Furthermore, managers’ perspective is able to create the appropriate climate to facilitate the CSR conception transformation. However, this managerial perspective can be oriented due to the legal and social framework pressure, consistent with the institutional theory. Scott [70] indicated that the normative, regulative, and cognitive elements form different kinds of pressures shape the managers’ cognition in strategy establishment. Indeed, the existence of unavoidable restraints can make the CSR and environmental management unsustainable [71].
System builders such as the corporate innovators, managers and board members are the main actors that orient the firms’ decision-making. Their attitudes and actions influence corporate strategies and the interaction between its decisions. The CEO position is considered as the highest in the company’s organogram. Hence, we focus on its traits’ effects on the CSR-innovation nexus. Cho and Kim [72] mentioned that the CEO’s career is significantly affected by risky strategies such as innovation, research and development, CSR and capital expenditures. Consequently, young and less experienced CEOs are less likely to undertake innovative or social investments. Nevertheless, the exploitation of the old knowledge and the CEOs’ willingness to preserve their value and success may alleviate this negative impact. In a similar vein, Lin et al., [73] provided evidence for the positive association between the CEO educational degree and innovation initiative. Bendell and Huvaj [74] emphasized that CEOs with high tenure are more likely to invest in innovation when they adopt CSR strategies. Their position allows them to bring more attention to the organizational network with different external stakeholders, which increases their innovation incentive. They concluded that the CSR and innovation linkage is strong when CEOs have long execution periods. Thus, the CEO experience, knowledge and network moderate the CSR–innovation linkage, which explains the universities current development. We notice that universities’ curricula, specifically management and corporate programs have been updated and have become more focused on social performance and CSR. Managers aim to acquire legitimacy through their social practices while gaining competitive advantages through innovation.
Board diversity in large companies plays a crucial role in the decision-making process. Indeed, the directors’ attributes such as gender, nationality, age, educational level and independency mediate the innovation-CSR linkage [17, 75].
The gender diversity more specifically the gender equality, which is one of the CSR components, forms a responsible innovation pillar, according to the European Commission report.4 Several previous studies stressed that female directors are more risk-averse and avoid risky investments [76]. Thus, they invest less in innovation. Nevertheless, this risk aversion is influenced by the female manager experience. With their specific knowledge and higher flexibility [77], women presence on the board creates complementarity which promotes innovation. Elstad and Ladegard [78] underlined that the presence of women on the board influences the decision- making dynamism. Attia et al. [79] pointed out that gender diversity can enhance corporate product innovation. The presence of women can create better interaction and greater complementarity between R&D teams.
Another pillar of responsible innovation is the Governance dimension. The CSR-governance is associated with the presence of independent directors. Besides, the presence of foreign directors provides greater community involvement [80]. These criteria reflect the company’s transparency and social performance, which affect the stakeholders’ trust and reduces corporate risk and consequently improves innovation. According to Attia et al. [79], independent directors’ presence fosters the innovation intensity and process innovation.
The educational level also is one of the board diversity forms. Haniffa and Cooke [81] focused on the ethnic and cultural background of the board’s members. They argued that a higher educational level is associated with better stakeholders understanding. This understanding helps the board members to predict the adequate innovation fields. Moreover, a higher educational level provides a better knowledge, which foster innovation.
Digitalization has been speeded since the ending of the 20th century. This development presented the trigger of the fourth industrial revolution. A revolution based on the interaction and the fusion of the real sphere, the digital sphere, and the biological one. What makes this revolution exceptional is its high speed that has no historical precedent. With an exponential rather than a linear pace, industries in every region have to update their systems of management, production and governance to face the depth of the environmental changes [82]. The world economic forum [83] project aims to accelerate sustainable production. This project is based on using innovation to drive efficiency, decreases the environmental damages, boost competitiveness and enhancing the human well-being. Hence, to reach this goal, shaping future production and promoting new levels of collaborations is required. Through the interactions between the different interested actors, an informational and knowledge exchange process occurs, which in turn generates greater innovations [84]. Soto-Acosta et al. [85] pointed out that digital technologies created new tools of communication that can enhance the management of knowledge and the corporate network. Besides, they focused on open innovation importance. Indeed, collaborating or including stakeholders in the decision-making process helps to open the company’s view [86]. Hence, it boosts the social strategic engagement while improving innovative capacities. Moreover, corporate innovation interacts with the management systems. Singh et al. [87] claimed that transformational leadership increases the employees’ motivation and enhances their communication which helps them to realize their green potentialities and boost green innovation, thereby ensuring their competitive position. Del Giudice et al. [88] presented a detailed analysis of human resources management and the open innovation link in modern enterprises. Human dimensions are pivots of innovativeness and social and ecological commitment. Projects such as CAYLEY, FlaxPreg, VOILIN, and so on are great examples that show the vital role of collaboration, inclusion and networks enhancement to generate sustainable innovative projects and to improve creativity.
With the fast evolvement of the corporate framework and under the fourth revolution circumstances, new industries are emerging while others are fading. Hence, having better knowledge will enhance corporate abilities to predict future development. Nevertheless, having knowledge does not grant its efficient use. Del Giudice et al. [89] pointed out the importance of collaboration and information sharing in enhancing knowledge use. They shed light on the role played by new technologies in harmonizing the corporate knowledge needs and the informational flows.
The dynamism of the CSR conception was one of the reasons that explain the CSR-innovation ambiguous link. According to Vishwanathan et al. [18], the corporate innovative capacity should present one of the strategic CSR pillars. Hence, assuming a positive linear link between CSR and innovation is expected if the CSR measure is a strategic one. In our investigation, we attempt to extend the previous studies by using a more flexible semi-parametric model to seize the shape of the innovation effect on the CSR index. This method relaxes the econometric assumptions, thereby, grants more accurate results that are inspired by reality. We use the ESG index and its components to measure CSR, while we consider the natural logarithm of patents as the innovation proxy. The aim of this study is to verify whether the current ESG index and its components reflect strategic CSR measures. Put differently, how can companies include CSR in their strategies and orient their innovativeness toward the social and ecological commitment, thereby, generate innovative projects that create shared value. Our main assumptions are:
H: The corporate innovativeness does not affect CSR linearly. Thus, CSR is not always presented in the core of the companies strategies.
To reach our goal, this section will be as flows. First, we present our sample and data. Second, the variables descriptions followed the methodology and Model. Finally, we present and analyze the empirical results.
To test the effect of corporate innovation on the CSR scores, we conduct our study on the SBF 120 French companies. Thanks to the French Parliament enacted Grenelle Acts in 2010 large French companies have to communicate their CSR activities, which enable us to have a clearer view of the CSR strategies for these companies. Our panel data, which covers the period from 2010 to 2016, are collected from two main sources. The Bloomberg database was employed to measure the CSR through the ESG score and its components. Besides, we use the annual sectorial survey of the National Institute of Statistics and Economic studies to determine the corporate innovation through patents number.
Tables 1 and 2 present the variables’ description used to conduct our study. In Table 1, we consider the Natural logarithm of patents (Ln_PA + 1) as an innovation proxy, which is the independent variable. The CSR measures are the dependent variables. The ESG presents the global score of the CSR while the specific environmental, social and governance scores are presented respectively by the ENV, SOC and GOV. Table 2 describes our controls. Based on the prior research, we selected the board specifies, the ownership structure and the financial performance variables.
Abbreviation | Description | Type | Previous studies |
---|---|---|---|
PAT | Number of patents | Discrete | Mishra [90]; Raghupathi [91] |
Ln_PA + 1 | Natural logarithm of PAT+1 | Continuous | |
ESG | CSR disclosure score | Continuous | Wang and Sarkis [92]; Ji et al. [93]; Hoang et al. [94] |
ENV | Environment disclosure score | Continuous | |
SOC | Social disclosure score | Continuous | |
GOV | Governance disclosure score | Continuous |
The dependent and independent variables description.
Abbreviation | Description | Type |
---|---|---|
B_SIZE | Number of the board members | Discrete |
WO_B | % of women on the board | Continuous |
B_AGE | Board average age | Continuous |
ESG_ BONUS | Remuneration for CSR policies | Dummy |
Ln_TE | Natural logarithm of total employees | Continuous |
ROA | Return on assets | Continuous |
LEV | Debt book to total asset ratio | Continuous |
INDP_B | % of independent on the board | Continuous |
Duality | Board duality | Dummy |
IN_PROP | % of the institutional investors’ share of capital | Continuous |
STAT_PROP | % of the state’s share of capital | Continuous |
FAM_PROP | % of the family’s share of capital | Continuous |
The controls description.
Imposing the linear econometric assumption of innovation effect on the CSR might not be accurate especially with the dynamism of the CSR conception. Aiming to define a pragmatic shape, we use in this study a semi-parametric model. Through this method, we relax constraints for the innovation effect while maintaining the linearity assumption for the controls. Hence, our model is as follows:
CSR refers to the CSR variables (ESG, ENV, SOC, GOV) defined previously. Innovation is measured by the Ln_PA + 1 and controls matrix includes all the controls variables presented in Table 2. Finally,
The n index refers to the number of observations and J presents the roughness of the objective function. This function optimum depends on the minimization of residuals squared and the maximum possible smoothing of the innovation function. The
The
Follows an approximate χ2 distribution, the null hypothesis of this test supposes the equality between likelihoods. The degree of freedom is determined through the difference between the numbers of parameters of each model. Put differently, if the semi-parametric regression has a higher number of parameters then the linear regression is not appropriate.
In Table 3 we present the descriptive statistics of our study. We focus on the averages of our variables and their dispersion.
Variable | Mean | Std. Dev. | Max | Min |
---|---|---|---|---|
Patents | 59.672 | 250.853 | 2448 | 0 |
Ln_PA + 1 | 1.128 | 1.949 | 7.803 | 0 |
ESG | 43.474 | 12.942 | 68.182 | 5.785 |
ENV | 36.656 | 14.042 | 67.442 | 1.55 |
SOC | 49.193 | 14.469 | 80.702 | 3.509 |
GOV | 58.368 | 9.032 | 76.786 | 14.286 |
B_SIZE | 12.627 | 3.419 | 23 | 4 |
WO_B | .237 | .125 | .579 | 0 |
B_AGE | 58.573 | 4.952 | 68.778 | 15.384 |
ESG_ BONUS | .184 | .387 | 1 | 0 |
Ln_TE | 10.027 | 1.775 | 13.071 | 0 |
ROA | 3.798 | 10.585 | 276 | −23.067 |
LEV | 25.677 | 16.223 | 96.083 | −80.736 |
INDP_B | .538 | .204 | 1 | 0 |
Duality | .203 | .402 | 1 | 0 |
IN_PROP | .408 | .248 | .907 | 0 |
STAT_PROP | .04 | .15 | .922 | 0 |
FAM_PROP | .089 | .182 | .805 | 0 |
Variables description and summary statistics.
With an average of 59.67, the SBF120 companies have innovative potentialities. Nevertheless, the patents number presents a significant dispersion with a high standard deviation. For the CSR measures, the average of the ESG scores is 43.474, more precisely; the highest mean of the ESG components is the governance score with an average of 58.37 against only 36.656 the lowest for the environmental score. These statistics shed light on the environmental current issues and the required efforts needed by these companies to improve their environmental disclosure. Besides, we found that 18.4% of companies are using a remuneration bonus policy to enhance the ESG performance this might drive more attention to the ESG matters and help companies to view CSR more strategically.
For the percentage of women’s presence on the board, we register an average of 23.7%. After the Copé-Zimmermann enacted law in 2011, this average has increased considerably compared to prior periods. Nevertheless, the female directors occupy rarely executive positions. The board average age is 58.57 years old. It is also a positive signal on the degree of expertise of the directors as most of them have been board members in the past or have a business experience. However, with such a high average age, modern trends might not be appreciated. On one hand, this might reduce conflicts during the decision making process. On the other hand, it risks neglecting the youth population trends and views. Concerning the board independency, on average more than half of the boards’ members are independent (53.8%), which reflect a great level of transparency. Besides, this help to open the companies view and have an outsider perception.
To reach the aim of this investigation, Table 4 as well as Figures 1–4 reflect the innovation effect on the CSR proxies.
ESG | ENV | SOC | GOV | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ln _PA + 1 | 3.881* (2.127) | 7.214*** (2.269) | 0.756*** (0.268) | −0.972 (1.684) |
B_SIZE | 1.090*** (0.142) | 0.829*** (0.170) | 1.127*** (0.170) | 1.034*** (0.092) |
WO_B | 16.796*** (3.701) | 10.495** (4.448) | 12.046*** (4.495) | 9.774*** (2.398) |
B_AGE | −0.373*** (0.117) | −0.212 (0.141) | −0.200 (0.141) | −0.174** (0.076) |
ESG_ BONUS | 3.486*** (1.139) | 2.410** (1.334) | 2.646* (1.368) | 5.458*** (0.738) |
Ln_TE | 0.977*** (0.257) | 0.906*** (0.310) | 0.810** (0.314) | −0.053 (0.167) |
ROA | −0.048 (0.037) | −0.046 (0.043) | 0.009 (0.044) | −0.006 (0.024) |
LEV | 0.024 (0.029) | −0.011 (0.035) | −0.025 (0.036) | −0.030 (0.019) |
INDP_B | 14.759*** (2.336) | 20.352*** (2.802) | 10.912*** (2.823) | 11.209*** (1.516) |
Duality | 0.621 (1.094) | −0.627 (1.320) | 1.478 (1.335) | 0.460 (0.710) |
IN_PROP | 8.487*** (2.034) | 9.379*** (2.412) | 8.183*** (2.448) | 1.941 (1.319) |
STAT_PROP | 1.462 (2.748) | 8.959*** (3.259) | −1.502 (3.365) | −0.194 (1.779) |
FAM_PROP | 0.794 (2.733) | 6.353* (3.366) | −9.121*** (3.397) | 4.445** (1.772) |
FOR_PROP | 2.426 (2.127) | −2.032 (2.506) | 6.783*** (2.518) | 1.085 (1.380) |
_cons | 24.007 (7.161) | 9.370 (8.568) | 25.675*** (8.529) | 47.106*** (4.652) |
Number of obs | 681 | 648 | 657 | 681 |
pilot goodness-of-fit chi2 (P-value) | 64.78 (0.0016) | 57.34 (0.0000) | 22.71 (0.9458) | 79.38 (0.0000) |
Log restricted-likelihood (P-value) | −2404.585 (0.0000) | −2375.429 (0.0000) | −2421.249 (0.0000) | −2132.486 (0.0000) |
LR test vs. linear model: chibar2 (P-value) | 7.14 (0.0038) | 7.09 (0.0039) | _ | 5.95 (0.0074) |
The innovation effects on the CSR proxies.
p-value < 10%.
p-value < 5%.
p-value < 1%.
Values between the parentheses presents the standard errors of the estimated coefficients.
Innovation effect on the ESG scores.
Innovation effect on the Environmental scores.
Innovation effect on the Social scores.
Innovation effect on the Governance scores.
Figure 1 presents the innovation effect on the global ESG score. According to its result, we underline the generally positive impact of innovation on the CSR scores, which is consistent with Table 4 coefficient (significant at the 10% level). Indeed, this graph can be divided into three main parts based on the innovation intensity (when Ln _PA + 1 less than 4; between 4 and 5, and higher than 5). In the first part, an increase in corporate innovation enhances CSR slightly. Firms belonging to the first category of innovation intensity tend to consider ESG matters while innovating. The second part reflects a negative association between CSR and innovation. Companies in the second category are inventing without focusing on the ESG issues quite the contrary their innovation might reduce their ESG scores. In other words, those companies are not applying CSR strategically. They only focus on CSR matters if it grants financial benefits. Finally, the last category is where innovation can boost ESG scores. At this level of innovation, we found a remarkable positive effect of the corporate innovativeness on CSR. The most innovative companies are those that apply CSR strategically. They put CSR in the core of their innovation process. We might assume their adoption of open innovation, which allow companies to share knowledge and better understand stakeholders, consequently improves ESG scores. The positive effect of this third category is confirmed not only for the ESG global score but also its components. Nevertheless, it is not the case of the two first categories. While Figure 3 supports the linear shape between social engagement and innovation, Figures 2 and 4 show similar curves’ shapes with different flattening level. Innovation is always socially beneficial.
Concerning the controls’ linear effect on the CSR scores, we should drive attention to the positive influence of the board diversity and boar size in enhancing the CSR engagement. Moreover, the ESG remuneration fosters the ESG scores. Its effect is more pronounced in the governance score. Besides, we find a non-significant influence of the board duality and the financial variables. Furthermore, foreign ownership only increases social commitment. The family ownership decreases it while enhancing the governance scores. Finally, we point out the state and institutional ownership effect on boosting environmental engagement.
The evolvement of social and ecological requirements created a dynamic corporate framework that leads to alternate business practices. This evolution has widened the CSR scope. Hence, CSR went from a defensive or a philanthropic extra activity to a part of the core business. These successive mutations influenced the CSR-innovation link. In this chapter, we analyzed the evolvement of the CSR conception based on four ages: the age of greed, the age of philanthropy, the marketing age and the management age. Moreover, we presented the links between the different CSR versions and corporate innovation. This link is associated with corporate competitiveness.
CSR forms a road map for an emerging innovation paradigm if it is strategically perceived. Indeed, the CSR and innovation nexus is influenced by the managerial perspectives, which are the cores of the CSR understanding and innovation initiatives. However, the managers’ social commitment is not an independent factor. It is affected by the institutional framework. In other words, it depends on the legal, social and economic pressures as well as the digital transformation. With an economic system similar to a Matryoshka doll, decision-makers have to predict future evolutions through strengthening their social network. They have to identify the right moments and persons with whom they should collaborate to create shared value, enhance their innovativeness and improve their environment comprehension. Regulators should consider the continuous evolvement of the business-work and the technological improvement to control the irresponsible behaviours. They can help firms to identify the appropriate timing of the CSR and innovation synergetic effect occurrence.
Finally, we draw attention that the strategic CSR version is not the last one. Nowadays, a transformative CSR is taking place. The difference between these two CSR versions is that while strategic CSR has been included in the core business, the transformative CSR is the trigger of the business. Investors are creating new social start-ups where business innovativeness is driven by social and ecological matters. Thus, their innovativeness is a responsible innovation.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"70919",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90891",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, and therefore a current concern for food safety and human health. The interest for new antimicrobial substances has been focused toward metal oxide nanoparticles. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",book:{id:"9521",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective"},signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo"},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa"},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez"},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga"},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto"}]},{id:"65613",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9283,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"63397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80624",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"63397",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]},{id:"49246",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"897",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. Ali and Noor Al-Khafaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta 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from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö 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