These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
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To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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1. Introduction
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Dental alloys on the basis of cobalt and chromium are one of the most preferred for production of metal frameworks of dental constructions because of their high strength, high corrosion and wear resistance, high biocompatibility, and a relatively low cost [1, 2]. The chemical composition of Co-Cr dental alloys consists of 53–67% of Co, 25–32% of Cr, 2–6% of Mo, and small quantities of W, Si, Al, and others [3]. Cr, Mo, and W are added for strengthening of the solid solution. Due to the relatively large amount of Cr, dense passive layer of Cr2O3 with 1–4 nm thickness on the surface as well as carbides in the microstructure of the details is formed, determining the high hardness, high corrosion, and wear resistance [4, 5]. According to the phase diagram, Co-Cr dental alloys are characterized with face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice, γ phase in high temperatures, and with hexagonal close packed (hcp) lattice, ε phase in room temperature [4, 6]. The γ phase defines the ductility, while the ε phase defines the corrosion and wear resistance of the alloy [7]. In proper alloying, the microstructure of the Co-Cr dental alloys consists mainly of γ phase and carbides of the M23C6 type [4]. Therefore, the properties of Co-Cr dental alloys depend on the ratio between γ/ε phases and the type, quantity and distribution of the carbide phase in the microstructure.
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The microstructure and properties of dental alloys depend on the manufacturing process and the technological regimes. Since the beginning of the last century, casting is the most common technology for production of metal constructions in dentistry. During this conventional technology, the metal frameworks are fabricated by centrifugal casting using hand-built wax patterns. The technological process is characterized with large amount of manual work, and although it is performed by a qualified dental technician, it can lead to low accuracy and satisfactory quality. The advent of the modern CAD/CAM systems and the additive technologies in the last 30 years of the last century allow to decrease the amount of manual work and production time, to improve the quality of dental constructions and as a consequence to reduce their price [8, 9].
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The additive technologies (AT) are developed in the late 1980s as an alternative of the subtractive technologies. They are characterized with building of one layer at a time from a powder or liquid that is bonded by means of melting, fusing, or polymerization. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defined additive manufacturing as ‘the process of joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies’ [8–10]. These processes are also known as ‘three-dimensional printing’, ‘layered manufacturing’, ‘free-form fabrication’, ‘rapid prototyping’ and ‘rapid manufacturing’ [9–11]. The ASTM international committee, intended for specification of standards for additive manufacturing—ASTM F42—created a categorization of all 3D printing technologies into seven major groups [11]. According to it, the following 3D printing technologies are used in work with biomaterials: 3D plotting/direct ink writing, laser-assisted bioprinting, selective laser sintering, stereolithography, fused deposition modeling, and robot-assisted deposition/robocasting. The stereolithography (SLA), fused deposition modeling (FDM), selective electron beam melting (SEBM), selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), and ink-jet printing (IJP) are among the AT, mostly used in the dental medicine [8, 9, 12–15].
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During the SLA process, a concentrated beam of UV light is focused on the surface of a tank filled with liquid photopolymer. As the light beam draws the object on the surface of the liquid, each time a layer of resin is polymerized or cross-linked until the real object is obtained [8, 9, 12, 14, 16]. The FDM characterizes with extruding the thermoplastic materials through heated nozzle, or the material is fed from a reservoir through a syringe [9, 12, 16]. By SEBM, the parts are manufactured by melting metal powder layer per layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum [8, 9, 14, 16]. In SLS/SLM technology, layers of particular powder material (mainly polymers and porcelains in SLS and pure metals or alloys in SLM) are fused into a real detail by a computer-directed laser [8, 9, 12, 17]. During IJP process, an extremely small ink droplet is ejected toward the substrate. Different substances can be used as ink aqueous solution of colouring agents and binders to a ceramic suspension to produce zirconia dental restorations [8, 9, 12, 18]. Another variant of the IJP is by depositing droplets of a polymer, and each formed layer is cured by UV light, which allows polymer material with characteristics similar to the technical wax to be used [8, 9, 13].
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The main advantages of AT include production of complex objects from different materials—polymers, composites, metals and alloys; manufacturing of parts with dense/porous structure and predetermined surface roughness and controllable, is an easy and relatively quick process [9]. Due to the various materials used and the great variety of additive manufacturing processes, AT can be successfully applied in many fields of dentistry for the production of different types of dental constructions. AT give even opportunities to fabricate structures of hard-to-handle materials such as cobalt and chromium alloys [19]. Polymeric study models instead of dental plaster casts, surgical guides for placement of dental implants, temporary crowns and bridges as well as resin models for lost-wax casting can be fabricated by SLA and FDM [8, 9, 12, 20–22]. SEBM and SLM are used for manufacturing of customized implants for maxillofacial surgery, dense or porous dental implants, dental crowns and bridges as well as partial denture frameworks [23–31]. IJP is suitable for printing of zirconia dental restorations, polymeric dental models, orthodontic bracket guides, wax patterns of complete dentures, or wax models for casting [8, 9, 32, 33].
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There are two main approaches for the production of metal constructions from Co-Cr dental alloys using AT. The first one concerns to the fabrication of wax/polymeric cast patterns by 3D printing, and the second one is casting of the framework from dental alloy. Through the second one, the metal object is manufactured directly from the 3D virtual model by SEBM or SLM. As the additive technologies are relatively new, develop extremely fast and with their indisputable advantages enter in many areas, so their implementation into the dentistry is faster than the research and data about the quality of the details produced by them. The aim of the present chapter is to make a review of the properties of dental alloys, fabricated using additive technologies. The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr alloys as well as the accuracy and surface roughness of dental constructions are discussed.
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2. Properties of Co-Cr dental alloys cast with 3D-printed patterns
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The wax/polymeric cast patterns can be produced from generated 3D virtual models by laser-assisted or digital light projection (DLP) stereolithography, fused deposition modeling, and ink-jet printing. The type of the additive manufacturing process, the parameters of its technological regimes, and the properties of the used materials influence mainly on the geometrical characteristics, adjustment accuracy, and surface roughness of the cast patterns [33–36], thus defining the accuracy and surface quality of the cast dental constructions. As with any AT, the layer\'s thickness, the position of the object toward the print direction, and the optical properties of the polymers (in SLA) have a decisive effect on the object\'s accuracy. The thinner the layer, the lower the angle to the print direction, and the lower the surface roughness, the higher the resolution and the dimensional accuracy, but the longer the production time [37].
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The accuracy of dental constructions, produced by the modern CAD/CAM systems, is defined in the standard ISO 12836:2015 ‘Dentistry—Digitizing devices for CAD/CAM systems for indirect dental restorations—Test methods for assessing accuracy’ [38]. Three standardized geometrical figures for accuracy evaluation are described in its Annexes A, B, and C [38]. Braian et al. [39] used the figures in the Annexes A and C, specifying the measurement of an inlay-shaped object and a multiunit specimen to simulate a four-unit bridge, for determining the production tolerances of four commercially available additive manufacturing systems, working on the SLS, multi-jet, or poly-jet principles. The samples were printed with different layer\'s thicknesses, optimal for each system, and ensuring the highest product\'s accuracy (as per the equipment manufacturer). According to the ISO/IEC GUIDE 99:2007(E/F) [40], the ‘accuracy’ is the closeness of agreement between a measured quantity value and a true quantity value of a measured object. The authors [39] defined the terms ‘resolution’ and ‘repeatability’. The resolution refers to the smallest feature that the system can produce, while the reproducibility is described as the system ability to produce consistent output time after time. The researchers established that the accuracy of both types of samples, produced with four printers, is different in the three directions. The multi-jet printing ensures the highest accuracy of the linear as well as angular dimensions, followed by poly-jet process and SLS. It was concluded that the suitable type of printer should be chosen according to the intended dental application.
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In evaluation of restorations, fabricated by digital technologies, subtractive (milling of wax and zirconia) and additive (SLA of photopolymer and SLS of Co-Cr alloy), Bae et al. [41] found out that the dimensions of the samples of all four groups are smaller than the reference data. Concerning to the repeatability of AT, they established the smallest difference from the reference data in the specimens, fabricated using SLA, and no significant differences between the SLA and SLS methods. Therefore, they concluded that the accuracy of additive manufacturing methods is better than the subtractive ones, as the mean accuracy discrepancies are the smallest for SLA, followed by the SLS, wax, and zirconia milling. But they pointed out the following as disadvantages: the print layers, clearly seen on the surface of the SLA sample, and circular, sunken forms of approximately 80 μm in diameter on the SLS specimen surface. The investigations of Mai et al. [42] proved that the crowns fabricated by CAD/CAM systems (milling and polymer-jet 3D printing) have higher fitting accuracy than that of the molded ones. Among them, the polymer-jet 3D printing significantly enhanced the fit of the interim crowns, particularly in the occlusal region. According to Kim et al. [43], the fitting accuracy of dental crowns is affected by the number of copings fabricated by micro-stereolithography. Based on the marginal discrepancy, the most precise copings are printed when three arrays are used on a single-built platform. Therefore, there are limitations concerning to the reproducibility and accuracy of polymeric dental constructions, manufactured by 3D printing.
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Ishida and Miyasaka [44] investigated the accuracy of the patterns for casting of all metal crowns, manufactured by four 3D printers, using different manufacturing processes: laser-assisted SLA, SLA with concentrated UV beam, FDM, and IJP. They established that in all types of manufacturing process, the outer and the inner diameters of the crowns are smaller than that of the virtual 3D model, which could be compensated with 3–5% increasing the dimensions of the virtual model. The FDM-printed crowns are characterized with the highest surface roughness, while the lowest is typical for the crowns, fabricated by laser-assisted SLA. Additionally, the difference of the roughness values along the 3D axes exists. They established that the roughness along the tooth axis of the crown created by laser-assisted SLA was the smallest, while that along the horizontal direction of the crown printed by multi-jet modeling (MJM) was the smallest. This can be explained with the specific features of the additive manufacturing process [8, 12, 45].
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The higher roughness of the surfaces, parallel, or inclined to the print direction (Z axes), compared to that along X and Y axes is also established in the research of Dikova et al. [46]. Their investigations of cubic samples, printed with different polymers by DLP SLA, show that the roughness of the surfaces of the cubes with horizontal position toward the basis is less than those of the cubes, printed inclined in almost all types of polymers. All sizes of the cubes in both positions are larger than the size of the virtual model. In their subsequent investigations [47], it is observed that the decrease of the layer\'s thickness from 50 (recommended by the equipment manufacturer) to 35 μm leads to nearly twice decrease of the surface roughness of the samples, made of resin NextDent Cast (developed especially for manufacturing of cast patterns), in both printing positions. It also leads to the highest dimensional accuracy and the least interval of deviation. The research team has shown that the dimensions, parallel to the basis, axes X and Y, are the most precise, while those, parallel or inclined to the printing direction, axis Z, are the most deviating. The dimensional and adjustment accuracy as well as the surface roughness of four-part dental bridges, made of polymers NextDent Cast and NextDent C+B (for temporary crowns and bridges) by DLP SLA, are investigated in the work of Dikova et al. [48]. They established that the dimensions in both directions of the bridges from both polymers, fabricated with less layer\'s thickness of 35 μm, are smaller with 0.29–1.10%, compared to those of the virtual model, while the sizes of the bridges with larger layer\'s thickness of 50 μm are 1.51–3.45% more than the virtual model. Dimensions of the samples of both polymers, situated in the building direction, are larger with 1.51–3.45%, and those, which are not in the print direction, are 0.49–0.53% smaller than those of the virtual 3D model. The inaccuracy in the geometrical dimensions causes inaccuracy of adjusting and absence of gap between the bridge constructions and the gypsum model. The surface roughness of the cast patterns, manufactured with regime, recommended by the producer (50 μm layer\'s thickness), is relatively high with average arithmetic deviation of the surface roughness Ra = 3.24 μm. Decreasing the layer\'s thickness to 35 μm leads to the lower surface roughness of Ra = 2.18 μm. The surface observations with optical microscopy proved the layered structure, which is a specific feature of the objects built up via stereolithography. The higher roughness of the 3D-printed cast patterns can complicate the cast process and cause higher roughness of the cast itself.
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The geometrical accuracy of fixed dental prostheses, manufactured by additive technologies, is investigated in Ref. [49]. Four-part dental bridges are produced of Co-Cr alloy by three technological processes: conventional lost-wax casting with wax models, manufactured in silicon mold; lost-wax casting with 3D-printed (multi-jet modeling (MJM) cast patterns, and direct fabricating by SLM. It was established that the surface roughness of Co-Cr fixed partial dentures, cast with 3D-printed wax patterns, is more than three times higher than the roughness of dentures, cast by conventional lost-wax technology (Ra = 3.39 μm and Ra = 1.11 μm, respectively). The surface observation of Co-Cr dental bridges proves the higher roughness as well as the traces of the layered manufacturing of the cast patterns, left even after sandblasting. The fixed partial dentures, cast with 3D-printed cast patterns, possess higher accuracy of the shape, sizes, and adjustment compared to the dentures, produced by conventional lost-wax casting. This is mainly due to the minimal manual work, because 3D-printed cast patterns are produced directly from the virtual model.
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The microstructure of Co-Cr sample, cast with 3D-printed pattern (MJM), is a typical cast microstructure—inhomogeneous, consisting of large grains with dendrite morphology [50]. A large amount of lamellar and blocky carbides of different sizes are located mainly along the grain boundaries. The dendrites consist of γ phase, while the inter-dendritic regions consist of microeutectic (Co solid solution with intermetallic precipitations) and carbides of the (Cr, Mo)23C6 type. The hardness of the Co-Cr samples, cast with 3D-printed patterns, is in the range 327HV–343HV with uneven distribution due to the inhomogeneous microstructure. The dendritic grains with intermetallic phases, precipitated along the grain boundaries, were observed in the microstructure of the samples, cast with 3D-printed patterns from Co-Cr alloy remanium star CL by Kim et al. [51]. They characterized with yield strength 540 ± 20 MPa, mean percent elongation 10 ± 2 and Young\'s modulus 260 ± 20 GPa.
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The microstructure and strength properties of Co-Cr dental alloys, cast with 3D-printed patterns, are typical for castings. Their dimensional and fitting accuracy is higher than that of the constructions, manufactured by conventional casting, while their surface roughness is more than three times higher. Therefore, the dimensional and fitting accuracy and the surface roughness of Co-Cr dental substructures are strongly influenced by the quality of the cast patterns fabricated via AT. The data about the dimensional accuracy of wax/polymeric dental constructions, produced by different additive manufacturing processes, are contrary. In some cases, the dimensions of the printed objects are smaller than the virtual model; in another case, they are larger. It depends not only on the type of the manufacturing process but also on the scale factor—the sizes of the printed object. As a consequence of the low dimensional accuracy, the fitting accuracy is lower. The strategy of printing should be chosen very carefully, because too much objects in the same built platform can cause lower dimensional and fitting accuracy. Due to the features of the 3D printing processes, the sizes of the detail can be different in the three directions X, Y, and Z; therefore, it should be paid attention to the position of the object, especially toward the print direction. This will influence the surface roughness, too. The parameters of the technological regimes also influence the dimensional accuracy. Decreasing the layer\'s thickness leads to smaller sizes and lower roughness, which in some cases defines the higher accuracy. The special requirements to the materials, used for 3D printing of cast patterns, exist—to have no burned out residue and null or minimal thermal expansion—otherwise, the casting with low quality will be the result.
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For fabricating the high-quality castings from Co-Cr dental alloys using 3D-printed patterns, some steps concerning to the processes of 3D printing and casting should be observed. In 3D printing (1) the printer, ensuring the cast pattern with high dimensional and fitting accuracy and satisfactory surface roughness, has to be chosen. The present review shows that the systems, working on the principle of the laser-assisted SLA, DLP SLA, MJM, and polymer-jet printing, are good candidates; (2) As each printer works with its specific materials, the right material, meeting the requirements for manufacturing the cast patterns, should be used; (3) The optimal technological regime has to be chosen, including the layer\'s thickness; (4) The strategy of printing has to be developed—positions, and the number of the objects; (5) Preliminary tests, calibration on the three axes X, Y, and Z of the printer and compensation (if needed), have to be done to guarantee dimensions with high accuracy; and (6) 3D printing, post-curing (in some processes), and final surface treatment to enhance the smoothness. In the second part, the casting processes are (1) selection of the investment material, relevant to the material of the 3D-printed cast pattern, should be done for manufacturing casting mold; (2) heating of the casting mold with temperature regime concerning to the material of the 3D-printed cast pattern and the Co-Cr alloy and (3) casting with the given Co-Cr alloy, keeping the manufacturer\'s requirement.
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3. Properties of Co-Cr dental alloys fabricated via SLM
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The properties of the Co-Cr dental alloys depend on the microstructure, its morphology, and composition, which are defined by the manufacturing process and the technological regimes. The SLM is a complex thermophysical process, depending on a number of important parameters. During SLM, layers of metal powder are fused into a real object by a computer-directed laser. The process characterizes with high heating and cooling rates, leading to fine-grained microstructure of the solidified layer. As the heat is led away through the solid body, phase transformations run in the underneath layers heated above the transition temperatures [50]. Due to the high-temperature gradients during the SLM process, high residual stresses are generated in the details, which can cause subsequent deformations [17, 52–54]. These characteristics determine the specific microstructure and properties of the objects, produced by SLM as compared with that, manufactured by casting. The main technological parameters that are crucial for the production of high-quality construction are the laser power, scanning speed, laser beam diameter and distance between the traces, layer\'s thickness, and the working area [55–58]. In the development of any process for production of an object by SLM, it is necessary to evaluate the density, accuracy, surface roughness, hardness, and strength properties.
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In SLM process, the volume of the molten metal depends on the volume energy density Ev, which is directly proportional to the power density Ns and inversely proportional to the scanning speed V. If the volume energy density Ev is insufficient, the incomplete melting of the deposited layer will occur. Therefore, the lower volume energy density Ev is the main reason for the porous structure [50]. This can be avoided by optimization of the technological parameters—increasing the laser power or decreasing the scanning speed. Varying with the input energy and scan spaces, Takaichi et al. [59] established that dense structure of SLM Co-29Cr-6Mo alloy can be obtained when the input energy of the laser scan increased more than 400 J/mm3 and porous, in input energy less than 150 J/mm3. Vandenbroucke and Kruth [60] ensured 99.9% density of the SLM Co-Cr-Mo alloy, working with optimized technological regime. In the investigation of the possibility for manufacturing of three-part dental bridge from Co-Cr alloy by SLM, Averyanova et al. [29] stated that all samples are densed with porosity less than 1%.
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The specific features of the SLM process, characterizing with high heating and cooling rates, define unique microstructure of Co-Cr dental alloys and mechanical properties higher than that of the cast alloys. Meacock and Vilar [61] reported that the microstructure of biomedical Co-Cr-Mo alloy, produced by laser powder micro-deposition, is homogeneously composed of fine cellular dendrites. The average hardness was 460 HV0.2, which is higher than the values obtained by the other fabrication process. In investigation of Co-Cr-Mo parts, produced by direct metal laser sintering, Barucca et al. [62] established that the microstructure consists of γ and ε phases. The ε phase is formed by athermal martensitic transformation, and it is distributed as network of thin lamellae inside the γ phase. The higher hardness (47 HRC) is attributed to the presence of the ε-lamellae grown on the {111}γ planes that restricts the dislocation movement in the γ phase. Lu et al. [63] investigated the microstructure, hardness, mechanical properties, electrochemical behaviour, and metal release of Co-Cr-W alloy fabricated by SLM in two different scanning strategies—line and island. They established the coexistence of the γ and ε phases in the microstructure and nearly the same hardness, 570 HV for line-formed alloy and 564 HV for island-formed alloy. Their research shows that the results of tensile strength (1158.22 ± 21 MPa for line scheme and 1115.56 ± 19 MPa for island scheme), hardness, density, electrochemical, and metal release tests are independent of the scanning strategy, and the yield strength of both samples meets the ISO 22764:2006 standard for dental restorations. The tensile strength of two Co-Cr dental alloys—cast remanium GM and SLM F75— was investigated in the work of Jevremovic et al. [64]. They established more than 1.5 times higher tensile strength of the SLM samples compared to the cast ones (1363–1472 MPa and 900 MPa, respectively). Vandenbroucke and Kruth [60] did complex investigation of SLM titanium and Co-Cr-Mo alloys. The mechanical tests proved that the SLM Co-Cr details fulfil the requirements for hardness, strength, and stiffness. Concerning to the corrosion—the SLM Co-Cr samples showed lower emission than the cast ones due to the more homogeneous and finer microstructure of the laser molten material.
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In investigation of the influence of the object\'s position to the building direction, some researchers established anisotropy of the mechanical properties and especially of fatigue strength. The microstructure and mechanical properties of SLM Co-29Cr-6Mo alloy were studied out in the work of Takaichi et al. [59]. Unique microstructure was formed, consisting of the fine cellular dendrites in the elongated grains, parallel to the building direction. The cellular boundaries were enriched with Cr and Mo, and the γ phase was dominant in the SLM building. Due to the unique microstructure, the mechanical anisotropy was confirmed in the samples, but the yield strength, Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), and elongation were higher than that of the cast alloy. The research of Kajima et al. [65] shows that the microstructure of SLM specimens of Co-Cr-Mo alloys is quite different from those of the cast samples, which consists of coarse dendrites with visible precipitates in the inter-dendritic regions. The fine cellular dendrites with diameter about 0.5 μm were observed in the SLM samples parallel to the building direction, while in directions, perpendicular or inclined at 45° to the building direction, fine columnar structures with diameter about 0.5 μm, elongated along the building direction, were found. In lower magnification, gradual arch-shaped molten pool boundaries, typical for the SLM process, were observed. The tensile strength of the three groups of specimens is in the range 1170–1274 MPa, which is higher than that of the cast samples. Concerning to the fatigue strength, the results confirmed the anisotropy of the SLM alloy. The samples, parallel to the building direction, exhibit significantly longer fatigue life than the cast specimens, while the fatigue life of the two groups is significantly shorter than that of the cast specimens.
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The research of Kim et al. [51] shows that the SLM Co-Cr alloy remanium star CL clearly exhibits the laser scan traces, as in higher magnification, the presence of fine grains with sizes about 35 μm can be recognized. The SLM samples showed the highest mean ultimate tensile strength, followed by milled/post-sintered, cast, and milled samples. The yield strength and mean percent elongation of SLM alloy were higher than the cast alloy (R0.2 = 580 ± 50 MPa and R0.2 = 540 ± 20 MPa, respectively), while Young\'s modulus was lower (200 ± 10 GPa for SLM and 260 ± 20 GPa for cast). A high yield strength and relatively low but sufficient modulus of elasticity of the SLM samples allow this technology to be used for manufacturing dental constructions, such as removable partial dentures, clasps, thin-veneered crowns, and wide-span bridges.
\n
Averyanova et al. [29] investigated three-part dental bridge of Co-Cr alloy, manufactured by SLM. The hardness of the SLM Co-Cr alloy is in the range of 400 ± 14 HV10 and 462 ± 22 HV0.05, while the average tensile strength is 1157 MPa, which is equal to that of the wrought alloy and about twice higher than the cast Co-Cr alloy (655 MPa). The microstructure of SLM dental bridges is nonequilibrium, consisting mainly of 98.7 ± 1.8% fcc Co-rich solid solution and 1.3 ± 0.5% of hcp ε phase. The investigation of Dikova et al. [50] established similar hardness of Co-Cr four-part dental bridges, produced by SLM (407–460 HV), which is higher than the cast alloy and has nearly even distribution along the depth of each crown. Their subsequent investigations [66] show that the tensile strength and the yield strength of the SLM Co-Cr alloy are higher than the cast alloy (R0.2 = 720 MPa and R0.2 = 410 MPa, respectively), while the elastic modulus is comparable (213 and 209 GPa, accordingly). The higher hardness and more homogeneous microstructure of SLM Co-Cr dental alloys determine their higher wear and corrosion resistance [67].
\n
The specific features of the SLM process and the parameters of the powder materials used determine the high surface roughness of the SLM Co-Cr dental alloys. The object position and orientation to the building direction as well as the choice and modeling of the supports are also of great importance [58]. The accuracy and the relation between the surface roughness and the sloping angle were researched in Ref. [60] using special benchmark models. It was proven that the surface roughness depends on the layer\'s thickness and sloping angle to the basis. The average arithmetic deviation of the surface roughness Ra varies between 6–18 μm for 20 μm layer\'s thickness and 13–33 μm for 50 μm layer\'s thickness. The higher values concern to the lower sloping angle to the basis of 8°, while the lower values for the larger angle of 70°. The research of Kajima et al. [65] confirmed that the surface roughness depends on the building direction. It is the lowest in the samples, perpendicular to the building direction, Ra = 10.22 μm, followed by that of the samples, inclined at 45o with Ra = 13.67 μm, and the highest in the samples, parallel to the building direction, Ra = 18.17 μm. It was established in Ref. [49] that the roughness of the vestibular surface of the second premolar of four-part dental bridge, manufactured by SLM, is nearly four times higher than the roughness of the conventional cast bridge (Ra = 4.24 μm and Ra = 1.11 μm, respectively) and 25% higher compared to that cast with 3D-printed patterns (Ra = 4.24 μm and Ra = 3.39 μm, respectively). It is proposed that the considerably higher roughness and partially melted powder on the surface of the SLM samples could lead to the increase of the mechanical as well as the chemical components of the adhesion of the porcelain to the Co-Cr alloys, thus promoting higher adhesion strength of the porcelain coating.
\n
Concerning to the standard ISO 9693-1:2012 [68], the minimum acceptable bond strength of metal-ceramic is 25 MPa. Kaleli and Sarac [69] compared porcelain bond strength of Co-Cr frameworks manufactured by conventional lost-wax technique, milling, direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), and direct process powder-bed method. There was no significant difference between the values of porcelain bond strength to the samples, produced by different methods. The mean bond strength was 38.08 MPa for cast samples, while that of the DMLS samples was 40.73 MPa. The type of failure of the cast samples was adhesive/mixed, while that of the DMLS samples was cohesive/mixed. Li et al. [70] confirmed that there are no significant differences between the bond strength of the cast, milled, and SLM Co-Cr alloys. The milled and SLM groups showed significantly more porcelain adherence than the cast group. Akova et al. [71] also revealed no statistically significant difference of the shear bond strength of porcelain to the cast and SLM Co-Cr dental alloys (72.9 and 67.0 MPa, respectively). The failure type of the porcelain of the cast samples was of the mixed adhesion-cohesion type, while the failure of the SLM samples was of the mixed/adhesive type. The similar porcelain bond strength to the cast and SLM Co-Cr dental alloys was confirmed in the work of Wu et al. [72]—54.17 and 55.78 MPa accordingly. They established that the SLM alloy had an intermediate layer with elemental interpretation between the alloy and the porcelain, resulting in an improved bonding strength. Xiang et al. [73] established no significant difference for the mean bond strength of the SLM (44 MPa) and traditional cast (43 MPa) Co-Cr samples. A mixed fracture mode on the debonding interface of both the SLM and the cast groups was observed, but the SLM group showed significantly more porcelain adherence. Only Wang et al. [74] stated that there are statistically significant differences of the porcelain bond strength to the cast, CNC milled and SLM Co-Cr samples (37.7 ± 6.5 MPa, 43.3 ± 9.2 MPa and 46.8 ± 5.1 MPa, respectively), as the debonding surface of the all samples was of the cohesive failure mode. It should be noticed out that the surface roughness of the SLM samples decreases two–three times after sandblasting before porcelain firing (from Ra = 15 μm of as-received SLM Co-Cr samples to Ra = 8 μm of glass blasted and to Ra-5 μm in ultrasonic ceramic field) [60]; as in the most cases, the physical appearance and the surface quality are similar to the conventionally manufactured by investment casting [58]. Current investigations show that the SLM metal-ceramic system exhibits a bonding strength that exceeds the requirement of ISO 9691: 1:2012. It even shows a better behaviour in porcelain adherence comparable to the traditional cast methods.
\n
The higher roughness of SLM Co-Cr alloys can cause lower dimensional accuracy and comparatively satisfactory adjustment accuracy in comparison to the objects, cast by conventional technology or with 3D-printed patterns. In SLM of Co-Cr-Mo alloy, Vandenbroucke and Kruth [60] established the process accuracy below 40 μm, which fulfil requirements of most medical and dental applications. According to Bibb et al. [30], SLM-manufactured Co-Cr frameworks for removable partial denture possess accuracy and quality of fit comparable to the existing traditional methods used in the dental laboratories. Averyanova et al. [29] confirmed that the geometrical accuracy of three-part dental bridge of Co-Cr alloy, produced by SLM, is comparable to that of the substructures, produced by conventional technology. The good repeatability of the SLM process in manufacturing Co-Cr four-part dental bridges was reported by Dzhendov et al. [49]. The maximal deviations of the dimensions of SLM bridges were the lowest compared to the conventional casting and casting with 3D-printed patterns. But the dimensions of the SLM dentures were lower than that of the base model with −0.07/−0.23 mm. The adjustment accuracy of the SLM bridges is comparable to that of the bridges, cast with 3D-printed patterns, and is higher than that of the conventionally cast dentures.
\n
There is no consensus regarding the clinically acceptable limits of marginal fit of dental restorations. Most researchers agree on an acceptable marginal discrepancy (distance from the abutment margin to the metal coping in a straight line) below the range of 100–120 μm [75], as values, greater than 120 μm, are considered not clinically acceptable [76–78]. The research of Kim et al. [75] stated that the marginal fit values of the Co-Cr alloy greatly depended on the fabrication methods and, occasionally, on the alloy systems. They found out that the marginal discrepancy of the SLM crowns (98.7 μm for 20-μm-thick layer and 128.8 μm for 30-μm-thick layer) is larger than the cast crowns (65.3–70.4 μm). In SLM samples, the marginal discrepancy increases with the increase of the layer\'s thickness. Kaleli and Sarac [76] compared the marginal adaptation after fabrication of the framework, porcelain application, and cementation of metal-ceramic restorations prepared by conventional lost-wax technique, milling, DMLS, and a direct powder-bed process. They observed the lowest marginal discrepancy values in the crowns, prepared by direct process powder-bed method, followed by the DMLS, milling, and casting. The research of Pompa et al. [77] concerns to the differences of marginal fit of laser-fused and conventional technologies for production of fixed dental prostheses. They established that the copings, manufactured by SLM, have better marginal adaptation within an acceptable range. But the cement gap characterized with irregular distribution was wider in the region of the shoulder than at the point of closure. The marginal discrepancy increased after porcelain application and cementation. In comparison of the marginal fit of metal laser sintered (MLS) Co-Cr alloy copings and conventional cast Ni-Cr alloy copings, Sundar et al. [79] concluded that the MLS copings had a better marginal fit and a decrease in micro-leakage compared to the copings, manufactured by conventional lost-wax technique. Huang et al. [80] compared the marginal and internal fit of SLM metal-ceramic crowns with lost-wax cast ones. They established that the SLM Co-Cr metal-ceramic crowns were better in marginal fit, not significantly different in axial fit and less accurate in occlusal fit than that of the cast samples. Concerning to the gap distribution, Tamac et al. [81] reported nearly the same results in comparing the clinical marginal and internal adaptation of metal-ceramic crowns, fabricated by CAD/CAM milling, DMLS, and traditional casting. They established that mean marginal gap values were 86.64 μm for milling, 96.23 μm for DMLS, and 75.92 μm for casting. The gap values in the axial wall region were the higher for the three groups of samples, followed by the gap values of axio-occlusal and occlusal surface regions. The cement film thickness at the occlusal region and axio-occlusal region was higher for the DMLS crowns. Consequently, the laser-assisted technologies for direct production of metal dental restorations, such as SLM, SLS, and DMLS, ensure improved or at least clinically acceptable fitting values compared with that of the conventional casting.
\n
The Co-Cr dental alloys, fabricated by SLM, characterize with homogeneous fine-grained microstructure, consisting mainly of γ and ε phases in different ratios. Their unique microstructure defines higher mechanical properties,—hardness, yield and tensile strength, fatigue strength as well as higher wear and corrosion resistance—compared to the cast alloys. As a consequence of the peculiarities of the SLM manufacturing and the position of the object toward the building direction, anisotropy in mechanical properties, especially in the fatigue life, can be observed. The work with optimized technological regimes can guarantee the constructions with density higher than 99% and comparatively low roughness. But as a whole, the surface roughness of the SLM Co-Cr alloys is higher than the alloys, cast conventionally or with 3D-printed patterns, due to the specific features of the manufacturing process and the use of metal powder as raw material. It was expected that the higher surface roughness could decrease the dimensional and fitting accuracy and promote the higher adhesion strength of the porcelain coating. But the current review shows that the dimensional accuracy of the SLM details is higher than the cast samples and the fitting accuracy is improved or clinically accepted, most probably due to the CAD/CAM nature of the manufacturing process, which additionally enables high repeatability. Concerning to the adhesion strength of the porcelain to the SLM dental alloys, more authors reported that it is comparable with the adhesion strength to the cast alloys, which may be due to the decreased roughness of the SLM samples after sandblasting before porcelain firing. The Co-Cr dental alloys, fabricated by SLM, comply with the standards and requirements concerning the dimensional and fitting accuracy as well as strength properties and can be successfully used in production of dental constructions.
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
In dentistry, two different approaches can be applied for the production of metal frameworks using AT. According to the first one, the wax/polymeric cast patterns are fabricated by 3D printing, and the constructions are cast from dental alloy with as-printed patterns. Through the second one, the metal framework is a manufactured form of powder alloy directly from the 3D virtual model by SEBM or SLM.
\n
The specific features of the manufacturing processes, the parameters of the technological regimes, and the properties of the materials influence on the accuracy and properties of Co-Cr dental constructions.
\n
The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr dental alloys, cast using 3D-printed patterns, are typical for cast alloys. Their dimensional and adjustment accuracy is higher compared to the constructions, produced by traditional lost-wax casting or by SLM. The surface roughness is higher than that of the samples, cast by conventional technology, but lower compared to the SLM objects.
\n
The microstructure of SLM Co-Cr dental alloys is fine grained and more homogeneous comparing to that of the cast alloys, which defines higher hardness and mechanical properties, higher wear and corrosion resistance. The surface roughness of SLM Co-Cr dental alloys is higher than that of the alloys, cast conventionally or with 3D-printed patterns. The dimensional accuracy of SLM Co-Cr details is higher than the cast samples, while the fitting accuracy is improved or clinically accepted.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"materials science and engineering, biomaterials, regenerative stomatology, additive technologies, Co-Cr dental alloys, microstructure and properties",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56100.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56100.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56100",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56100",totalDownloads:1613,totalViews:364,totalCrossrefCites:5,dateSubmitted:"February 13th 2017",dateReviewed:"May 11th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"February 14th 2018",dateFinished:"June 20th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The aim of the present paper is to make a review of the properties of dental alloys, fabricated using Additive Technologies (AT). The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr alloys as well as the accuracy and surface roughness of dental constructions are discussed. In dentistry two different approaches can be applied for production of metal frameworks using AT. According to the first one the wax/polymeric cast patterns are fabricated by 3D printing, than the constructions are cast from dental alloy with as-printed patterns. Through the second one the metal framework is manufactured form powder alloy directly from 3D virtual model by Selective Electron Beam Melting (SEBM) or Selective Laser Melting (SLM). The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr dental alloys, cast using 3D printed patterns, are typical for cast alloys. Their dimensional and adjustment accuracy is higher comparing to constructions, produced by traditional lost-wax casting or by SLM. The surface roughness is higher than that of the samples, cast by conventional technology, but lower comparing to the SLM objects. The microstructure of SLM Co-Cr dental alloys is fine grained and more homogeneous comparing that of the cast alloys, which defines higher hardness and mechanical properties, higher wear and corrosion resistance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56100",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56100",signatures:"Tsanka Dikova",book:{id:"5951",type:"book",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",publishedDate:"February 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-953-51-3777-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3776-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4003-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"205539",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsanka",middleName:null,surname:"Dikova",fullName:"Tsanka Dikova",slug:"tsanka-dikova",email:"tsanka_dikova@abv.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205539/images/5207_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Medical University of Varna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Properties of Co-Cr dental alloys cast with 3D-printed patterns",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Properties of Co-Cr dental alloys fabricated via SLM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nYoussef S, Jabbari Al. Physico-mechanical properties and prosthodontic applications of Co-Cr dental alloys: a review of the literature. 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Forthcoming. DOI: 10.1016/j.prosdent.2016.11.004\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nMai HN, Lee KB, Lee DH. Fit of interim crowns fabricated using photopolymer-jetting 3D printing. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. Forthcoming. DOI: 10.1016/j.prosdent.2016.10.030\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nKim DY, Jeon JH, Kim JH, Kim HY, Kim WC. Reproducibility of different arrangement of resin copings by dental microstereolithography: Evaluating the marginal discrepancy of resin copings. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry . 2017;117:260-265\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nIshida Y, Miyasaka T. Dimensional accuracy of dental casting patterns created by 3D printers. Dental Materials Journal. 2016;35(2):250-256\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nFormlabs. 3D Printing Technology Comparison: SLA vs. DLP. [Internet]. 2016 Nov 1. Available from: https://formlabs.com/blog/3d-printing-technology-comparison-sla-dlp/; [Accessed: 06-04-2017]\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nDikova T, Dzhendov D, Katreva I, Pavlova D, Simov M, Angelova S, Abadzhiev M, Tonchev T. Possibilities of 3D printer rapidshape D30 for manufacturing of cubic samples. Scripta Scientifica Medicinae Dentalis. 2016;2(1):9-15\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nDikova T, Dzhendov D, Katreva I, Pavlova D, Tonchev T, Doychinova M. Geometry and Surface Roughness of Polymeric Samples Produced by Stereolithography. International Journal of Machines, Technologies, Materials. 2017;4:201-205\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nDikova T, Dzhendov D, Katreva I, Pavlova D. Accuracy of polymeric dental bridges manufactured by stereolithography. Archives of Materials Science and Engineering. 2016;78(1):29-36\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nDzhendov D, Pavlova D, Simov M, Marinov N, Sofronov Y, Dikova T, et al. [Geometrical accuracy of fixed dental constructions, manufactured by additive technologies] [in Bulgarian]. In: 8th International Conference “Technical Science and Industrial Management”; 2014 Sep; Varna, Bulgaria. Sofia: Scientific-Technical Union of Mechanical Engineering; 2014. pp. 13-17\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nDikova T, Dzhendov D, Simov M. Microstructure and hardness of fixed dental prostheses manufactured by additive technologies. Journal of Achievements in Mechanical and Materials Engineering. 2015;71(2):60-69\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nKim HR, Jang SH, Kim YK, Son JS, Min BK, Kim KH, Kwon TY. Microstructures and mechanical properties of Co-Cr dental alloys fabricated by three CAD/CAM-based processing techniques. Materials. 2016;9(956):1-4. DOI: 10.3390/ma9070596\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nRehme O, Emmelmann C. Reproducibility for properties of selective laser melting. In: Lasers in Manufacturing 2005, LIM, International WLT-Conference on Lasers in Manufacturing, by AT-Verlag, Stuttgart; 2005;3:227-232\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nShiomi M, Osakada K, Nakamura K, Yamashita T, Abe F. Residual stress within metallic model made by selective laser melting process. CIRP Annals—Manufacturing Technology. 2004;53:195-198\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nVranken B. Study of Residual Stresses in Selective Laser Melting [dissertation]. Leuven: KU Leuven-Faculty of Engineering Science; 2016. 255 p\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nYadroitsev I, Bertrand P, Smurov I. Parametric analysis of the selective laser melting process. Applied Surface Science. 2007;253(19):8064-8069\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nYadroitsev I, Krakhmalev P, Yadroitsava I, Johansson S, Smurov I. Energy input effect on morphology and microstructure of selective laser melting single track from metallic powder. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2013;213:606-613\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nYadroitsev I, Smurov I. Surface morphology in selective laser melting of metal powders. Physics Procedia. 2011;12:264-270\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nAveryanova M. Quality control of dental bridges and removable prostheses manufactured using Phenix systems equipment. In: AEPR’12, 17th European Forum on Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing; 12-14 June 2012; Paris, France. Ecole Centrale Paris; 2012\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nTakaichi A, Suyalatu, Nakamoto T et al. Microstructures and mechanical properties of Co–29Cr–6Mo alloy fabricated by selective laser melting process for dental applications. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials. 2013;21:67-76\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nVandenbroucke B, Kruth JP. Selective laser melting of biocompatible metals for rapid manufacturing of medical parts. Rapid Prototyping Journal. 2007;13(196-203)\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nMeacock CG, Vilar R. Structure and properties of a biomedical Co–Cr–Mo alloy produced by laser powder microdeposition. Journal of Laser Applications 2009;21:88-95\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nBarucca G, Santecchia E, Majni G et al. Structural characterization of biomedical Co-Cr-Mo components produced by direct metal laser sintering. Materials Science and Engineering C. 2015;48:263-269\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nLu Y, Wu S, Gan Y et al. Investigation on the microstructure, mechanical property and corrosion behavior of the selective laser melted CoCrW alloy for dental application. Materials Science and Engineering C. 2015;49:517-525\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nJevremovic D, Puskar T, Kosec B, Vukelic D, Budak I, Aleksandrovic S, Egebeer D, Williams R. The analysis of the mechanical properties of F75 Co-Cr alloy for use in selective laser melting (SLM) manufacturing of removable partial dentures (RPD). Metalurgija. 2012;51(2):171-174\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nKajima Y, Takaichia A, Nakamoto T, et al. Fatigue strength of Co–Cr–Mo alloy clasps prepared by selective laser melting. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials. 2016;59:446-458\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nDolgov NA, Dikova T, Dzhendov D, Pavlova D, Simov M. Mechanical properties of dental Co-Cr alloys fabricated via casting and selective laser melting. Materials Science. Non-Equilibrium Phase Trasformations. 2016;3:3-7\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nAtapek H, Dikova T, Aktaş G, Polat Ş, Dzhendov D, Pavlova D. Tribo-corrosion behavior of cast and selective laser melted Co-Cr alloy for dental applications. International Journal of Machines, Technologies, Materials. 2016;12:61-64\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nISO. ISO 9693-1:2012. Dentistry—Compatibility Testing—Part 1: Metal-Ceramic Systems [Internet]. 2012. Available from: https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:9693:-1:ed-1:v1:en [Accessed: 06-04-2017]\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nKaleli N, Sarac D. Comparison of porcelain bond strength of different metal frameworks prepared by using conventional and recently introduced fabrication methods. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. Forthcoming. DOI: 10.1016/j.prosdent.2016.12.002\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nLi J, Chen C, Liao J, Liu L, Ye X, Lin S, Ye J. Bond strengths of porcelain to cobalt-chromium alloys made by casting, milling, and selective laser melting. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. Forthcoming. DOI: 10.1016/j.prosdent.2016.11.001\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nAkova T, Ucar Y, Tukay A, Balkaya MC, Brantley WA. Comparison of the bond strength of laser-sintered and cast base metal dental alloys to porcelain. Dentistry Materials. 2008;24:1400-1404\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nWu L, Zhu H, Gai X, Wang Y. Evaluation of the mechanical properties and porcelain bond strength of cobalt-chromium dental alloy fabricated by selective laser melting. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 2014;111:51-55\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nXiang N, Xin XZ, Chen J, Wei B. Metal–ceramic bond strength of Co–Cr alloy fabricated by selective laser melting. Journal of Dentistry. 2012;40:453-457\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nWang H, Feng Q, Li N, Xu S. Evaluation of metal-ceramic bond characteristics of three dental Co-Cr alloys prepared with different fabrication techniques. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 2016;116:916-923\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nKim EH, Lee DH, Kwon SM, Kwon TY. A microcomputed tomography evaluation of the marginal fit of cobalt-chromium alloy copings fabricated by new manufacturing techniques and alloy systems. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 2017;117(3):393-399\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nKaleli N, Sarac D. Influence of porcelain firing and cementation on the marginal adaptation of metal ceramic restorations prepared by different methods. Prosthet Dent. 2017;117(5):656-661\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nPompa G, Di Carlo S, De Angelis F, Cristalli MP, Annibali S. Comparison of conventional methods and laser-assisted rapid prototyping for manufacturing fixed dental prostheses: An in vitro study. BioMed Research International. 2015. 1-7. http://www.hindawi.com\n\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nMcLean JW and von Fraunhofer JA. The estimation of cement film thickness by an in vivo technique. British Dental Journal. 1971;131(3):107-111\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nSundar MK, Chikmagalur SB, Pasha F. Marginal fit and microleakage of cast and metal laser sintered copings—An in vitro study. Journal of Prosthodontic Research. 2014;58:252-258\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nHuang Z, Zhang L, Zhu J, Zhang X. Clinical marginal and internal fit of metal ceramic crowns fabricated with a selective laser melting technology. Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 2015;113:623-627\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nTamac E, Toksavul S, Toman M. Clinical marginal and internal adaptation of CAD/CAM milling, laser sintering, and cast metal ceramic crowns. Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 2014;112:909-913\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Tsanka Dikova",address:"tsanka_dikova@abv.bg",affiliation:'
Medical University “Prof. d-r Paraskev Stoyanov”, Varna, Bulgaria
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Understanding the biological effects of fungicide contaminants in the environment on non-target organisms including humans is critical. This chapter considers the use of the model organism and key beneficial soil nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, as an effective strategy for examining fungicide effects on growth, reproduction, nervous system and behavior. We present novel evidence of the effects of a general use fungicide, mancozeb, on behavior and neuronal structure.",signatures:"Kathleen M. 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If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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This should sharpen the consciousness of all health practitioners involved in blood transfusion services towards taking measures at preventing transfusion reactions right from donor selection up to the infusion of blood into the recipients.",book:{id:"6905",slug:"blood-groups",title:"Blood Groups",fullTitle:"Blood Groups"},signatures:"John Ayodele Olaniyi",authors:[{id:"202764",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Olaniyi",slug:"john-olaniyi",fullName:"John Olaniyi"}]},{id:"49387",title:"Thalassemia — From Genotype to Phenotype",slug:"thalassemia-from-genotype-to-phenotype",totalDownloads:4864,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Thalassemia encompasses serious diseases with complex pathophysiology that is difficult to explain since it is considered a group of defects with similar clinical effects, still not a single disorder.",book:{id:"4729",slug:"inherited-hemoglobin-disorders",title:"Inherited Hemoglobin Disorders",fullTitle:"Inherited Hemoglobin Disorders"},signatures:"Ghada Y. El-Kamah and Khalda S. Amr",authors:[{id:"58735",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"El-Kamah",slug:"ghada-el-kamah",fullName:"Ghada El-Kamah"},{id:"176872",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalda",middleName:null,surname:"Amr",slug:"khalda-amr",fullName:"Khalda Amr"}]},{id:"51831",title:"Disorders Mimicking Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Difficulties in its Diagnosis",slug:"disorders-mimicking-myelodysplastic-syndrome-and-difficulties-in-its-diagnosis",totalDownloads:4505,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Myelodysplastic morphology of blood cells can be encountered not only in myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) but also in nonclonal disorders like viral, bacterial, parasitic infections, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, polyarteritis nodosa, immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), iron deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemia, dysgranulopoietic neutropenia, congenital neutropenia, cases with microdeletion 22q11.2, malignant lymphoma, after administration of granulocyte colony stimulating factor, chemotherapy, steroids, smoking, alcohol, posttransplantation, copper deficiency also, together with or without cytopenia. Absence of cytogenetic abnormality in 50–70% of cases with MDS, some overlapping morphological and/or pathophysiological features make it challenging to differentiate between MDS and other diseases/disorders like aplastic anemia, refractory ITP, copper deficiency. Transient genetic abnormalities including monosomy 7 in megaloblastic anemia; increased immature myeloid cells in bone marrow of cases with copper, vitamin B12, or folic acid deficiency in the setting of cytopenia and dysmorphism may also lead to the misdiagnosis of MDS. On the other hand, there are also cases of transient MDS. In this chapter, a literature is be presented to draw attention of the readers on the disorders that mimic MDS. Additionally, our personal experiences are also be shared. Awareness of disorders mimicking MDS may prevent over- or underdiagnosis of MDS.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Lale Olcay and Sevgi Yetgin",authors:[{id:"184156",title:"Prof.",name:"Lale",middleName:null,surname:"Olcay",slug:"lale-olcay",fullName:"Lale Olcay"}]},{id:"64871",title:"Diagnosis and Classification of Myelodysplastic Syndrome",slug:"diagnosis-and-classification-of-myelodysplastic-syndrome",totalDownloads:3208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is a clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorder characterized by morphological dysplastic changes in one or more of the major hematopoietic cell lines. MDS can present with varying degrees of single or multiple cytopenias including neutropenia, anemia and thrombocytopenia. Presentation of MDS can range from asymptomatic to life threatening. MDS diagnosis and classification present important challenges, particularly in the distinction from benign conditions. French-American-British (FAB) classification proposed a classification based on easily obtainable laboratory information and was recommended in early and as modified by guidelines of new classification of World Health Organization (WHO). The strategy of diagnostic laboratory in MDS depends on morphological changes and is based on existence of dysplastic changes in the peripheral blood and bone marrow including peripheral blood smear, bone marrow aspirate smear and bone marrow trephine biopsy. The correct morphological interpretation and the use of cytogenetics, immunophenotyping, immunohistochemistry and molecular analysis will give valuable information on diagnosis and prognosis.",book:{id:"7138",slug:"recent-developments-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Gamal Abdul Hamid, Abdul Wahab Al-Nehmi and Safa Shukry",authors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"},{id:"273724",title:"Dr.",name:"Safa",middleName:null,surname:"Shukry",slug:"safa-shukry",fullName:"Safa Shukry"},{id:"277511",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulwahab",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Nehmi",slug:"abdulwahab-al-nehmi",fullName:"Abdulwahab Al-Nehmi"}]},{id:"70780",title:"Laboratory Diagnosis of β-Thalassemia and HbE",slug:"laboratory-diagnosis-of-thalassemia-and-hbe",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"β-Thalassemia and HbE, each, is a syndrome resulted from quantitative and qualitative defects of β-globin chain, respectively. In addition to history retrieve and physical examination, diagnosis of these disorders requires laboratory information. Laboratory tests that are conventionally performed to diagnose the β-thalassemia and HbE are classified into two groups, based on the purposes, including the screening tests and confirmatory tests. The screening tests are aimed to screen for carriers of the β-thalassemia and HbE, while confirmatory tests are the tests performed to definitely diagnose these disorders. This chapter will explain all of these tests, the information of which will be useful for those who are working and interested in the β-thalassemia and HbE.",book:{id:"8450",slug:"beta-thalassemia",title:"Beta Thalassemia",fullTitle:"Beta Thalassemia"},signatures:"Thanusak Tatu",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"183",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82161",title:"Blood Groups More than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances: Susceptibility to Some Diseases",slug:"blood-groups-more-than-inheritance-of-antigenic-substances-susceptibility-to-some-diseases",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104593",abstract:"Blood group antigens represent polymorphic traits inherited among individuals and populations. The objective of this chapter is to review articles that have reported; the association between blood group antigens and susceptibility to some diseases. Findings showed that O blood group had a greater frequency of severe infections such as E coli, cholera and blood group A was associated with incidence of smallpox and some bacterial infections. These are principally based on presence or absence of “H-like” and “A and B-like” antigens markers. Antigens A, B and H are connected to N-glycans of vWF and reduces the half-life of the protein (10 hours) for group O while non-O groups, 25 hours. The loss of A, B, and H antigens as malignancy progresses was linked to potential metastasis. Similarly, some tumors have A or A-like antigens this explains the propensity of group A to develop tumors. Blood type incompatibility between mother and foetus sensitizes the mother to develop alloantibodies that could potentially cause death of the foetus in utero, a condition known hydrops. Reviewed articles have reported close link between blood group antigens and susceptibility diseases. More studies are required to rationalize the mechanism associated to this.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Williams Bitty Azachi and Kuschak Mathias Dakop"},{id:"80344",title:"RH Groups",slug:"rh-groups",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102421",abstract:"In 1939, a mother gave birth to a stillborn baby and underwent blood transfusion with ABO-matched blood from her husband. This resulted in a hemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR). Levine and Stetson postulated that a novel antigen was present in the baby and father, which was absent in the mother. Therefore, the mother’s immune system recognized this antigen and produced antibodies against it. This condition has been known as the hemolytic disease of the newborn for a long period of time. Since the antenatal management of the fetus has been developed, the term has been modified to hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). This case led to the discovery of the antibody against the first antigen of the RH blood group system, the D antigen. To date, 56 antigens have been recognized within the RH blood group system. The five main antigens are D, C, c, E, and e. As observed in the above-mentioned case, the antibodies against these antigens are implicated in HTR and HDFN.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Amr J. Halawani"},{id:"80254",title:"Neutrophil-Specific Antigens: Immunobiology, Genetics and Roles in Clinical Disorders",slug:"neutrophil-specific-antigens-immunobiology-genetics-and-roles-in-clinical-disorders",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102431",abstract:"Neutrophils are the most abundant nucleated cells in blood circulation and play important roles in the innate and adaptive immune responses. Neutrophil-specific antigens, only expressed on neutrophils, are glycoproteins originally identified in studies on neonatal neutropenia due to fetal-maternal incompatibility and autoimmune neutropenia of infancy. The most investigated neutrophil–specific antigens are the NA and NB antigens that their incompatibilities also cause transfusion-induced febrile reactions and acute lung injury, a potentially fatal reaction, and in bone marrow transplantation, causing graft rejection. NA antigens are members of the immunoglobulin superfamily and are low-affinity Fc-receptors FcγRIIIb (CD16b). Fc receptors connect the F(ab), the antigen-binding fragment of the antibody molecules, to neutrophils and lead them to recognize and phagocytize the targeted antigens. The NB (CD177) antigen belongs to the urokinase-type Plasminogen Activator Receptor Superfamily (uPAR, CD59, Ly6), but its specific functions have not been fully determined. It is known, however, that NB antigen binds proteinase-3 (PR3 to the neutrophil membrane), a serine protease. In clinical studies, it was also demonstrated that NB expression is highly elevated in Polycythemia Vera and is unexpectedly expressed in some cancer tissues. Neutrophil-specific antigens are examples of antigens that have important biological and clinical activities beyond antigenicity.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Parviz Lalezari and Behnaz Bayat"},{id:"80716",title:"The ABO Blood Group System and Plasmodium falciparum (Pf ) Infection in Three Ethnic Groups Living in the Stable and Seasonal Malaria Transmission Areas of Burkina Faso (BF)",slug:"the-abo-blood-group-system-and-plasmodium-falciparum-pf-infection-in-three-ethnic-groups-living-in-t",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102475",abstract:"Genetic factors, including red blood cell polymorphisms, influence the severity of disease due to infection with Plasmodium falciparum (Pf). Studies show that these genetic factors associated with malaria susceptibility or resistance vary geographically, ethnically, and racially. We performed cross-sectional surveys in population living in rural villages from three ethnic groups. The blood group (BG) was determined genetically using two polymorphisms (rs8176719 and rs8176746). Out of 548 participants, 29.7% were Mossi, 38.2% were Fulani, and 32.1% were Rimaibe. The distribution of BG was, respectively, A: 25.5%, B: 26.6%, AB: 7.3%, and O: 40.5%. BG O was not only the common blood type overall, but was higher in Fulani (52.6%) than others. Fulani was associated with a reduced risk of infection and lower parasite densities than sympatric populations. The subjects with non-O blood were less susceptible to malaria infection. An association between ethnicity and malaria infection during the high transmission season as well as an association between the non-O blood group and malaria infections according to ethnicity was found. This was also true when ethnic groups were considered separately. Our results have demonstrated that the Fulani are not only less susceptible to Pf malaria infection, but when infected have lower parasite densities. Individuals with non-O blood are at lower risk of infection.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Edith Christiane Bougouma, Alphonse Ouedraogo and Sodiomon Bienvenu Sirima"},{id:"80474",title:"ABO Blood Group and Thromboembolic Diseases",slug:"abo-blood-group-and-thromboembolic-diseases",totalDownloads:40,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102757",abstract:"Thromboembolic diseases are usually inherited in the family. The tendency to repeat in an individual is a phenomenon that allows it to be studied. The inheritance and recurrence of thromboembolic diseases, of course, have individual risk factors for this occurrence. In the past, the ABO blood group was only needed for transfusion and organ transplant therapy. Over time, scientists think that blood type is a risk factor for certain diseases, including thromboembolism. Many studies divide between type O and non-O blood groups, both of which are distinguished by the presence of antigens on the cell surface and antibodies in the plasma of individuals. Type O does not have A, B antigens but has antibodies against A, B antigens, and vice versa for the non-O type. Many studies have shown that the non-O blood group has a risk factor for thromboembolic diseases, commonly due to higher levels of von Willebrand factor (VWF) and factor VIII (FVIII). These thromboembolic events can occur in arteries or venous. Thromboembolic manifestations are often associated with cardiovascular diseases for arterial thrombosis; and deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) for venous thromboembolism (VTE).",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Yetti Hernaningsih"},{id:"78997",title:"ABO Blood Groups and Risk of Glioma",slug:"abo-blood-groups-and-risk-of-glioma",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100566",abstract:"Gliomas are one of the most common primary brain tumors and the etiology of gliomas remains unknown in most cases. The aim of this case–control study was to investigate possible association between incidence in relation to glioma and certain blood groups. This study included 100 histopathologically verified cases of glioma and 200 age and sex-matched controls without malignant diseases that were admitted to the same hospital. The results revealed that the patients with group AB were at 3.5-fold increased risk of developing glioma compared to the patients with other ABO blood groups. In this particular study, there was more male patients with glioma with the blood group AB. However, mechanisms that explain the relationship between the blood groups ABO and a cancer risk are unclear. Several hypotheses have been proposed, including the one with a modulatory role of blood group ABO antigens. In addition, the blood group ABO system regulates the level of circulating proinflammatory and adhesion molecules which play a significant role in the tumorigenesis process. Additionally, the recent discovery that includes the von Willebrand factor (vWF) as an important modulator of angiogenesis and apoptosis provides one plausible explanation as regards the role of the blood group ABO in the tumorigenesis process. To our knowledge, this is the first study that examined the relationship of blood group in patients diagnosed with glioma among the Serbian population. Moreover, for the first time our study results suggested that blood group AB increased the risk of glioma. The results of this study suggested that the blood group AB could be one of hereditary factors which had an influence on the occurrence of glioma. The further research is needed on a larger sample, to confirm these findings and the possible mechanisms by which the ABO system contributes to the pathology of glioma.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Ana Azanjac Arsic"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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