\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Electrochemical biosensors provide qualitative and quantitative information (Wang 1999) on the existence and concentration of the target compounds in the analyte in the form of current (amperometric biosensor) or voltage (potentiometric biosensor).
A typical amperometric biosensor consists of three components: the analyte, the transduction element (electrode and conductive nanomaterials) and the biorecognition element (enzyme) (McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., ; Shi et al., 2010). During biosensor operation, target compound in the sample is specifically recognized by the enzymes immobilized on the electrode. Electrooxidative intermediate is produced by this enzyme-substrate interaction. The produced electrooxidative intermediate is oxidized or reduced by the voltage applied on the biosensor, and current proportional to substrate concentration is generated and recorded. By calibrating the biosensor using solutions with known concentration, the relationship between measured current and substrate concentration is obtained. The sensitivity and specificity of the sensor is ensured by the high selectivity of enzymes.
Considering the functional mechanism of biosensors, surface modification of the electrode is vital to biosensor performance. The most straightforward and also widely used approach is to immobilize enzymes on the electrode with a polymer layer. However, this method has two major limitations. One is that the activity of the enzymes can be affected by structural change due to the polymer layer, and affected by the pH of the layer (Zou et al., 2008). The other is that the thickness of the polymer layer cannot be precisely controlled, so the response time and sensitivity of the biosensor could be affected (Li et al., 1996). To overcome these limitations, some groups used polymers with neutral pH such as silicate sol-gel for enzyme immobilization to preserve enzyme activity (Salimi et al., 2004) while some groups used electric methods such as cyclic voltammetry to control layer deposition (Llaudet et al., 2005; Smutok et al., 2006). Furthermore, to obtain better performance, nanomaterials including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and metal nanomaterials are often involved in surface modification (McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., ; Shi et al., 2010). Since different modification approaches result in quite distinct biosensor performance, problems with evaluating and comparing different approaches, and sorting out the optimal ones have arisen. To solve this problem, a standardization method which evaluates the performance of biosensors constructed by different approaches is needed.
In this chapter, followed by a comprehensive literature review of surface modification approaches, a tentative protocol for comparing different approaches will be discussed.
As was mentioned previously, enzymes are the biorecognition element of biosensors. Biosensors function based on the highly selective enzyme-substrate interactions. Thus, the enzymes immobilized on electrode determine the target compound, the activity of the enzymes determines the sensitivity, and the selectivity of the enzymes determines the specificity of the biosensors. As a result, it is important to develop proper enzyme immobilization approaches with high enzyme loading and well-preserved enzyme activity.
Enzymes are usually immobilized on the electrode by polymer encapsulation or covalent linking (McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Rickus et al., 2002; Shi et al., 2010). During biosensor operation, when analyte solution diffuses into the enzyme layer, a series of biochemical and electrochemical reactions will take place. Take the
In the first step (biorecognition), GOx converts glucose into H2O2 and gluconic acid. The main purpose of this step is to produce the electrooxidative intermediate H2O2, because glucose cannot be directly electrooxidized. Because the enzyme-substrate interaction in this step is specific to glucose, biorecognition step ensures the selectivity of the biosensors.
Step 1. Glucose + O2\n\t\t\t\t\tGOx> Gluconic acid + H2O2
In the second step (transduction), an electric potential is applied to the electrode. The value of the potential is determined by the type of electrode used, and the type of the electroactive intermediate produced in
Step 2. H2O2 → O2 + 2H+ + 2e-
Since the concentration of H2O2 is proportional to glucose according to
One of the most widely used approach for immobilizing enzymes is to entrap enzymes within polymer layers. The layer containing enzymes can be deposited on electrodes by cast-and-dry, or electropolymerization. Many polymers have been reported for such applications, including nafion (Fortier et al., 1992; Vaillancourt et al., 1999), polypyrrole (Branzoi & Pilan 2008; Ekanayake et al., 2007), polytyramine (Situmorang et al., 1999) and silicate sol-gels (Llaudet et al., 2005; Rickus et al., 2002; Salimi et al., 2004).
Nafion is a negatively charged sulfonated tetrafluorethylene copolymer, which possesses a strong surface adhesion to electrode surface and a low swelling capability in aqueous media (Gong et al., 2005; Liaw et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2003b). Thus, nafion is quite appropriate for enzyme immobilization. Biosensors based on nafion/enzyme composite for the detection of glucose and other compounds have been reported (Fortier et al., 1992; Vaillancourt et al., 1999). One noticeable advantage of nafion over other polymers is that the negative charges repel the diffusion of many negatively charged compounds such as ascorbate and acetaminophen into the layer (Ni et al., 1999), significantly enhancing biosensing selectivity.
Polypyrrole (PPy) is a conductive polymer mainly made up of pyrroles. Polypyrroles can be formed through electropolymerization using cyclic voltammetry, resulting in a uniformly doped PPy film with positive charges on electrode surface (Schuhmann 1991; Schuhmann & Kittsteiner-Eberle 1991; Schuhmann et al., 1990). One advantage with PPy is that enzymes with negative charges can be absorbed into PPy layers via electrostatic forces (Gao et al., 2003). Another advantage is that the thickness of the PPy layer can be quantitatively controlled by controlling the number of cycles during cyclic voltammetry. The selectivity of polypyrrole film can be enhanced by the addition of various counter ions (Sadik 1999; Teasdale & Wallace 1993; Zotti 1992). Biosensors based on PPy for versatile sensing applications have been reported (Dumont & Fortier 1996; Ekanayake et al., 2007; Umana & Waller 2002). Excellent reproducibility in amperometric response and resistance towards high temperature have been reported for PPy over a number of polymers including polyaniline, poly(aniline/p-phenylediamine), polyindole, and poly(o-phenylediamine) (Dumont & Fortier 1996). The major disadvantage with PPy is that the layer is most stable under pH range of 5.5-6.0 (Dumont 1996), which may greatly lower the activities of certain enzymes that favor basic pH, such as glycerol kinase (optimal pH=9.8) and glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase (optimal pH=8.1), both of which are used in adenosine-3-phosphate (ATP) sensing (Llaudet et al., 2005). In addition, Schuhmann et al. reported that the enzyme loading capability of PPy was low (Schuhmann 1991), which may result in a low biosensor sensitivity.
Silicate sol-gels are polymers formed by ethyl esters of orthosilicic acid, among which tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS) are most commonly used in the immobilization of enzymes (Llaudet et al., 2005; Salimi et al., 2004; Yang et al., 1998). The hydrolysis and condensation of sol-gels at low temperature (usually 4°C) generate a 3-dimensitional polymer matrix of silica, which can entrap enzymes (Rickus et al., 2002). Biosensors based on sol-gel approach for the detection of glucose (Salimi et al., 2004), ATP (Llaudet et al., 2005) and other compounds with linear response range covering physiological concentrations have been reported. One advantage of sol-gel immobilization is that enzymes are entrapped within the matrix with no covalent linking involved, thus enzyme activity may be better preserved. Another advantage is that the porous structure of sol-gel matrix facilitates the diffusion of substrates into the matrix and provides space for the interaction between substrates and enzymes. However, since immobilization approaches based on sol-gels require dip coating and the distribution of dissolved enzymes in the sol-gel is not uniform, the thickness of the layer and the amount of loaded enzymes may vary a lot, affecting the reproducibility of biosensors.
Other polymers such as chitosan (Kang et al., 2007; Miscoria et al., 2006) have been used for enzyme immobilization as well. Some approaches directly entrap enzymes in the polymer. The common drawback with these approaches is the relatively low efficacy of enzyme loading that often results in inconsistency in amperometric response and reduced sensitivity during long-term biosensor operation (Schuhmann 1991; Schuhmann & Kittsteiner-Eberle 1991). Thus, cross-linking agents have been combined with polymer layers for better enzyme loading. These agents include glutaraldehyde (GA) (via NH2- bond) (Guerrieri et al., 1998), 1-ethyl-3-(3-diamino)propyl-carbodiimide (EDC) and
One problem with biosensors based only on polymers and enzymes is the undesired low signal-to-noise ratio, because catalytic ability of enzymes is limited. Consequently, biosensor’s amperometric response may be submerged by noise. One of the most commonly used approaches to resolve this problem is to modify biosensors with nanomaterials. Two most commonly used nanomaterials are carbon nanotubes and metal nanomaterials (McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010).
Ever since Iijima reported the synthesis method for CNT in 1991(Iijima 1991), this allotrope of carbon has demonstrated versatile applications in biomedical imaging (Choi et al., 2007b), chemical batteries (Wang et al., 2003a), and biosensing (McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010 ). CNTs have two types: single-walled CNT (SWNT) and multi-walled CNT (MWNT). SWNT is a seamless cylinder formed by rolling-over a one-atom-thick layer of graphite namely graphene (Iijima & Ichihashi 1993) (Fig. 1a), while MWNT has the structure of sheets of graphite arranged in concentric cylinders (Ajayan 1999; Dai 2002) (Fig. 1b). SWNT has a diameter on the order of 1.2 nm (Fig. 1d) while MWNT has a diameter on the order of 10 nm to 20 nm with concentric nanotubes 0.34 nm apart (Ajayan 1999; Dai 2002) (Fig. 1c).
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy images of typical SWNT (A) and MWNT (B). Closed nanotube tips are also shown in panel C (MWNT tips) and panel D (SWNT tip, shown by arrows). The inner space corresponds to the diameter of the inner hollow in the tube. The separation between the closely spaced fringes in the MWNT (B, C) is 0.34 nm, close to the spacing between graphite planes. The diameter of the SWNT (A, D) is ~1.2 nm. Every layer in the image (fringe) corresponds to the edges of each cylinder in the nanotube assembly. (Reprinted with permission from (
STM/STS studies have shown that CNTs consist of both metallic and semi-conductive tubes (Odom et al., 1998; Wilder et al., 1998). Both SWNTs (Wang et al., 2003b) and MWNTs (McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010 ) have been widely used in biosensing. CNTs have been demonstrated to possess the ability to facilitate the electron transfer process during electroreduction and electrooxidation of electroactive species, such as NADH and hydrogen peroxide (Hrapovic et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2003b), and the electron transfer process during enzyme-substrate interaction, even when the enzyme redox center is deeply embedded (Gooding et al., 2003).
Researches have been carried out to explore the underlying mechanism for CNT to enhance biosensor performance. The reasons for CNT to greatly improve biosensor’s response are summarized as follows:
First, CNTs enlarge the effective surface area when immobilized on the surface of the electrodes. The electrode impedance is decreased, and the current is increased due to the increase in surface area (Azamian et al., 2002). Another advantage due to enlarged surface area is that more enzymes can be immobilized. MWNTs have been used as a matrix for enzyme immobilization (Shi et al., 2010 ).
Second, CNTs act as a catalyst that increases electron transfer rate. The carbon atoms at the ends of CNT behave like the edge plane of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) from a mechanistic point of view (Li et al., 2002). When CNTs are pretreated by purifying and refluxing using strong acid such as nitric acid (McLamore et al., 2010a), the tube ends will be connected with oxygenated species, such as carboxylic acids, alcohols and quinines (Gooding 2005; Koehne et al., 2003). The oxygenated tube ends allow efficient electron transfer (Gooding 2005; Koehne et al., 2003), which is the origin for the catalytic ability of CNTs. This underlying mechanism is further supported by comparing peak separation in cyclic voltammogram of potassium ferricyanide between one electrode with aligned SWNTs perpendicular to its surface and another electrode with SWNTs with random orientations. The former has much a smaller separation than the latter, indicating improved electrochemical property (Liu et al., 2005).
Third, the electrodes are endowed with better wetting properties due to the porous structure of CNTs (Nugent et al., 2001). As a result, analyte solution will diffuse into the CNT bundles with lower friction (Verweij et al., 2007), which contributes to a higher current sensitivity when biosensing is diffusion limited (Cambiaso et al., 1996).
CNT, as an allotrope of carbon, can be attached to carbon electrode surface by non-covalent forces. Salimi et al. prepared glucose biosensor based on abrasive immobilization approach, by gently rubbing the polished basal plane pyrolytic graphite (bppg) electrode surface on a filter paper containing MWNTs (Salimi et al., 2004). Decreased oxidation and reduction potentials for H2O2 were discovered compared with bare bppg electrodes, indicating the improvement in electrocatlytic activities of the electrodes due to CNT immobilization (Salimi et al., 2004). In amperometric tests, well-defined response to glucose addition was reported for the bppg/CNT/sol-gel/GOx biosensor while hardly any response could be observed with the bppg/sol-gel/GOx electrodes (Salimi et al., 2004), demonstrating that the low signal-to-noise issue with biosensors based on conventional materials could be resolved by adding nanomaterials. In addition, compared with glucose biosensors with no CNT involved (Wang et al., 1997; Yang et al., 1998), the analytical parameters (sensitivity, detection limit, response time and linear range) for bppg/CNT/sol-gel/GOx biosensor were comparable or better (Salimi et al., 2004).
(3-Mercaptopropyl) trimethoxysilane (MPS), a silanization reagent with methoxy and thiol functional groups, has been applied to attach MWNTs to electrodes (McLamore et al., 2010a; Zeng & Huang 2004). The thiol groups form covalent bonds to link CNTs to electrodes. Biosensors based on this approach exhibited increased peak current in cyclic voltammetry with potassium ferricyanide, and high sensitivity towards the direct oxidation of IAA, due to the CNTs on electrode surface which facilitated electron transfer. MPS immobilization of CNTs provides an alternative to abrasive immobilization which can be applied to metal electrodes. Desirable reproducibility has been reported for biosensors based on this approach (Zeng & Huang 2004).
The major obstacle to immobilizing CNTs for biosensing is that CNTs tend to aggregate due to van der Walls forces among tubes. As a result, CNTs are insoluble in almost all solvents (Chen et al., 1998; Star et al., 2001). Since almost all conventional approaches for building enzyme based biosensors rely on polymer layers to entrap enzymes, similar approaches can be developed to immobilize CNT. Researches have shown that many polymer layers can suspend CNT, including nafion (McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010 ; Tsai et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2003b), chitosan (Kang et al., 2007, 2008) and silicate sol-gels (Chen & Dong 2007; Gavalas et al., 2004).
Nafion is a conductive sulfonated tetrafluorethylene copolymer and its negatively charged layer is capable of suspending CNTs and enzymes. SEM image showed that MWNTs were well dispersed within nafion layer, and formed a conductive network which will facilitate electron transfer during electrochemical reactions (Shi et al., 2010 ) (Fig. 2).
SEM image for a MWNTs/Nafion layer on a biosensor. (Reprinted with permission from (
Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide with fine biocompatibility and adhesive capability to chemically modified surfaces. Pretreated CNTs with –COOH groups on tube ends could disperse among chitosan containing –NH2 groups due to the peptide bonds formed between –COOH and –NH2 (Kang et al., 2007). Biosensors based on chitosan polymers with CNT and enzymes involved have been reported (Kang et al., 2007, 2008). Similar to other CNT modified electrodes, the oxidation potential for electrooxidative species is significantly lowered (Zhang 2004). A low oxidation potential ensures that interferences such as acetaminophen and ascorbic acid, that can only be oxidized at high voltages, are excluded, which greatly enhances the selectivity of the biosensors. However, one disadvantage with chitosan is that the peptide bonds formed between CNTs and chitosan eliminate the –COOH groups on CNT, which may lower the catalytic ability of CNTs, as the ability mainly comes from the oxidative species at tube ends.
Polypyrrole (PPy) is a highly conductive polymer formed from a number of connected pyrrole rings. Wang et al. reported that “oxidized CNT” together with enzymes could act as combined dopants to form a covalently linked PPy-CNT-Enzyme layer (Wang & Musameh 2005). When electro-oxidized at +650 mV using platinum (Pt) or glass carbon (GC) electrodes as working electrodes, each pyrrole ring will carry one positive charge. With the presence of charge balancing anionic dopants, such as negatively charged enzymes (Kang et al., 2007; Umana & Waller 2002) or –COOH modified CNTs (Wang & Musameh 2005), polymer layers with enzymes or CNTs will form on the working electrode surface after electropolymerization (Wang & Musameh 2005). Glucose biosensors based on this approach showed significantly increased response to glucose compared with no MWNT involved. In addition, thanks to irreversibly oxidized PPy’s special property to reject electroactive interferences (Malitesta et al., 1990), glucose biosensors based on PPy/MWNT exhibited no response towards uric and ascorbic acids even at +900 mV (Wang & Musameh 2005), showing excellent selectivity. Besides PPy, immobilization approaches based on similar electropolymerization process using polyaniline (PAN) was also reported (Ma et al., 2006). In addition, the auto-assembly linking of negatively charged oxygenated groups on modified CNTs to positively charged polyelectrolyte poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) layer with no need of electropolymerization was reported (Mamedov et al., 2002; Rouse & Lillehei 2002).
Silicate sol-gels, including tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS) and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), have been widely used in enzyme immobilization due to the formed porous 3-D matrix structure which physically entraps enzymes (Llaudet et al., 2005; Salimi et al., 2004; Yang et al., 1998). The use of sol-gels to immobilize CNTs on biosensors have been reported by directly dispersing CNTs within pretreated methyltriethoxysilane (MTEOS) (Gavalas et al., 2004), Propyltrimethoxysilane (PTMOS) (Gong et al., 2004) and methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMOS) (Chen & Dong 2007) solutions. Homogeneous suspensions were obtained after ultrasonication and sol-gel/CNT layers were formed on electrodes. TEM image of CNT and the CNT/sol-gel composite (Gong et al., 2004) showed that small MWNT bundles were separated into several independent nanoelectrodes, which greatly increased the contacting area between CNTs and analytes.
Almost all previously reviewed approaches immobilized CNTs on a substrate electrode, such as glassy carbon (GC), platinum (Pt) and gold (Au). CNTs can be directly packed into a carbon electrode with or without binder materials (Britto et al., 1996; Rubianes & Rivas 2003; Valentini et al., 2003; Wang & Musameh 2003a; Zare et al., 2010) (Wang & Musameh 2003b; Zhao et al., 2003). Britto et al. first reported biosensors based on CNT paste electrode by packing a paste of MWNTs with bromoform into a glass tube for dopamine detection, and the resulted paste electrode showed desirable electrochemical reversibility in cyclic voltammetry compared with conventional carbon electrodes (Britto et al., 1996). Enhanced amperometric response was also reported for CNT paste electrodes compared with carbon paste electrodes (Wang & Musameh 2003b).
As has been discussed previously, the catalytic activities of CNTs are mainly due to the carbon atoms at the end of the tubes, especially when tube ends are attached with oxygenated species (Chou et al., 2005; Gooding 2005; Koehne et al., 2003; Nugent et al., 2001). If the CNTs are perpendicular to the electrode surface, carbon atoms at tube ends will be sufficiently exposed and the catalytic activities of CNTs can be further increased. Almost none of the approaches reviewed previously had control over the orientation of CNTs. Take the polymer layer approach as an example, when CNTs are dispersed in the polymer layer, the orientations of CNTs are completely random. Huang et al. developed a method of preparing aligned CNT thin film on a quartz plate which can be easily transferred to other surfaces, such as electrode surface (Huang et al., 1999). Gao et al. developed a glucose biosensor based on this approach using gold electrodes (Gao et al., 2003). Increased glucose sensitivity was reported and a decreased irreversible single oxidation peak was observed compared with glassy carbon electrodes with no CNTs. Yun et al. developed a needle biosensor for H2O2 based on the same approach with modifications, and enhanced amperometric and voltammetric properties were observed (Yun et al., 2006). Wang et al. reported another CNT alignment approach by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition using nickel as a catalyst (Wang et al., 2003c). Resulted CNTs grew densely and vertically along the grain of the catalytic particles (Yudasaka et al., 2009) and the CNTs were aligned straight by virtue of the nickel used, except for few entangled and cross-linked tubes. Wang et al. further reported that by controlling the thickness of the nickel layer, the diameter of aligned CNTs could be controlled (Wang et al., 2003c). Glucose biosensor based on this approach with direct absorption of glucose oxidase by MWNTs has been reported and more than 91% of the initial sensitivity towards glucose remained after three months, indicating good stability (Wang et al., 2003c). Liu et al. developed a self-assembled SWNT alignment method under room temperature, which was much easier to implement compared with Dai and Wang’s approaches requiring high temperature (Liu 2000). Derivative CNT alignment approaches have been reported (Chattopadhyay et al., 2001; Kim & Sigmund 2003).
Other surface modification approaches using CNTs have been reported, including CNT-nanoelectrode ensembles (NEE) (Lin et al., 2004) and screen-printed CNT (Wang & Musameh 2004), which all provided biosensors with enhanced performance by virtue of the unique structure and properties of CNTs.
Transition metal nanomaterials possess high catalytic activities and facilitate electron transfer for many electrochemical reactions. Metal nanomaterials also enhance the performance of the biosensors by enlarging the effective surface area (Hrapovic et al., 2004). Biosensors incorporating metal nanomaterials, including platinum black (McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010 ), copper (Xu et al., 2006), silver (Ren et al., 2005), palladium (Claussen et al., 2009; Lim et al., 2005) and gold (Daniel 2004) have exhibited well biocompatibility and enhanced performance. Especially the combination of metal nanomaterials and CNTs for surface modification of biosensors has proved to be feasible and more effective than using either nanomaterial alone (Evans et al., 2002; Hrapovic et al., 2004; McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010 ; Zou et al., 2008). Increased H2O2 sensitivity and effective surface area have been demonstrated for Pt black/MWNT/Nafion electrodes over bare electrodes (Shi et al., 2010 ) (Fig. 3).
a) CV in 4 mM Fe(CN)63- /1M KNO3 for a bare micro electrode and a bionanocomposite sensor at a scan rate 20mV/s. (Reprinted with permission from (
Due to the high hydrophobicity of CNTs, most metal nanomaterials would not attach to CNTs via physical absorption. Hrapovic et al. linked Pt nanoparticles to SWNTs using the charge interaction between Pt and nafion-suspended SWNT, where Pt was positively charged and nafion was negative. A uniform layer containing Pt-CNT was formed (Hrapovic et al., 2004) (Fig. 4a). Kang et al. reported glucose biosensors based on a uniform Pt-CNT-chitosan film because the amino group of chitosan facilitates the dissolving of both Pt nanoparticles and –COOH modified CNT. Pt nanoparticles and CNT were dispersed in chitosan sol–gel as shown in the TEM image (Kang et al., 2008) (Fig. 4b). Electrodeposition of Pt and Au nanoparticles on CNT modified electrodes using H2PtCl6 and HAuCl4 as Pt and Au source for glucose biosensing has also been reported, and SEM image showed that the porous MWNT film provided an ideal matrix for the distribution of Pt nanoparticles (Kang et al., 2007; Zou et al., 2008) (Fig. 4c).
The combination of metal nanomaterials and CNTs in biosensor surface modification integrates the catalytic capabilities of both nanomaterials and has been proved to be more effective in enhancing the biosensor’s performance than using either material alone, including amperometric response, detection limit, linear range and stability (Claussen et al., 2009; Claussen et al., 2010; Hrapovic et al., 2004; McLamore et al., 2010a; McLamore et al., 2010b; McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010 ).
Various surface modification approaches based on CNTs and metal nanomaterials have been reviewed in the previous sections. A good question is how to immobilize enzymes on
a). AFM tapping-mode phase image (size, 1 μm × 1 μm; data scale, 20 nm) of one SWCNT in the presence of Pt nanoparticles. (Reprinted with permission from (
nanomaterial modified electrodes, so that the biosensors have biorecognition capability while the catalytic activities of nanomaterials are preserved. Existing methods include direct absorption of enzymes by MWNTs due to the porous structure (McLamore et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2010 ), encapsulating enzymes and nanomaterials in the same polymer layer (Chen & Dong 2007; Choi et al., 2007a; Lim et al., 2005; Tsai et al., 2005), depositing multiple layers containing nanomaterials and enzymes (Zou et al., 2008) and attaching enzymes to modified electrodes via cross-linking agents (Claussen et al., 2009; Claussen et al., 2010). Gooding et al. reported a self-assembled attachment approach by incubating CNTs in microperoxidase MP-11 solution in HEPES buffer and showed that the enzymes were attached to the ends of the tubes via covalent bonds instead of being entrapped in the gaps among tubes (Gooding et al., 2003). They further demonstrated that no enzymes were linked to the side walls of CNTs with AFM showing that the number of CNTs was almost the same as the number of MP-11 enzymes (Gooding et al., 2003). Peak current of cyclic voltammetry in PBS for biosensors with MP-11 linked to SWNT was more than three times that of biosensors with no SWNT, demonstrating the electrochemical catalytic activities of CNTs (Gooding et al., 2003). Willner et al. reported similar approaches and linked the enzyme redox active center of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) to the end of CNTs (Fernando et al., 2004). The attachment of enzyme redox center not only provided increased biosensing sensitivity due to enhanced electron transfer, but also allowed the direct electron transfer between enzymes and CNTs, which was the basis for third generation biosensors measuring direct electron transfer.
Attaching enzymes to nanomaterials facilitates the “electrical communication” between enzymes and nanomaterials, resulting in improved biosensor response. However, one potential drawback associated this technique is that the structure of enzymes may be changed due to the covalent bonds which link enzymes to CNTs. The catalytic activities of enzymes may be affected due to the structural change.
Almost all the literatures reviewed in this chapter reported biosensor performance in terms of amperometric and/or voltammetric response to the target compounds. Due to the large amount of existing surface modification approaches, problems with evaluating and comparing different approaches, and sorting out the optimal ones have arisen.
For biosensors, two important biophysical factors will affect amperometric response: 1.Enzyme activity. When covalent bonds exist between the enzymes and cross-liking agents, polymer layers, nanomaterials or the electrode surface, the structural change of enzymes will decrease the catalytic activities. 2. Diffusion properties of layer immobilized on the surface of the electrode, including polymers, enzymes and nanomaterials. The ideal case is that the layer is most permeable to target compounds, while most resistant to the interfering compounds that will otherwise generate interference. For surface modification approaches aimed at enhancing the performance of biosensors, such as the immobilization of CNTs, two factors should be considered as well: 1. Enlarged surface area. Both CNTs and metal nanomaterials can enlarge the effective surface area of the electrodes. 2. Enhanced electron transfer rate due to the catalytic ability of nanomaterials.
The complexity arising from the many factors affecting biosensing has posed great difficulty for comparing different surface modification approaches considering analyzing various configurations of membranes, the underlying connections and interactions among components within membranes. Consequently, certain standards should be set up to evaluate the performance of the biosensors. Amperometric response is the commonly used standard. However, different approaches are based on electrodes of different geometric shape, such as disk electrode, wire electrode, and needle electrode, with quite distinct effective surface area. Therefore, it is more reasonable to use the current density (current per surface area) to evaluate the performance of biosensors instead of amperometric response. Current density is defined as:
Where
where n is the number of transferred electrons during the oxidation and reduction of potassium ferricyanide,
where
Visual information from the eyes generates vast amounts of data for the human brain to process, and provides us with unparalleled clarity and insight into the world we live in. Imaging with terahertz (THz) radiation is a research field that has gained a lot of interest and is in the process of moving from research laboratories to commercial applications [1, 2, 3, 4]. As such, the THz research field has grown so much that it has become impossible for a single human to be able to keep track of all developments [4]. Nevertheless, it is possible to outline why there is great interest and potential in THz imaging technology. Most non-conductive materials and non-polar liquids are THz transparent, useful for non-invasive inspection of many multi-component or buried systems, such as paintings [5], electronic circuits [6], space shuttle panels [7] and carbon-fiber composites [8]. Other possibilities are the measurement of picosecond processes in semiconductors [9], quality control of pharmaceutical tablets [10] and non-invasive detection of explosive substances [11]. A plethora of fundamental material resonances, such as phonons, rotations of molecules and precessions of spins, are observable and controllable by THz radiation [12]. Bio-medical applications are highly alluring most notably because the THz photon energies are non-ionizing and high-water sensitivity gives rise to label-free diagnosis of diseases that alter water content, such as cancer [13] and diabetic foot syndrome [14]. There is also the possibility of damaging or repairing DNA with intense THz radiation [15].
With so many possible applications, the reason why THz radiation is barely used outside of laboratories is due to costs of current THz technology. In particular to imaging, the technology is either too expensive, too slow or sacrifices some detection capability (such as picosecond temporal resolution). This is because materials which are suitable for efficient THz detection simply do not exist. This has resulted in THz detector arrays normally working in either narrowbands [16] or needing cryogenic temperatures for sensitive detection [17]. However, microbolometer arrays have very large bandwidths at room temperature operation [18] and when combined with digital holography they can measure both the amplitude and phase of THz radiation [19, 20]. Unfortunately bolometers achieve frequency resolution with a frequency selective source and they do not offer picosecond temporal resolution. This is acceptable for some applications such as detecting concealed weapons, however for applications where time gated detection is used, for example in extracting depths of painting coatings in original art works [5], it becomes unfeasible. An another imaging technique is to project a THz image on an electro-optic crystal then use visible light CCD arrays to spatially map-out the THz field incident onto the crystal [21, 22]. This does not sacrifice the temporal resolution offered time-domain THz spectrometers, however this needs a regen-amplified Ti:Sapphire laser which makes the whole system big and expensive and has prevented the widespread adoption of this technology despite its capabilities. These imaging techniques are all far-field, apart from [21], meaning that they fail to see detail below
The aforementioned imaging approaches are the standard imaging techniques, relying on a detector array or raster scanning, however there is another alternative. Namely, using a spatially modulated light beam and a single-pixel detector to obtain an image [30]. Approaches based on this technique are commonly called
Single-pixel imaging theory concerns itself with obtaining an image of a scene using a detector that can only measure the total amplitude emanating from the scene. The simplest idea is to raster scan an aperture across the field-of-view, building the image pixel by pixel. However, as the aperture is made smaller and smaller, the signal reaching our detector is reduced. We could increase the light incident onto our detector and overcome detector-noise by simultaneously scanning more apertures during each measurement, an idea that originates with Yates in 1935 [32]. In Figure 1(a) we show the main principle of this idea; we have a light beam that is spatially modulated which propagates through an object and onto a detector with no spatial resolution. It is of the utmost importance that in each measurement we know which apertures were open and which were closed. Without this information we could never reconstruct an image of the object. Each measurement is the dot product of the spatial encoding mask and the transmission function of the object, which is mathematically expressed as
(a) Imaging with a single-element detector. An encoding mask spatially encodes a beam of radiation, then the beam passes through an object and onto the single-element detector. (b) Spatial encoding masks, where the first, second, third and fourth coloumns were constructed from Sylvester Hadamard, cyclic Hadamard, random and Fourier matrices respectively. The green triangle in the cyclic mask is there as a visual guide. (c) 2D image transform examples. Figure (a) was extracted from reference [
where
where the rows of matrix
The Sylvester-Hadamard matrices are binary, meaning that they are easily implemented, specifically with digital micromirror devices which are relatively cheap and have switch rates upto 20 kHz. The reconstruction technique can also be efficiently calculated by just doing the Fast Hadamard-Walsh transform, meaning one does not need to store
The Cyclic-Hadamard matrices, also known as Paley Type I and type II Hadamard matrices as they were first discovered by Paley in 1933 [36], are orthogonal and circulant matrices made of 1 s and -1 s. This means they have large noise robustness, easy binary implementation and they are constructed by having one vector,
Random masks constructed from Bernoulli matrices, or Gaussian random matrices, can also be made from 1 s and -1 s making for easy implementation using binary spatial light modulators. However, these matrices are not directly invertible and using a pseudo-inverse can create stability problems. Therefore convex minimization algorithms are usually used for image reconstruction [30, 31]. The main benefit of this masking approach is that is can be used for undersampling which can greatly reduce the total measurement time at the expense of complicated calculations. References [37, 38] were the first theoretical investigation and one can obtain their reconstruction scripts from reference [39], although reference [40] also freely provides their MATLAB scripts for another minimization algorithm called TVAL3 [41]. These algorithms can be slow, hence a mention needs to be given to reference [42] where Kowarlz et al. creates a pseudo-inverse matrix via Fourier-domain regularization that is able to recover images of quality similar to the slow minimazation algorithms, however with faster calculations based on matrix multiplication methods. Note, they also provide their MATLAB and Python scripts freely on github [43].
Fourier masks are those derived from the Fourier matrix. However, as this is just linear algebra representation of the Fourier transform and we are measuring real images (without imaginary numbers), then we do not need to measure the negative Fourier frequencies as they are just the complex conjugate of their positive frequency counterpart. The Fourier matrix is also orthogonal meaning it has noise robustness equal to the Hadamard matrices as well efficient image reconstruction algorithms, simply the Fast Fourier Transform. These masks, however, are not binary but require grayscale values which limits their deployability. Binary spatial modulators can accomplish this either by temporal dithering, at the expense of slower switch-rates, or by spatial dithering, which creates some quantization errors [34]. Nevertheless, these masks benefit from extensive literature based on the Fourier Transform and various image compression algorithms that can be reversed for image-undersampling procedures.
In this single-pixel imaging modality, the most crucial part is to create a spatially modulated beam. In this respect for the THz regime there are four main methods that can be employed; by creating a physical mechanical mask, by changing the electrical conductivity of a material via the injection/depletion of charge carriers, by controlling the refractive index of liquid crystal cells and by creating a spatially varied beam directly at the THz generation stage.
Creating a physical mask to modulate THz radiation has the great advantage that this is the easiest in terms of manufacturing with great modulation depth,
There is another modulation technique that falls in this mechanical category. Namely, mirror arrays where each mirror can be individually addressed. Such arrays already exist for the visible light regime in the form of digital micromirror arrays (DMD). However, DMD mirrors are with dimensions around 10
Schematic of a single pixel of the THz-SLM for normally incident terahertz waves. The pixel is composed of mirrors that are arranged in 4 rows and 8 columns. (a) OFF-state for a bias voltage of 0 V. all mirrors are inclined and incident terahertz radiation (red) is diffracted away (blue) from the transceiver. (b) ON-state for a bias voltage of 37 V. all mirrors are pulled down to the substrate and incident terahertz radiation (red) is reflected (blue) into the transceiver. (c) Schematic cross-sectional view of an unreleased mirror. The base of the mirror adheres to the parylene C, while the part to be released sits on the poly-Si. (d) Schematic cross-sectional view of a released mirror. The base of the mirror adheres to the parylene C, while the released part is inclined due to residual stress in the Cr-Cu-Cr mirror material. (e) Modulation contrast of the THz-SLM. The contrast exceeds a value of 0.5 for a working range from 0.97 THz to 2.28 THz with a maximum contrast of 0.87 at 1.38 THz. (f) Linear dependence of the detected modulated electric field on the number of switched-ON rows in the THz-SLM. (g) Linear dependence of the detected modulated electric field on the number of switched-ON columns in the THz-SLM. Figure reprinted from reference [
The main principle with this THz modulation technique is based upon the Drude model dielectric function [48, 49].
where
Optical based spatial THz-light modulators are currently the best in terms of achieved switch-rate, operational frequency and ease of implementation. Their switch-rate and operational frequencies are both similar to the electrical modulators in that they also rely on modifying the charge carrier density in some material. However, as they use optical light to achieve this, their experimental implementation is very different and due to the current state of visible-light SLMs they are much easier to be implemented. One starts by patterning a visible light beam and then projecting this spatial pattern onto a semiconductor, thereby creating areas that experience large optical excitation and other areas which are left in their ground state. This in turn creates a spatially varying conductivity/absorption profile on the surface of the semiconductor, and thus if a THz beam passes through this surface then the inverse spatial pattern from the visible-light beam is imparted onto the THz beam. The optical excitation can come in two forms, pulsed and continuous wave. For both cases, the carrier concentration is described by
for carrier generation rate
For continuous wave excitation one needs to consider the photo-carrier generation, recombination and diffusion dynamics within the semiconductor. The steady-state equilibrium carrier concentration within the semiconductor is given by [48].
where
(a) Carrier density (in arbitrary units) for different carrier lifetimes, shown by the colored numbers in ms, as we switch a continuous wave source on and off. (b) Illustration of imaging setup: Using a digital micromirror device and a lens, a pump pulse is spatially structured and projected onto a silicon wafer. This spatially modulates a coincident THz pulse. This THz pulse then passes through an object and is measured on a single-element THz detector. Inset is an optical image of a resolution test target (cartwheel) manufactured from gold on a 6
For pulsed optical-excitation probed by a synchronous THz pulse, Eq. (5) changes because the THz pulse can travel through the spatially photopumped region a few picoseconds after photoexcitation and for
Electrical based modulators are likely to be the long-term future solution for spatial THz modulators because they have very little fundamental limitations. Namely, the maximum switch-rates are limited by the carrier recombination rates meaning they can potentially achieve megahertz switch rates, provided the RC constants of the devices are taken into account, especially with electrically tunable materials such as graphene [58, 59]. Their size is determined by photolithographic manufacturing technologies, which is already orders of magnitudes smaller than the THz wavelengths meaning that pixel sizes can be highly subwavelength. In fact, sometimes THz modulation structures can be too large for some commercial photolithographic systems. They are fully self-contained and compact, which is their main advantage over the optical based modulators (see
One of the first demonstrations of this modulation technique was by Kleine-Ostmann et al. in 2004 [60] where they electronically depleted carriers from a GaAs/AlGaAs interface, achieving about 3% modulation across a broadband frequency range of 0.1 to 2 THz. Since then there have been numerous attempts at improving the modulation depth, see references [61, 62] for recent reviews. These efforts have included enhancing the interaction between the THz wave and the charge carrier regions by metamaterial structures [63, 64]. Others have recently used graphene as the modulator [65, 66]. Using metamaterials or Fabry-Perot type resonances to enhance the modulation depth has the trade-off of reducing the working frequencies of the modulator. A further note is that subwavelength grating structures can enhance the THz modulation over a broadband range [58] for the correct THz polarization.
In 2014 C. M. Watts et al. created an electrical based THz-SLM in reference [67], and Figure 4(a) shows their experimental schematic and part (b) shows an image of their SLM. They electrically change the THz absorption of a 2
(a) Schematic of the single-pixel imaging process utilizing an SLM. An image is spatially modulated by the metamaterial and the resulting radiation is sent to the single-pixel detector. (b) Photograph of the SLM (courtesy of K. burke, Boston College media technology services); total active area of the SLM is (4.8 mm
Another innovative approach to single-pixel imaging is to create a spatially patterned beam at the generation step, rather than generate a homogeneous beam that is then spatially modulated, which has the benefit of not needing a THz-SLM. For the terahertz regime, this can be accomplished by three possible ways. First, having an array of photoconductive antennas [70, 71, 72], however this approach suffers from antenna cross-talk and inefficiency problems arising from the small working-area of the antennas whilst occupying a large area. Further, such antennas arrays have only been used as detectors. The second method is to use an electro-optic (EO) crystal that converts visible-light to THz frequencies via non-linear polarization effects [73]. The generation of THz radiation is localized to where the visible light is, hence projecting a spatially varying light beam will generate a THz-beam with the same spatial features. This idea was implemented by references [74, 75] where they used a used a SLM to pattern an 800 nm femtosecond pulse and project that onto a ZnTe crystal. The third method is similar to the second one, with the difference being the use of a spintronic THz emitter instead of an electro-optic crystal. Here the inverse spin Hall effect is used to generate an ultrafast current transient that generates the THz radiation [76, 77, 78]. The spatial patterning is again done by a visible-light SLM since the THz generation is again localized to areas where the optical-pump was shined upon. This was demonstrated by Chen et al. in reference [79].
The similarities between the spintronic and electro-optic crystal approaches are that they both require femtosecond pulses with mJ/cm
Figure 5(a) shows the experimental setup of reference [79] which uses the spintronic emitter array approach. Note that the EO crystal approach is identical in that you only have to replace the spintronic emitter with the EO crystal and remove the magnetic field, then place the object as close as possible to the emitter array. One should note that the use of the second DMD in Figure 5(a) is only to correct the phase front induced by first DMD, which can also be achieved by the technique shown in the supplementary information of reference [82]. The spintronic emitter is nanometer thick hence Chen et al. was able to resolve metallic lines 6
(a) Schematic of the GHOSTEAM system. The spintronic THz emitter array (STEA) is excited by two-DMD-encoded fs laser pulses and generates spatially coded THz pulses. An object “CAEP” was placed in the near-field region (
Liquid crystal modulators work by the re-orientating the material molecules under an applied voltage. As the molecules are oblong, this changes the refractive index that an electro-magnetic wave experiences. Therefore these devices are great for phase modulation giving the greatest freedom in the values that the sampling matrix can take. In other words, they can theoretically project a Fourier matrix that has grayscale complex-values. Note that complex valued masks can be used in conjunction with an intensity only detector to obtain an image that has phase and amplitude information [83]. A liquid crystal based SLM for THz was computationally studied [84]. However, the re-orientation of the molecules is a slow process, and in the visible light regime liquid crystal displays are typically limited to below 100 Hz switch rates. Due to the longer THz wavelengths, thicker layers of liquid crystals are needed resulting in even slower switch rates. For this reason, liquid crystal spatial modulators for THz radiation have been limited mostly to applications where slow switching speeds are acceptable such as dynamically controllable lenses [85, 86], absorption [87] or polarization control [88].
The first demonstration of a single-pixel THz camera that uses a multi-pixel modulation approach3 was in 2008 by Chan et al. [89]. Therein the authors showed amplitude and phase imaging was possible. Since Chan showed single-pixel THz imaging with metallic masks [89], most publications up until now have focused on improving the implementation by showing proof-of-concept modulation/generation techniques as opposed to potential applications. Shortly after in 2009 spectroscopic imaging was demonstrated [90]. The next experiment was in 2012 by Shen et al. [46] where they used a spinning disc with random masks, but it should be noted that their experiment used an infrared and a THz source whilst using the same SLM. The first demonstration of an optical based SLM was by Shrekenhamer et al. in 2013 [49]. The same group then published an electrical based SLM for single-pixel THz imaging in 2014 [67]. The next developments showed in 2016 that such imaging systems can detect a sub-wavelength fissure (8
The potential applications and capabilities of single-pixel THz cameras are directly determined by the THz source and detector, rather than the technique used to impart a spatial pattern in a beam of THz radiation. As such, it is unlikely for there to be a single-solution for all practical applications. Therefore, it is valuable to discuss where each of the techniques in
The metallic/physical based masks, employed in
Modifying the Drude plasma frequency of a semiconductor via injection/depletion of charge carriers has great potential for compact integration of the entire imaging system, as long as electrical gating is used as it negates the need for an extra pump-laser. The drawback is that to ensure modulation depth over a large frequency range the Drude plasma frequency has to be sufficiently modified. For example, after photoexcitation of silicon if
Direct generation of a spatially varying THz beam,
Although the first experimental implementations of single-pixel cameras can be traced back to 1976 [97], such imaging approaches were not widely studied or implemented in the commercial world. The reason is that the serial measurement of such ideas can not compete with parallel data acquisition of imaging arrays. Further, compressed sensing techniques began gaining mainstream attention in 2006 after two publications [37, 38]. This coincides with the development of visible light spatial modulators thereby allowing the implementation of the ideas in references [37, 38]. Whilst inherently slower than imaging arrays, these single-pixel cameras are much more robust and easier to implement in areas where imaging array technology is unavailable. In particular, the terahertz frequency regime.
This book chapter began by outlining the current state of THz cameras. Then it discusses the background theory of single-pixel imaging techniques. Most of the chapter was dedicated to discussing the current state of spatial THz-light modulators for use in single-pixel THz imaging in
The most advanced THz-SLM at present are those based on optical excitation of semiconductors,
Ultimately, the development of single-pixel THz cameras is likely to proceed with optical modulators being used in university laboratories to optimize the algorithms and methodologies used in image recovery as well as synchronization of all the equipment. Simultaneously there will be an effort to develop electrical based array modulators that have fast-switch rates and large modulation depth over a broadband frequency range. Then the miniaturization of such modulator arrays will start and it is likely that at this point such commercially available THz-SLMs will become available from new specialized start-up companies. Spatially-generated THz beams will likely remain only in laboratories for fundamental studies of different systems, but are unlikely to be used for industrial and commercial applications mostly due to the requirement of pump powers of
This work was partially supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (project numbers 14206717 and 14201415), The Hong Kong Innovation and Technology Fund (project number ITS/371/16), The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (grant number EP/S021442/1), and the Royal Society Wolfson Merit Award (EPM).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Atomic force microscope
Printed Circuit Board
Field-programmable gate array
Spatial light modulator
Terahertz
Electro-optic
Signa-to-noise ratio
Digital micromirror device
Vanadium Dioxide
Charge Coupled device
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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From Old Problems to New Challenges"},signatures:"Ljiljana Vasović, Milena Trandafilović, Ivan Jovanović, Slađana Ugrenović, Slobodan Vlajković and Jovan Stojanović",authors:[{id:"34455",title:"Prof.",name:"Ljiljana",middleName:null,surname:"Vasovic",slug:"ljiljana-vasovic",fullName:"Ljiljana Vasovic"},{id:"47169",title:"Dr.",name:"Milena",middleName:null,surname:"Trandafilovic",slug:"milena-trandafilovic",fullName:"Milena Trandafilovic"},{id:"47170",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Jovanovic",slug:"ivan-jovanovic",fullName:"Ivan Jovanovic"},{id:"47171",title:"Dr.",name:"Sladjana",middleName:null,surname:"Ugrenovic",slug:"sladjana-ugrenovic",fullName:"Sladjana Ugrenovic"},{id:"47172",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan",middleName:null,surname:"Vlajkovic",slug:"slobodan-vlajkovic",fullName:"Slobodan Vlajkovic"},{id:"47179",title:"Prof.",name:"Jovan",middleName:null,surname:"Stojanovic",slug:"jovan-stojanovic",fullName:"Jovan Stojanovic"}]},{id:"19160",doi:"10.5772/18161",title:"Death Scene Investigation from the Viewpoint of Forensic Medicine Expert",slug:"death-scene-investigation-from-the-viewpoint-of-forensic-medicine-expert",totalDownloads:27404,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"243",slug:"forensic-medicine-from-old-problems-to-new-challenges",title:"Forensic Medicine",fullTitle:"Forensic Medicine - From Old Problems to New Challenges"},signatures:"Serafettin Demirci and Kamil Hakan Dogan",authors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"},{id:"32211",title:"Dr.",name:"Serafettin",middleName:null,surname:"Demirci",slug:"serafettin-demirci",fullName:"Serafettin Demirci"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"19160",title:"Death Scene Investigation from the Viewpoint of Forensic Medicine Expert",slug:"death-scene-investigation-from-the-viewpoint-of-forensic-medicine-expert",totalDownloads:27389,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"243",slug:"forensic-medicine-from-old-problems-to-new-challenges",title:"Forensic Medicine",fullTitle:"Forensic Medicine - From Old Problems to New Challenges"},signatures:"Serafettin Demirci and Kamil Hakan Dogan",authors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"},{id:"32211",title:"Dr.",name:"Serafettin",middleName:null,surname:"Demirci",slug:"serafettin-demirci",fullName:"Serafettin Demirci"}]},{id:"57199",title:"Negative Autopsy in Infant and Juvenile Population: Role of Cardiac Arrhythmias",slug:"negative-autopsy-in-infant-and-juvenile-population-role-of-cardiac-arrhythmias",totalDownloads:1405,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Negative autopsy is a post-mortem examination in which a comprehensive analysis does not provide a cause of death. These include situation of death, anatomical and histological analysis, toxicology and microbiological study. A low part of autopsies remain without a conclusive cause of death, but all these cases are usually seen in young population, apparently healthy who died suddenly and unexpectedly. In these situations a cardiac arrhythmia is suspected as cause of death and genetic testing is recommended despite not regularly performed. Sudden death is a natural and unexpected decease that occurs in apparently healthy people, or whose disease was not severe enough to expect a fatal outcome. It can be due to several pathologies, usually of cardiac cause and called sudden cardiac death. In infants and young people, both long QT syndrome and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia are main causes in negative autopsies. These genetic diseases lead to ventricular fibrillation, syncope and sudden cardiac death in a normal heart. Unfortunately, sudden cardiac death could be the first manifestation of the diseases, being early identification and prevention a crucial point in current medical practice. This chapter focuses on sudden death and negative autopsy in young population, mainly due to cardiac arrhythmias.",book:{id:"6262",slug:"post-mortem-examination-and-autopsy-current-issues-from-death-to-laboratory-analysis",title:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy",fullTitle:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy - Current Issues From Death to Laboratory Analysis"},signatures:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada, Sergi Cesar, Anna Fernandez-Falgueras,\nMaria Dolores Zambrano, Anna Iglesias, Josep Brugada, Ramon\nBrugada and Oscar Campuzano",authors:[{id:"54165",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",slug:"ramon-brugada",fullName:"Ramon Brugada"},{id:"54168",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano",slug:"oscar-campuzano",fullName:"Oscar Campuzano"},{id:"218478",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgia",middleName:null,surname:"Sarquella-Brugada",slug:"georgia-sarquella-brugada",fullName:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada"},{id:"218479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergi",middleName:null,surname:"Cesar",slug:"sergi-cesar",fullName:"Sergi Cesar"},{id:"218480",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-Falgueras",slug:"anna-fernandez-falgueras",fullName:"Anna Fernandez-Falgueras"},{id:"218482",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Zambrano",slug:"maria-dolores-zambrano",fullName:"Maria Dolores Zambrano"},{id:"218483",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias",slug:"anna-iglesias",fullName:"Anna Iglesias"},{id:"218484",title:"Prof.",name:"Josep",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",slug:"josep-brugada",fullName:"Josep Brugada"}]},{id:"57778",title:"Defining Dental Age for Chronological Age Determination",slug:"defining-dental-age-for-chronological-age-determination",totalDownloads:2574,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Dental age assessment is one of the most reliable methods of chronological age estimation used for criminal, forensic and anthropologic purposes. Visual, radiographic, chemical and histological techniques can be used for dental age estimation. Visual method is based on the sequence of eruption of the teeth and morphological changes that are caused due to function such as attrition, changes in color that are indicators of aging. Radiographs of the dentition can be used to determine the stage of dental development of the teeth from initial mineralization of a tooth, crown formation to root apex maturation. Histological methods require the preparation of the tissues for detailed microscopic examination. The chemical analysis of dental hard tissues determines alterations in ion levels with age, whereas the histological and chemical methods are invasive methods requiring extraction/sectioning of the tooth. In this chapter, the different techniques and considered studies were overviewed in conjunction with their advantages and disadvantages. It needs to be taken into consideration that rather than restricting on one age estimation technique, using the other available techniques additionally and performing repetitive measurements may be beneficial for accurate age estimation.",book:{id:"6262",slug:"post-mortem-examination-and-autopsy-current-issues-from-death-to-laboratory-analysis",title:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy",fullTitle:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy - Current Issues From Death to Laboratory Analysis"},signatures:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner, Emine Kaygısız and Nilüfer Darendeliler",authors:[{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner"},{id:"200985",title:"Dr.",name:"Emine",middleName:null,surname:"Kaygisiz",slug:"emine-kaygisiz",fullName:"Emine Kaygisiz"},{id:"222232",title:"Prof.",name:"Nilufer",middleName:null,surname:"Darendeliler",slug:"nilufer-darendeliler",fullName:"Nilufer Darendeliler"}]},{id:"77222",title:"Forensic Analysis and Interpretation of Tool Marks",slug:"forensic-analysis-and-interpretation-of-tool-marks",totalDownloads:492,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The forensic analysis and interpretation of tool marks raise for consideration key methods and advances in the field of tool marks in forensic science. This chapter shows how tool mark analysis can be utilized in the course of criminal investigations. The focus of the chapter is on bringing together as much scientific knowledge in the area as possible in an accessible manner. It covers all aspects of tool mark evidence from the crime scene to the courtroom. This chapter provides information about tool marks in an effort to assist tool mark examiners as well as people practicing forensic science, crime scene examiners, crime investigating officers and members of the legal profession. It includes information about the analysis of tool marks at the crime scene and in the laboratory, the interpretation and assessment of challenges for examination and interpretation and also the way in which tool mark evidence can be presented in a courtroom.",book:{id:"10579",slug:"forensic-analysis-scientific-and-medical-techniques-and-evidence-under-the-microscope",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope"},signatures:"Sachil Kumar, Geetika Saxena and Archana Gautam",authors:[{id:"335909",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sachil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sachil-kumar",fullName:"Sachil Kumar"},{id:"345319",title:"MSc.",name:"Geetika",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"geetika-saxena",fullName:"Geetika Saxena"},{id:"345320",title:"MSc.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Gautam",slug:"archana-gautam",fullName:"Archana Gautam"}]},{id:"19161",title:"Diagnostic of Drowning in Forensic Medicine",slug:"diagnostic-of-drowning-in-forensic-medicine",totalDownloads:8196,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"243",slug:"forensic-medicine-from-old-problems-to-new-challenges",title:"Forensic Medicine",fullTitle:"Forensic Medicine - From Old Problems to New Challenges"},signatures:"Audrey Farrugia and Bertrand Ludes",authors:[{id:"34146",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Farrugia",slug:"audrey-farrugia",fullName:"Audrey Farrugia"},{id:"49284",title:"Dr.",name:"Bertrand",middleName:null,surname:"Ludes",slug:"bertrand-ludes",fullName:"Bertrand Ludes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1019",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/214428",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"214428"},fullPath:"/profiles/214428",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()