Typical characteristics of high voltage (12S) LiPo batteries [43].
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This evolutionary process can be presented in four main steps from Agriculture 1. To Agriculture 4.0. Agriculture 1.0 is based on simple tools, manpower, and animal forces and can be placed up to the nineteenth century. Agriculture 2.0 follows first industrial revolution and introduces various agricultural machinery operated by farmers and use of plenty chemicals. Agriculture 3.0 emerged in the twentieth century through the usage of automation and robotic techniques thanks to the rise of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Production became more efficient, and some environmental problems were reduced. In the present day, the main aims of Agriculture 4.0 are associated with the introduction of further automation and new digital technologies such as Internet of things (IoT), big data, artificial intelligence (AI), remote sensing, cloud computing, wireless sensor network in agriculture production, allowing a transition toward smart and sustainable farming. This advanced automation and process digitalization have resulted in emergence of the precision agriculture (PA), a farming management concept that utilizes the available technology with aims to improve productivity, efficiency and profitability, quality of the crops and product, along with sustainability and the protection of the environment. Although the principles of PA have been known for more than 25 years, they became interesting to farmers in the last decade due to technological advances and the adoption of new technologies. Thanks to intensive research and technological advances, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have also undergone through tremendous technical progress over the last decade, which is why they are used today to perform a variety of tasks in many industries. The global agriculture unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) market is expected to reach 5,7 billion of USD by 2025. One of the promising areas of application is also the use of UAVs in PA where they are used for a whole range of tasks, from data collection to smart spraying tasks. The utilization of various technologies in PA has been extensively researched and documented in several scientific papers. Nowadays, some of the key terms related to PA are remote sensing, automated hardware, control systems, software, global positioning system (GPS) guidance, robotics, unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs), UAV, and so on.
Information technologies (ITs) used in PA and criteria for their comparison and selection, to store, recover, transmit, and manipulate agricultural data are identified in [1]. The identified IT are GPS, multimedia devices (devices that allow capturing images or videos, such as smartphones or cameras), nano sensors, remote sensors, sensors in general, unmanned aerial systems (UASs), UAV, UGV, variable rate technology (VRT), and wireless sensor networks (WSNs). A survey given in [2] includes wireless communication technologies, sensors, and wireless nodes used to assess the environmental behavior, the platforms used to obtain spectral images of crops, the common vegetation indices used to analyze spectral images, and applications of WSN in agriculture. Authors have also proposed a smart solution for crop health monitoring based on the Internet of things (IoT) and comprising two modules, the wireless sensor network–based system to monitor real-time crop health status and a low-altitude remote sensing platform to obtain multispectral imagery. The work [3] deals with the influence of the fourth industrial revolution on PA. The revolution is expected to spur new technological innovation in six areas: artificial intelligence, robotics, IoT, unmanned vehicles, three-dimensional printing, and nanotechnology. Additionally, it will include a range of new technologies that use big data to incorporate the physical, biological, and digital worlds. Detailed analysis of UAV applications for PA is given [4], where all applications are divided into three categories: UAV-based monitoring applications, UAV-based spraying applications, and multi-UAV applications where multiple UAVs are used to accomplish a task. The application of small UAS for mapping and monitoring in PA is discussed in [5].
PA must quantify variations in soil and crop within agricultural fields, hence the following works also discuss various remote sensing technologies [6], sensor fusion [7], and deep learning techniques [8] to be able to automate processes and make decisions based on the sensor readings. Some research papers also deal with specific types of corps, such as orchard management [9], monitoring of nitrogen status of potatoes [10], detecting green weeds in preharvest cereals [11], and rice [12]. The main driver of PA was tractor GPS technology, which enabled accurate terrain mapping and meeting individual crop needs with different dosages of pesticides for different areas, depending on the reading from different sensors that can be fixed or mobile. Nowadays, ground vehicles of various types, sizes, and power sources are used to accomplish various tasks for PA purposes. Design and field evaluation of a ground robot as a new phenotyping platform that can measure individual plant architecture traits accurately over large areas at a subdaily frequency is demonstrated in [13]. Autonomous mobile robot based on a commercial agricultural vehicle chassis as a robotized patch sprayer is presented in [14], while in [15], the development of a small electrical robot intended to use for autonomous spraying is shown. In work [16] solar-powered UGV is presented that has multiple degrees of freedom positioning mechanism, and it is equipped with a robotic arm and vision sensors, which allow to challenge irregular terrains and to perform precision field operations with perception. There are many applications of solar systems used in agricultural production, and some are listed in the paper [17]. Numerous studies have been conducted, which consider heterogeneous robotic systems, mainly combinations of UGV and UAV. Ground and aerial measurements used for estimating nitrogen levels on-demand across a farm are presented in [18]. The main tasks of UGV in the context of UAV-UGV cooperation are considered in research [19]. The capability of images acquired from UAVs with multispectral cameras to detect weed patches and to support herbicide patch spraying is presented in [20]. Furthermore, the research [21] described a fleet of heterogeneous ground and aerial robots, developed, and equipped with innovative sensors, enhanced end effectors, and improved decision control algorithms to cover a large variety of agricultural situations.
UAVs have been used in a wide range of applications to support digital agriculture, including field scouting [22], precision management of oil palm plantation [23, 24], estimating plant\'s parameters such as leaf area index and height [25], health assessment [26], and variable rate spraying [27, 28]. The technologies of aerial electrostatic spraying using UAVs are being investigated [29], as well as the development of automatic aerial spraying systems based on UAVs [30, 31]. The design of an embedded real-time UAV spraying control system, based on low-cost hardware, which supports onboard image processing, is proposed in [32]. The use of computer-controlled swarms of UAVs for crop spraying enables nonuniform coverage of high precision and time efficiency, therefore an algorithmic control method for autonomous UAV swarm spraying is proposed in [33]. The static configuration usually adopted in the literature deals with the development of spraying processes have shortcomings in terms of changing weather conditions (e.g., sudden changes of wind speed and direction). To overcome this deficiency, in paper [34], an adaptive approach for UAV-based pesticide spraying in dynamic environments is presented. Also, in the paper [35], an algorithm for adjustment of the UAV route with respect to changes in wind intensity and direction is described, input of which is the feedback obtained from the WSN deployed in the crop field. Furthermore, the influence of windward airflow and droplet size on the movement of droplet groups is investigated. In [36], a numerical simulation and computational fluid dynamics analysis on spray drift movement are conducted for multirotor UAVs. Since the different spray requirements are possible, the variable spray system, which can rapidly adjust the flow range of the nozzle, is presented in [37]. The key problem in the task of smart spraying using drones is the distribution of droplets, so many scientific papers have been published on this topic [38, 39, 40].
In this chapter, a concept of an autonomous aerial robotic system intended for smart spraying tasks is presented. The presented system consists of a mobile base station and a multirotor UAV armed with spray equipment and a spraying tank. The main purpose of the concept is autonomous execution of spraying tasks on parcels of different surface ranges. The advantages and current problems related to the use of UAVs in smart spraying tasks are stated, and guidelines for the design of the base station are given. Since multirotor UAVs are characterized by high energy consumption, special emphasis is placed on the characterization and adequate selection of components in order to obtain satisfactory flight performance and necessary flight duration. Furthermore, the aircraft system is divided into four subsystems (equipment and payload, electric energy, electric propulsion, and control subsystem), thus achieving a certain degree of modularity. In the last part of the paper, guidelines for designing a real system through the phases of characterization, analysis, and simulation are presented.
UAVs are found in a wide range of applications in PA due to their advantages over the use of current agricultural machinery. Their flexibility and a high degree of autonomy, along with low labor needs and avoidance of crops and soil damage, significantly increase agricultural productivity and sustainability. The efficient use of chemicals in agricultural production is crucial in order to reduce harm to human health and also to reduce costs. UAVs can be an effective and inexpensive alternative to conventional spraying, and applications can be extended to crop fertilization, seed sowing, and similar activities. The equipment in charge of spraying can be relatively easily retrofitted to this type of aircraft, which further reduces the cost of the system. In terms of system autonomy, a multirotor type of UAV is able to perform precision pesticide spraying missions given the specifics of the crop, the severity of the disease or pest, the location, and other requirements. The key thing in carrying out the mission is precisely controlled droplets deposition on the target and reducing the environmental pollution. Several UAV system parameters need to be considered, including flight route (path pattern), spraying height, flight speed, nozzle flow rate, number and orientation of nozzles, and others. There are several commercial smart spraying systems, and one of the most used all-in-one solutions is DJI Agras (Figure 1) [41].
DJI Agras MG-1 commercial aircraft [
Multirotor unmanned aerial vehicles intended for plant protection can be used on flat plots but also hilly and extremely uneven terrain. The application of an aerial robotic system for smart spraying missions in the rural area of Hrvatsko Zagorje, which is characterized by hilly terrain (relief), was considered, where typical landscape is shown in Figure 2. Apart from the demanding terrain, the problem is the fragmentation of plots and an uneven distribution of crops (by square footage and shape). Besides, some plots are very difficult to access with the machinery currently in use because there are very narrow roads between plots that are often unorganized, and some plots do not have any access roads. The abovementioned implies the need to design a flexible robotic system that can be used on parcels of wider square footage. In this chapter, the concept of an aerial robotic system consisting of a mobile base station and a multirotor UAV armed with spray equipment and a tank is considered. The possibility of performing vertical take-off and landing of a multirotor type of UAV allows easy docking of the aircraft with the base station.
Presentation of a typical landscape in Hrvatsko Zagorje characterized by small and irregular plots.
A base station is a mobile multifunctional docking facility that has several functions. From the aspect of system planning and control, the essential component is a computer with associated modules that send and receive wireless signals from the aircraft online and also serve as an interface between the user and the aircraft. The mission parameters can be set via the base station, i.e., the flight can be planned based on the tasks that the aircraft needs to perform. The base station will determine flight parameters (path, speed, height) based on the required pesticide amount for specific area and the volume of spraying tank. Mission parameters determine the course of execution since this type of system can be used for different dimensions of plots and can also be used to perform a task on several plots. The base station should be able to change the batteries as needed for the mission and recharge the tank. After the aircraft completes the first part of the task and consumes the chemical, it returns vertically to the base station to fill up the tank and replace the battery. After the change, the aircraft performs a vertical take-off and continues to perform the task of spraying at the place where it stopped before loading. It follows from the above mentioned that the base station must be designed in such a way as to enable aircraft take-off and landing, two-way communication, easy and safe replacement of batteries, and pump to fill up the tank. In addition to the listed basic functions, the base station can also have a module (generator) for charging batteries. Figure 3 schematically shows the concept of an autonomous aerial robotic system consisting of a multifunctional mobile base station and a multirotor aircraft for smart spraying tasks.
Schematic representation of the concept of an aerial robotic system.
Multirotor aircraft are mechanical systems that exist in 3D space with six degrees of freedom (DOF) consisting of N rotors. From the aspect of dynamics, they are considered as symmetrical rigid bodies, where the only moving parts are the rotors of the propulsion assembly on whose axes are mounted propellers with a fixed pitch angle. Propellers create aerodynamic forces and moments by their rotation, so it follows that the angular velocities of the rotor are the only variables that have a direct impact on flight dynamics. The development and design of multirotor UAVs depend on constraints in size and energy consumption, and a key parameter in system design is aircraft weight. Given that the multirotor type of UAV is characterized by high energy consumption, it is extremely important to correctly select the components and parameters of the system in order to reduce energy consumption and extend the flight duration. To ensure overall flight performance, it is necessary to determine the thrust-to-weight ratio (TWR), and as a rule, aircraft are designed with approximately twice the thrust of the weight.
The equipment of a multirotor aircraft depends primarily on the mission to be performed, which affects the selection of components and parameters of other subsystems. In addition to standard applications where multirotor UAVs are used in data collection missions, mainly using different types of cameras, they can also be used in special applications. Since the paper considers the application in precision agriculture in smart spraying tasks, the payload of the aircraft is divided into two segments. The first segment consists of the equipment in charge of distributing and spraying the chemical under pressure. The essential parts are a set of hoses and manifolds, sprinklers, nozzles, and pump assembly. It is mounted on the existing aircraft frame, mainly on the landing gear or propulsion arms. The second segment consists of a tank containing a chemical that has a variable mass since it is deployed during the mission.
One of the most widely used commercial aircraft for agricultural purposes is the DJI Agras MG-1, an electric motor multirotor UAV with protection against dust and water. It is designed for applications in a variety of environments and terrains and can be used in fields, terraces, orchards, or other areas. It uses a microwave radar located on the underside of the aircraft that in combination with an altitude stabilization system maintains the aircraft at the desired height above the plants in order to ensure optimal spraying. The volume of the tank is 10 liters, and according to the manufacturer\'s specifications, it can cover an area of 7–10 acres per hour. The spray mechanism consists of four sprinklers located on two sides of the aircraft. The diameter of the aircraft is 1520 mm, and the configuration consists of eight rotors (octorotor) placed in one plane as shown in Figure 4 [41].
DJI Agras representation [
As already mentioned, multirotor UAVs are characterized by high energy consumption as they use rotating wings (propellers) to move in 3D space. The energy subsystem must provide sufficient energy to the aircraft to perform the intended missions and must be compatible with the components of the propulsion subsystem. When selecting the components and parameters of the energy subsystem, the energy requirements of the propulsion subsystem must be taken into account, which in turn depends on the mass and size of the aircraft and the number of propulsion units. The energy subsystem consists of one or more lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries and energy distribution elements. LiPo batteries consist of one or more electrochemical cells in which lithium ions transfer charge between electrodes. They are characterized by high energy density and high discharge rate, which allows higher power and consistent energy flow to the propulsion subsystem. The main parameters of LiPo batteries are their mass, capacity, discharge rate (C), and the number of cells that determine the operating voltage (S).
Batteries are the heaviest elements of the aircraft system and have the greatest impact on aircraft dynamics, so it is advisable to place them as close as possible to the aircraft center of gravity. Battery capacity also plays an important role as the flight time of the aircraft depends on it. Hence, the ratio of mass and capacity of the battery is one of the key data when designing a multirotor UAV system. The parameters of the considered Gens ace commercial high-voltage (12S) batteries are listed in Table 1. In addition to batteries, the energy subsystem consists of sophisticated circuits for energy distribution and measurement of electrical parameters of the battery.
Battery | Capacity (mAh) | Discharge rate | Mass (g) | Dimension (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tattu 10000 | 10000 | 30 C | 2741 | 182*118*68 |
Tattu Plus 1.0 16000 | 16000 | 15 C | 4700 | 224*163*90 |
Tattu Plus 1.0 22000 | 22000 | 25 C | 6058 | 237*173*116 |
DJI MG-12000S | 12000 | 20 C | 3800 | 195*151*70 |
Typical characteristics of high voltage (12S) LiPo batteries [43].
The propulsion subsystem of a multirotor UAV is determined by the parameters of the geometric arrangement of the configuration and the characteristics of the propulsion units that make it up. All designs of the propulsion subsystem (configurations) have in common that they consist of N propulsion units (rotors) that generate the necessary forces and moments for the movement of the aircraft in 3D space. Conventional multirotor configurations generally consist of an even number of equal rotors symmetrically arranged in one or more parallel planes. Each pair consists of CW and CCW rotors for the purpose of canceling the reactive moment about the vertical axis of the aircraft. The required performance of the aircraft depends on the type and profile of the mission such as payload, flight duration, power consumption, or other specific requirements. The choice of the propulsion configuration and the type of propulsion units is the key step in the design of the multirotor type of UAV because the flight performance depends on it. Figure 5 shows the configurations on the same scale of the six-rotor configuration considered in this paper and the eight-rotor configuration that makes up the propulsion subsystem of the DJI Agras commercial aircraft.
Conventional multirotor UAV configurations.
The considered electric propulsion units (EPUs) enable precise and fast regulation of control forces and moments that directly affect the position and orientation of the aircraft. The EPU consists of an electronic unit (driver) and a mechanical motor assembly on whose rotor a fixed-pitch propeller is mounted. The brushless DC (BLDC) motor is the central part of the EPU for which there are mostly detailed manufacturer specifications with relevant collocation of driver and propeller. There are EPU components on the market with a very wide choice of motor power, so they can be used in a wide range of multirotor applications, including precision agriculture missions such as smart spraying tasks where carrying a heavier payload is required. The motor speed is controlled by an integrated power inverter, the so-called electronic speed controller (ESC), which generates the switching sequence of the motor phases for the desired RPM specified by the control unit. The rotor of the propulsion unit on which the propeller with fixed pitch is mounted creates aerodynamic forces and moments necessary for the movement of the aircraft. BLDC motor is defined with motor velocity constant (back EMF constant) Kv. Motors of low power, small dimensions, and large motor constants are used mainly to power micro and small aircraft intended for entertainment or sports (drone racing). On the other hand, high-power and large-dimensions motors with small motor constants are intended for heavy equipment and loads (heavy lift).
In this study, for the needs of the aerial robotic system concept, five combinations of EPUs are considered, which are combined with a high-voltage (12S) energy subsystem setup. Based on the specification of the propulsion components manufacturer, the characterization of EPUs intended for heavy payloads was performed. Selected BLDC motors have a low motor velocity constant (Kv <200), which means that they have lower speeds, so in combination with larger-diameter propellers, they achieve higher torques. Figure 6 shows the thrust force and efficiency of EPUs as a function of electrical power for the five considered setups. Propeller designations indicate geometry where the first two numbers indicate the propeller diameter in inches, e.g., a propeller marked G32x11 has a diameter of 32″. The next two numbers indicate the pitch of the propeller, also in inches, as the distance that propeller advances during one revolution.
Considered EPU characteristics [
The basic task of the control subsystem is to guide the multirotor UAV in 3D space according to the given input variables. In addition, it takes care of the functioning of the entire system and is a kind of interface between the multirotor and the docking facility. The control subsystem primarily consists of a flight controller (FC), state estimation sensors, telemetry, and a remote control receiver. Since the multirotor type of UAVs is characterized by inherent instability, the key component of the aircraft is FC, and it can be freely said that it represents the brain of the aircraft. To control the aircraft concept that would be used in precision agriculture, Pixhawk open-source FC is being considered. The control algorithm generates control signals that it sends to the propulsion units in order to achieve the desired movement in 3D space, i.e., to perform the mission. Orientation sensors are integrated into the Pixhawk FC, and as for the position of the aircraft, it is obtained using a peripheral compatible GPS.
From the aspect of system design, the control subsystem is very demanding because, in addition to the choice of hardware, it is necessary to design a software solution. The considered control unit has already been used in the research so far, and certain segments of code have been tested. Figure 7 schematically shows the custom firmware that is planned to be used in the future to control the aircraft in precision agriculture.
Schematic representation of custom firmware main subsystems.
A series of experiments were conducted to primarily verify the motor mixer subsystem for different aircraft configurations. This will be extremely important for implementation on a prototype aircraft as configurations with different geometric arrangement parameters and with different propulsion unit characteristics have been tested. The first series of experiments was done with a small custom-made quadrotor with x-arrangement. Figure 8 shows the experimental results of reference attitude tracking. In the next series of experiments, a configuration consisting of eight rotors in a + arrangement, so-called octorotor, was tested (Figure 9).
Attitude control experiment for custom quadrotor.
Attitude control experiment for custom octorotor.
This chapter will present the results of individual design phases of a multirotor aircraft that is planned to be used as an integral part of the presented concept of an air robotic system for applications in precision agriculture. Experimental measurements of the considered propulsion units were conducted, on the basis of which payload analysis was performed for several configurations. Based on obtained physical parameters, a model was set up and preliminary simulations were performed, with the help of which it is possible to estimate the energy consumption of a real system.
In order to adequately select aircraft components to ensure the performance of aircraft required for certain tasks (maximum cargo weight, flight speed, flight time, others), it is important to determine the thrust generated by a specific combination of motor and propeller and to determine power consumption. Based on a certain thrust, the maximum load capacity of the aircraft is determined with regard to the defined thrust-to-weight ratio. Based on electricity consumption, more specifically through the relationship between electric current and thrust, it is possible to estimate the maximum flight time depending on the mission. Manufacturers of propulsion elements generally also provide specifications, as previously shown in Figure 6; however, these data are not in all cases consistent with actual characteristics. Therefore, for a more precise analysis of the propulsion, it is necessary to perform characterization, and in this paper, the method described in the previous research was used [45] utilizing the experimental test stand RCbenchmark 1780 [46]. Figure 10 shows the thrust force as a function of the angular velocity of the rotor for the considered propulsion units where the measured experimental characteristics and the characteristics according to the manufacturer\'s specifications are shown. Furthermore, Figure 11 shows the electric current as a function of the thrust force for the purpose of estimating the flight time.
Thrust force with respect to rotor angular velocity.
Electric current with respect to the thrust force.
As mentioned in the previous sections, the weight (mass) of the aircraft plays an important role as it will directly affect the maximum payload of the aircraft. In order to be able to accurately determine the payload of an aircraft, the weight of all aircraft components/subsystems has to be known. Taking into account the choice of propulsion components, and the configuration of the aircraft, the choice of the energy subsystem will greatly affect the carrying capacity of the aircraft. Figure 12 graphically shows the dependence of the mass distribution of the aircraft subsystems in the case of three conventional aircraft configurations and various battery capacities. It can be seen that the mass of the avionics (control) subsystem can be considered fixed since the components that make up the control subsystem do not change in relation to the changes of other subsystems. The mass of the propulsion subsystem varies with the number of EPUs required to perform certain missions and significantly affects the total mass of the system. In terms of energy consumption, more units will require more energy, which means that more batteries will be needed, and the mass of the batteries, i.e., the mass of the energy subsystem, has the greatest impact on the total mass. All this affects the maximum payload of the aircraft. A larger number of EPUs will generally provide higher thrust and a higher payload mass, although they will also require a heavier energy subsystem with the ability to deliver more energy. The process of designing a multirotor aircraft is extremely demanding, especially given the limitations that exist in the size of the aircraft, but also energy consumption (Figure 12).
System mass distribution for three conventional configurations.
Although a change in battery capacity will not change the overall thrust generated by the propulsion subsystem, it will affect the overall mass of the system and thus the payload of the aircraft and the flight time. The higher-capacity batteries have an expected higher mass, thus leaving less space for payload mass and requiring higher energy consumption to compensate for heavier aircraft. Thus, a higher-capacity battery does not always result in a longer flight time.
Since the system is divided into four key subsystems, as mentioned earlier, a certain degree of modularity is allowed. In the further work, special attention will be paid in the design phase to the construction of modular elements, which would allow easy assembly of aircraft configurations with different numbers of rotor arms, thus further expanding the diversity of the system and potentially reducing energy consumption. In this sense, the guidelines presented in the previous work [47] regarding the small educational aircraft will be used.
In the use of UAV for spraying or similar tasks such as fertilization or even seed sowing, the payload capacity is specific. As the aircraft tank is filled with the required chemicals (either fertilizer or seed) and depleted during usage, the weight (mass) of the aircraft will also continuously decrease. In order to efficiently conduct the spraying task with low energy and time losses, the flight path needs to be planned with regard to the tank size and the chemical consumption rate. The rate of chemical consumption is also not fixed for the whole parcel but depends on the crop health condition estimated based on sensor readings. Flight planning is an extremely complex process that includes many parameters, which will be the subject of future research.
To determine the energy consumption of the aircraft during the spraying mission and to approximately determine the required flight time, it is necessary to conduct computer simulations in the development phase of the prototype. In this way, the development time and the price of the product can be significantly shortened, as the possibility of incorrect selection of system components and parameters is reduced. Preliminary simulations are presented in this paper, where typical spraying parameters are taken: nozzle spraying rate of 0.375 L/min, spray width of 5 m, and flying speed of 2 m/s. The aircraft is equipped with a spraying tank of 25 L volume, and four spraying nozzles, which gives a total spraying rate of 1.5 L/min. Based on those specifications, a minimum flight time of 16.5 min is required to deplete the whole tank, and in that time area of approximately 10000 m2 can be covered. The aircraft parameters (mass and inertia) were obtained based on a simplified 3D CAD model. Figure 13 shows the most elementary case when the mission consists of uniform spraying of the crop. Air resistance or any disturbances are not included in the simulations, this is planned in the next phases of the research.
An example of the aircraft trajectory in a spraying mission.
Based on the planned flight consisting of take-off, horizontal flight in the pattern, and landing, the angular velocities of individual EPUs or direct control signals (PWM) can be extracted from the model, as shown in Figure 14. As mentioned, with the consumption of the chemical, the mass of the aircraft is reduced, which results in fewer forces and moments of the propulsion subsystem required for motion in 3D space, which can be seen in the figure where the control signals are continuously reduced. The main goal of the simulation is to determine the energy consumption of the aircraft by approximating the individual energy consumption of each EPU, which can be determined if the flight pattern and the change in aircraft mass are known. Since there are characteristics of propulsion units, it is easy to connect electrical quantities (electric current, voltage, and electric power) with the control signal or the angular velocity of the rotor. This can further allow the selection of optimal system components and parameters, which is extremely important in the system design phase.
Motor control signals related to given spraying mission.
This paper discusses the current state of the art regarding the use of multirotor UAVs for spraying tasks in precise agriculture. The possibilities of application of the proposed autonomous aerial robotic system consisting of a mobile base station and a multirotor type of UAV were demonstrated. The purpose of the presented system was to autonomously perform spraying tasks on different ranges of surfaces, including large crops parcels. In such a system, special emphasis was placed on the functions of the mobile base station, which had to provide support for autonomous spraying and be a user interface. By selecting the correct components and parameters of the aircraft system, satisfactory spraying coverage, flight performance, and flight duration were achieved. In the future work, it is planned in the first phase to prototype the aircraft and then extensive testing of the control module. In the second phase, it is planned to design custom aircraft equipment and a mobile base station.
This research was funded by European Regional Development Fund, Operational programme competitiveness and cohesion 2014–2020, as part of the call for proposals entitled “Investing in science and innovation—first call,” grant number KK.01.1.1.04.0092.
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However, recent reports have revealed that the use of veterinary drugs in large amounts and consistently could result in deposition of antimicrobial residues in muscle and organs of animal. Consumption of these residues in animal products may pose health risk to consumers including development of antibiotic resistance bacteria, allergy, reproductive disorder and hypersensitivity reaction. It is in line with this that this chapter seeks to examine the cause, occurrence, mode of detection, health implication and possible solution to veterinary drugs residues in meat and meat products.",book:{id:"8634",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-pharmaceuticals",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Andrew Bamidele Falowo and Oluwakamisi Festus Akimoladun",authors:[{id:"271285",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:"Bamidele",surname:"Falowo",slug:"andrew-falowo",fullName:"Andrew Falowo"},{id:"288263",title:"Mr.",name:"Oluwakamisi Festus",middleName:null,surname:"Akimoladun",slug:"oluwakamisi-festus-akimoladun",fullName:"Oluwakamisi Festus Akimoladun"}]},{id:"66512",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84888",title:"Veterinary Pharmaceuticals and Antimicrobial Resistance in Developing Countries",slug:"veterinary-pharmaceuticals-and-antimicrobial-resistance-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Veterinary pharmaceuticals include a wide range of anti-infectives and additives in the use for animal health, nutrition, reproduction, and productivity. Antimicrobials are among the most extensively used drugs in developing countries largely due to large population of livestock and the burden of infectious diseases. The introduction of penicillin in 1943 and other antibiotics thereafter provided remedies for many infections in humans and animals, reducing mortality and productivity losses. Since then, a repertoire of antibiotics and antimicrobials has been introduced as chemotherapeutics and/or prophylaxis. This success notwithstanding, many pathogens of consequences are no longer susceptible owing to emergence of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) microorganisms. This has made treatment of infectious diseases less effective. Beside spontaneous emergence of mutant microorganisms, scientists are wary of AMR caused by intensive use of antibiotics in humans and animals, sometimes in subtherapeutic doses as preventive medicine. In developing countries, environmental exposure and persistent use of antibiotics in food animals may leave residues in the food chain. The consequences include development of AMR. 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There are two hosts for the transmission of Babesia spp., viz. invertebrate (tick) and vertebrate host. Dogs are one among the many targets of Babesia spp., causing canine babesiosis, and now there are clinical evidences of possible vertical transmission too. Dogs of all ages can be affected with Babesia spp., but young puppies are more commonly affected. Considering advanced diagnostic techniques, for an early and specific detection of acute infections, an AgELISA that is potentially translatable to a rapid diagnostic test design is reported. Different molecular techniques used for identification and differentiation of the various species of Babesia are semi-nested PCR, reverse line blotting and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Treatment consists of three components: treatment with antiprotozoal agents to eliminate the parasite, blood transfusions to treat severe anaemia and supportive care for the complications and metabolic derangements. Blood lactate concentrations can serve as a prognostic indicator in severe or complicated canine babesiosis. For prevention apart from conventional measures, vaccines against Babesia species such as B. gibsoni are currently being developed.",book:{id:"8634",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-pharmaceuticals",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Poonam Vishwakarma and M.K. Nandini",authors:[{id:"267230",title:"Dr.",name:"Poonam",middleName:null,surname:"Vishwakarma",slug:"poonam-vishwakarma",fullName:"Poonam Vishwakarma"},{id:"267243",title:"Dr.",name:"Nandini",middleName:null,surname:"M. K",slug:"nandini-m.-k",fullName:"Nandini M. 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However, recent reports have revealed that the use of veterinary drugs in large amounts and consistently could result in deposition of antimicrobial residues in muscle and organs of animal. Consumption of these residues in animal products may pose health risk to consumers including development of antibiotic resistance bacteria, allergy, reproductive disorder and hypersensitivity reaction. 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The cases of AMR continue to escalate and cause devastating effect to both humans and animals. AMR contributes to high morbidity and mortality of the livestock, which results in staggering economic losses to the livestock producers. The main factor for AMR to arise in this industry is mainly due to the eagerness of livestock producers to meet high demand by using antimicrobials to promote animal growth and disease prevention. From a public health perspective, AMR in dairy cattle can also jeopardize human population due to the potential dissemination of AMR pathogens to humans via consumption of infected dairy products or direct contact with infected dairy cattle. At the current rate of unrestricted antimicrobial usage, AMR will be expedited and soon we will run out of effective treatment for even the simplest infection. World Health Organization (WHO) has issued a set of guidelines for the use of medically important antimicrobials on animals to mitigate the adverse consequences of AMR on human. Thus, this chapter will explain antimicrobial usage in dairy cattle production and the recent approaches and challenges on AMR.",book:{id:"8634",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-pharmaceuticals",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals",fullTitle:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Enli Loo, Kok Song Lai and Rozaihan Mansor",authors:[{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai"},{id:"240934",title:"Dr.",name:"Rozaihan",middleName:null,surname:"Mansor",slug:"rozaihan-mansor",fullName:"Rozaihan Mansor"},{id:"264957",title:"Mr.",name:"Loo",middleName:null,surname:"Enli",slug:"loo-enli",fullName:"Loo Enli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1193",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",slug:"sandra-ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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