\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4499",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Contemporary Gynecologic Practice",title:"Contemporary Gynecologic Practice",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Gynecology is frequently changing due to extensive implementation of high technology in both, the diagnosis and management of gynecologic problems. 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Moreover, he is a consultant of Obstetrics and Gynecology in three hospitals and he is the moderator and lecturer of many endoscopic societies. \nHe authored an internationally registered undergraduate book, presented 59 presentations in national and international meetings, delivered a lot of lectures in Egypt, some Arabian countries and the USA and published more than 40 papers in international medical journals, and 7 papers in national journals. He received some congress prizes and awards due to his work in the field of reproductive medicine since 1995. 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Interactions between light and electrons culminate first in the quantum field theory, before quantum electrodynamics which is known as second quantum mechanics. However, quantum mechanics is an unfinished theory, since new concepts must be incorporated to define with higher precision all quantum processes at particle and sub-particle level and related phenomena, for example in the Universe, superconducting, nuclear physics, quantum electronics, spintronics, etc. where more phenomena and theories appear, such as TFT, super-symmetry, quantum chromodynamics, quasi-particles, fermion physics, Higgs bosons, gauges, dark matter, and more. They all enrich the contents of quantum field theory through mathematical physics formulation (quantum field operators and quantum field equations), as well as the purely physical aspects of the phenomenology of field theory at its microscopic level.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-115-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-114-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-116-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ec9dae0c7f2dcd5581423dfd8dba81f2",bookSignature:"Dr. Francisco Bulnes",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11496.jpg",keywords:"Quantum Field Theory, Field Operator, Quantum Physics, Path Integral, Feynman Diagram, Quantum Cohomology, Quantum Perturbation, Fermion Physics, Higgs Boson, Subatomic Particle, Condensed Matter, Quasi-Particle",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Francisco Bulnes is a well-known pioneer and creator of theories, theorems, and math objects. He has received various honors and awards (Doctorates Honoris Causa) from universities and both governmental and non-governmental organizations. He is a member of several societies including the Czech Mathematical Society, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Nano Society, Liverpool Mathematical Society, and Council of Innovative Research.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92918/images/system/92918.png",biography:"Dr. Francisco Bulnes has a Ph.D. in Mathematical Sciences from the Instituto de Matemáticas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma deMéxico (IM/UNAM). He is the director of Advanced International Research in Mathematics and Engineering (IINAMEI) and editor in chief of the journal Mathematics. Dr. Bulnes has authored more than 100 journal papers and several books in mathematics and physics research. He is a well known researcher and pioneer in curvature energy theory, mathematical theory of research and mathematical theory of nanotechnology. He has received various honors and awards (Doctorates Honoris Causa) from universities and both governmental and non-governmental organizations. He has two post-doctorates in mathematics from Cuba and Russia. His biography has been published as a tribute book in many countries of the world.",institutionString:"Investigación Internacional Avanzada en Matemáticas e Ingeniería (IINAMEI), Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"12",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8907",title:"Advances in Quantum Communication and Information",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b074960b5f71319aa57217e7b54216e",slug:"advances-in-quantum-communication-and-information",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes, Vasilios N. Stavrou, Oleg Morozov and Anton V. Bourdine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8907.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10403",title:"Recent Advances in Numerical Simulations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d74c4bc8f3f49c49eb2e80810d938611",slug:"recent-advances-in-numerical-simulations",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes and Jan Peter Hessling",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10403.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8655",title:"Advances in Complex Analysis and 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Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68797",title:"Construction and Analysis of Metagenome Library from Bacterial Community Associated with Toxic Dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamiyavanichii",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88751",slug:"construction-and-analysis-of-metagenome-library-from-bacterial-community-associated-with-toxic-dinof",body:'\nMicroalgae are the major producers of biomass and organic compounds in the ocean. More than 5000 species of marine microalgae are known to date and are separated into six major divisions:
Many planktonic organisms can form mass occurrences in the water column. When the cell densities reach values considerably higher than their general background distribution, they are called blooms [3]. Blooms can be almost mono specific, others are formed by a combination of species [4, 5]. Many prominent blooms can be traced back to high nutrient loads [6, 7, 8], but they can occur whenever a species is able to outgrow its competitors while partially reducing grazer pressure [9].
\nMicroscopic marine algae can be vectors of microbial communities because they are universally associated in the ocean. In nature, most microbial communities are found adhered to microalgae, organism and inanimate surfaces. These interactions are dynamic and are important factors in microbial proliferation and survival. Aquatic algae in situ as well as in laboratory culture condition are often found to be associated with a variety of bacterial strains [10]. Bacteria community can be defined as multi – species of bacteria assemblages in which organisms live together in a contiguous environment (host) and interact with other [11]. Bacteria reproduce asexually, are sized between 0.1 to 20 μm, and can be rod, cocci or comma shaped.
\nFor marine microorganisms (bacterioplankton), there are approximately 106 bacterial cells per ml of surface seawater throughout the world’s oceans [12]. While this number has been known for at least 30 years, how many bacterial species are actually present in the bacterioplankton are still unknown. Bacterioplankton commonly found in marine environment are mainly from bacteria group of Proteobacteria, Cytophaga-Flexibactar-Bacteroides (CFB), marine Archaea and other groups of bacteria, where bacteria group from Proteobacteria is the largest. Proteobacteria group are divided to some class, which are Alpha (α-), Beta (β-), Delta (δ-), Epsilon (ε-) and Gamma (γ-) Proteobacteria [13]. Up until now, the estimated abundance and genetic diversity of bacterioplankton are based on the data in the GenBank database. Hagström et al. [14] had analyzed on all of the 16S rDNA sequences sent to GenBank to get the estimation of marine bacterioplankton species that were available in the GenBank database. Their studies show that the richness of marine bacterioplankton species in the GenBank database was low relatively.
\nThe ecology of bacterioplankton and phytoplankton is widely recognized to be tightly coupled. Interactions between bacteria and phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates may play an important role in regulating dinoflagellate toxin production. Previous studies on the interactions between bacteria and dinoflagellates have been shown to be highly variable and are sometimes specific. Effects of bacteria on toxic dinoflagellates include negative effects such as cell lysis and death [15] and positive effects such as growth enhancement with an addition of bacteria to cultures [16]. Examples of factors which may cause stimulation or inhibition by bacteria include production of co-factors and secretion of signaling molecules controlling cellular processes of dinoflagellates [17]. In addition, bacterial influences on nutrient availability may result in stimulation or inhibition of the growth or toxin production of dinoflagellates. Both toxin production by dinoflagellates and bacteria associated with toxic or non-toxic dinoflagellates have been documented. For example, Gallacher et al. [18] described evidence of paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) production by bacteria associated with dinoflagellates cultures.
\nCultures of dinoflagellates contain a considerable amount of bacteria which probably accompanied the dinoflagellates in the original sample. Bacterial assemblage found in the phycosphere of dinoflagellates may play an important role in regulating dinoflagellate toxin production. While several studies have suggested that bacteria-phytoplankton interactions have the potential to dramatically influence harmful algal bloom dynamics, little is known about how bacteria and phytoplankton communities interact at the species composition level. Other studies have indicated that inside a phytoplankton bloom, α-Proteobacteria overwhelm the free-living bacterioplankton, while microorganisms connected to phytoplankton are basically distinguished as fitting in with (CFB), γ-Proteobacteria, and Planctomycetes groups [19, 20].
\nAt present the precise association of bacteria with cultured dinoflagellates is still not well understood. Moreover, current estimates indicate that more than 99% of the microorganisms present in many natural environments are not readily culturable and therefore not accessible for biotechnology or basic research [21]. Technology to access the genomic DNA or RNA of microorganisms, directly from environmental samples without prior cultivation, has opened new ways of understanding microbial diversity and functions. Thus, this present study is an important step towards understanding bacteria-dinoflagellate interactions.
\nMetagenomics has become a powerful tool to investigate the biodiversity of complex microbial communities and for studying its metabolic pathways. This technique can be considered as a revolutionary approach to study the microbial community that is unapproachable by available conventional methods and this approach also can capture the total genomes that present in a community of interest. According to Schloss and Handelsman [22], metagenomics was builds on advances in microbial genomics and in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and cloning of genes. The field of metagenomics has played a pivotal role for significant progress in microbial ecology, evolution, and diversity over the past years. This approach has allowed researchers to elucidate some possible mechanisms governing ecosystem function and diversity.
\nAbout 4–6 x 1030 microbes exist on this earth [29]. They form the foundation of the biosphere, regulate the biogeochemical cycle and influence geology, hydrology, local and global climate. Furthermore, microorganisms have the potential to produce beneficial products to humans such as bioactive compound products, enzymes and polymers. Research on microbial interactions in a natural environment allows us to better understand complex global issues such as greenhouse gases, biodegradation of harmful compounds and enable us to discover new natural products such as antibiotics. However, it is estimated that 99% of the microbes are “viable but nonculturable” [21, 30]. In the meantime, the function and role of the majority of microbes present in the natural environment are still not well understood. Furthermore, they are a valuable resource in biotechnology applications and new product discoveries. The design of metagenomic techniques has allowed us to study in-depth interactions and the role of microbial communities in a natural environment without the need for culturing [31].
\nThe metagenomic approach to studying the bacterial community has begun about more than 20 years ago. Since then, the analysis of bacterial communities using this technique has been widely reported. However, most metagenomic studies have been carried out on bacterial communities from seawater samples, sediments, freshwater. Some metagenomic studies on bacterial communities associated with other organisms were also reported such as from the marine sponges [32], beetle [33], polychetes [34] and tubeworm [35]. However, the analysis of bacterial communities associated with HAB by using metagenomic methods is still poorly reported.
\nA total of 1501 fosmid clones with insert sizes of 30 kbp to 40 kbp were selected for amplification. Sequences of 80 bp to 550 bp in length were obtained from 238 clones. BLASTX results showed that 23% of the sequences had no match with GenBank data at e-value >10−4, 11% were functionally unknown and 11% were putative (Figure 1). Figure 2 shows the functional classification of significant sequences. Most of the sequences could be functionally categorized into a metabolism cluster (37%). There were approximately 14% sequences with no classification and could potentially represent novel genes. Analysis of these partial sequences also revealed some promising enzymes that possess various potential industrial applications such as chitinases, kinases, agarases and oxygenases.
\nDistribution of fosmid end sequences based on BLASTX results.
Classification of significant sequences into the functional categories.
The results also showed that the bacterial flora of the
Classification of sequences into bacteria divisions.
Fosmid end-sequencing has been done to assess the diversity of gene reservoirs in the constructed metagenomic fosmid library. The nucleotide sequence analysis obtained from 238 fosmid clones showed that most of the sequences are still functionally unknown and are believed to represent most of the undiscovered proteins and potentially to provide important new information or pathways if analyzed more deeply. The analysis of the fosmid end sequences also revealed that the majority of the sequences have similarities with the sequence of the Proteobacteria phylum. Some studies also showed that microflora around the marine dinoflagelate phycosphere was dominated by the Proteobacteria phylum [36, 37, 39]. We also found that part of the sequences was matched with genes derived from Roseobacter-Sulfitobacter-Silicibacter clade. Many
Analysis of these partial sequences also revealed some genes that might be important in bacteria-algal interactions. One of the contigs was similar to the response regulator of the LuxR family protein from
The end-sequences obtained can not be used to describe the metabolic activity of each bacterial taxon involved but the analysis of the nucleotide sequences has shown that the constructed metagenomic library has great potential as a source to study the physiology and function of the bacterial community involved.
\nThe advantage of metagenomic method is that it allows us to study the genome of the bacterial community directly from the natural environment in which the function and role of certain bacteria on the environment can be determined. Studies have shown that metagenomics are a very useful technology in finding genes that can be applied in industrial, biotechnology, pharmaceutical and medical fields such as esterase, lipase, agarase, polymerase, polyketide synthases, chitinase and so on. Some potentially uncultured microbes and new genes were discovered through this study. In this study, metagenomic libraries using fosmid vectors were constructed from the bacterial community associated with A. tamiyavanichii. A total of 1501 fosmid clones ranging from 30 to 40 Kbp have been obtained and this is equivalent to 13 bacterial genomes. Finally, to our knowledge, the metagenomic library in this study was the first being constructed from the bacterial communities associated with toxic marine dinoflagellate. This collection of libraries can be used as a major source for finding new genes or pathways for biosynthesis and to study the interactions of dinoflagelates more profoundly, especially in the production of the saxitoxins as there is a hypothesis that the toxins produced by dinoflagelates are derived from bacteria.
\nWe thank all the people involved directly or indirectly in this study especially staffs from the School of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu and Bachok Marine Research Station, University of Malaya.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
Microalgae are the major producers of biomass and organic compounds in the ocean. More than 5000 species of marine microalgae are known to date and are separated into six major divisions:
Many planktonic organisms can form mass occurrences in the water column. When the cell densities reach values considerably higher than their general background distribution, they are called blooms [3]. Blooms can be almost mono specific, others are formed by a combination of species [4, 5]. Many prominent blooms can be traced back to high nutrient loads [6, 7, 8], but they can occur whenever a species is able to outgrow its competitors while partially reducing grazer pressure [9].
\nMicroscopic marine algae can be vectors of microbial communities because they are universally associated in the ocean. In nature, most microbial communities are found adhered to microalgae, organism and inanimate surfaces. These interactions are dynamic and are important factors in microbial proliferation and survival. Aquatic algae in situ as well as in laboratory culture condition are often found to be associated with a variety of bacterial strains [10]. Bacteria community can be defined as multi – species of bacteria assemblages in which organisms live together in a contiguous environment (host) and interact with other [11]. Bacteria reproduce asexually, are sized between 0.1 to 20 μm, and can be rod, cocci or comma shaped.
\nFor marine microorganisms (bacterioplankton), there are approximately 106 bacterial cells per ml of surface seawater throughout the world’s oceans [12]. While this number has been known for at least 30 years, how many bacterial species are actually present in the bacterioplankton are still unknown. Bacterioplankton commonly found in marine environment are mainly from bacteria group of Proteobacteria, Cytophaga-Flexibactar-Bacteroides (CFB), marine Archaea and other groups of bacteria, where bacteria group from Proteobacteria is the largest. Proteobacteria group are divided to some class, which are Alpha (α-), Beta (β-), Delta (δ-), Epsilon (ε-) and Gamma (γ-) Proteobacteria [13]. Up until now, the estimated abundance and genetic diversity of bacterioplankton are based on the data in the GenBank database. Hagström et al. [14] had analyzed on all of the 16S rDNA sequences sent to GenBank to get the estimation of marine bacterioplankton species that were available in the GenBank database. Their studies show that the richness of marine bacterioplankton species in the GenBank database was low relatively.
\nThe ecology of bacterioplankton and phytoplankton is widely recognized to be tightly coupled. Interactions between bacteria and phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates may play an important role in regulating dinoflagellate toxin production. Previous studies on the interactions between bacteria and dinoflagellates have been shown to be highly variable and are sometimes specific. Effects of bacteria on toxic dinoflagellates include negative effects such as cell lysis and death [15] and positive effects such as growth enhancement with an addition of bacteria to cultures [16]. Examples of factors which may cause stimulation or inhibition by bacteria include production of co-factors and secretion of signaling molecules controlling cellular processes of dinoflagellates [17]. In addition, bacterial influences on nutrient availability may result in stimulation or inhibition of the growth or toxin production of dinoflagellates. Both toxin production by dinoflagellates and bacteria associated with toxic or non-toxic dinoflagellates have been documented. For example, Gallacher et al. [18] described evidence of paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) production by bacteria associated with dinoflagellates cultures.
\nCultures of dinoflagellates contain a considerable amount of bacteria which probably accompanied the dinoflagellates in the original sample. Bacterial assemblage found in the phycosphere of dinoflagellates may play an important role in regulating dinoflagellate toxin production. While several studies have suggested that bacteria-phytoplankton interactions have the potential to dramatically influence harmful algal bloom dynamics, little is known about how bacteria and phytoplankton communities interact at the species composition level. Other studies have indicated that inside a phytoplankton bloom, α-Proteobacteria overwhelm the free-living bacterioplankton, while microorganisms connected to phytoplankton are basically distinguished as fitting in with (CFB), γ-Proteobacteria, and Planctomycetes groups [19, 20].
\nAt present the precise association of bacteria with cultured dinoflagellates is still not well understood. Moreover, current estimates indicate that more than 99% of the microorganisms present in many natural environments are not readily culturable and therefore not accessible for biotechnology or basic research [21]. Technology to access the genomic DNA or RNA of microorganisms, directly from environmental samples without prior cultivation, has opened new ways of understanding microbial diversity and functions. Thus, this present study is an important step towards understanding bacteria-dinoflagellate interactions.
\nMetagenomics has become a powerful tool to investigate the biodiversity of complex microbial communities and for studying its metabolic pathways. This technique can be considered as a revolutionary approach to study the microbial community that is unapproachable by available conventional methods and this approach also can capture the total genomes that present in a community of interest. According to Schloss and Handelsman [22], metagenomics was builds on advances in microbial genomics and in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and cloning of genes. The field of metagenomics has played a pivotal role for significant progress in microbial ecology, evolution, and diversity over the past years. This approach has allowed researchers to elucidate some possible mechanisms governing ecosystem function and diversity.
\nAbout 4–6 x 1030 microbes exist on this earth [29]. They form the foundation of the biosphere, regulate the biogeochemical cycle and influence geology, hydrology, local and global climate. Furthermore, microorganisms have the potential to produce beneficial products to humans such as bioactive compound products, enzymes and polymers. Research on microbial interactions in a natural environment allows us to better understand complex global issues such as greenhouse gases, biodegradation of harmful compounds and enable us to discover new natural products such as antibiotics. However, it is estimated that 99% of the microbes are “viable but nonculturable” [21, 30]. In the meantime, the function and role of the majority of microbes present in the natural environment are still not well understood. Furthermore, they are a valuable resource in biotechnology applications and new product discoveries. The design of metagenomic techniques has allowed us to study in-depth interactions and the role of microbial communities in a natural environment without the need for culturing [31].
\nThe metagenomic approach to studying the bacterial community has begun about more than 20 years ago. Since then, the analysis of bacterial communities using this technique has been widely reported. However, most metagenomic studies have been carried out on bacterial communities from seawater samples, sediments, freshwater. Some metagenomic studies on bacterial communities associated with other organisms were also reported such as from the marine sponges [32], beetle [33], polychetes [34] and tubeworm [35]. However, the analysis of bacterial communities associated with HAB by using metagenomic methods is still poorly reported.
\nA total of 1501 fosmid clones with insert sizes of 30 kbp to 40 kbp were selected for amplification. Sequences of 80 bp to 550 bp in length were obtained from 238 clones. BLASTX results showed that 23% of the sequences had no match with GenBank data at e-value >10−4, 11% were functionally unknown and 11% were putative (Figure 1). Figure 2 shows the functional classification of significant sequences. Most of the sequences could be functionally categorized into a metabolism cluster (37%). There were approximately 14% sequences with no classification and could potentially represent novel genes. Analysis of these partial sequences also revealed some promising enzymes that possess various potential industrial applications such as chitinases, kinases, agarases and oxygenases.
\nDistribution of fosmid end sequences based on BLASTX results.
Classification of significant sequences into the functional categories.
The results also showed that the bacterial flora of the
Classification of sequences into bacteria divisions.
Fosmid end-sequencing has been done to assess the diversity of gene reservoirs in the constructed metagenomic fosmid library. The nucleotide sequence analysis obtained from 238 fosmid clones showed that most of the sequences are still functionally unknown and are believed to represent most of the undiscovered proteins and potentially to provide important new information or pathways if analyzed more deeply. The analysis of the fosmid end sequences also revealed that the majority of the sequences have similarities with the sequence of the Proteobacteria phylum. Some studies also showed that microflora around the marine dinoflagelate phycosphere was dominated by the Proteobacteria phylum [36, 37, 39]. We also found that part of the sequences was matched with genes derived from Roseobacter-Sulfitobacter-Silicibacter clade. Many
Analysis of these partial sequences also revealed some genes that might be important in bacteria-algal interactions. One of the contigs was similar to the response regulator of the LuxR family protein from
The end-sequences obtained can not be used to describe the metabolic activity of each bacterial taxon involved but the analysis of the nucleotide sequences has shown that the constructed metagenomic library has great potential as a source to study the physiology and function of the bacterial community involved.
\nThe advantage of metagenomic method is that it allows us to study the genome of the bacterial community directly from the natural environment in which the function and role of certain bacteria on the environment can be determined. Studies have shown that metagenomics are a very useful technology in finding genes that can be applied in industrial, biotechnology, pharmaceutical and medical fields such as esterase, lipase, agarase, polymerase, polyketide synthases, chitinase and so on. Some potentially uncultured microbes and new genes were discovered through this study. In this study, metagenomic libraries using fosmid vectors were constructed from the bacterial community associated with A. tamiyavanichii. A total of 1501 fosmid clones ranging from 30 to 40 Kbp have been obtained and this is equivalent to 13 bacterial genomes. Finally, to our knowledge, the metagenomic library in this study was the first being constructed from the bacterial communities associated with toxic marine dinoflagellate. This collection of libraries can be used as a major source for finding new genes or pathways for biosynthesis and to study the interactions of dinoflagelates more profoundly, especially in the production of the saxitoxins as there is a hypothesis that the toxins produced by dinoflagelates are derived from bacteria.
\nWe thank all the people involved directly or indirectly in this study especially staffs from the School of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu and Bachok Marine Research Station, University of Malaya.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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Although the etiology is controversial, the main elements in the natural historical emergence of the type I and type IV, which make up the majority of all types, have become clearer. The majority of CCs are diagnosed in childhood. Clinical presentation varies from jaundice in young patients to nonspecific abdominal pain in older, but morbidity increases with complications such as cholangitis, pancreatitis, perforation, hepatitis, liver failure, and malignancy in delayed diagnosed patients. MRCP is considered the current gold standard diagnostic modality that is able to accurately assess biliary anatomy. Although the treatment approach has been formed over the years, it still has not reached the last state. Eventually, the removal of the entire cyst and the reconstruction of the remaining biliary tract to drainage is the current treatment approach. But the dilemma is the way of reconstruction procedure (hepaticoduodenostomy or hepaticojejunostomy). All patients should be followed up for a long period of time, regardless of the surgery method.",book:{id:"8463",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",fullTitle:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms"},signatures:"Hasan Özkan Gezer",authors:[{id:"273381",title:"M.D.",name:"Hasan",middleName:"Özkan",surname:"Gezer",slug:"hasan-gezer",fullName:"Hasan Gezer"}]},{id:"44446",title:"Neonatal Pneumonia",slug:"neonatal-pneumonia",totalDownloads:14750,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2990",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-infection",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection",fullTitle:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection"},signatures:"Friedrich Reiterer",authors:[{id:"152025",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Reiterer",slug:"friedrich-reiterer",fullName:"Friedrich Reiterer"}]},{id:"53683",title:"Pre and Postoperative Management of Pediatric Patients with Congenital Heart Diseases",slug:"pre-and-postoperative-management-of-pediatric-patients-with-congenital-heart-diseases",totalDownloads:4889,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Stabilization during preoperative cardiac surgery especially in neonates has an important role to predict outcome for pediatric congenital heart surgery. We tried to elaborate general guidelines on how to diagnose and some anticipations for emergency treatments tailored by the type of congenital heart disease in neonates. Stabilization consists of medical treatment including emergent prostaglandin institution in some types of duct dependent lesion. The role of interventional catheterization such as patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) stent, balloon pulmonary valvotomy, etc. as modalities for stabilization before surgery was also elaborated. Some general and specific guidelines based on the type of surgeries for postoperative management were also discussed.",book:{id:"5473",slug:"pediatric-and-neonatal-surgery",title:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery",fullTitle:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery"},signatures:"Eva Miranda Marwali, Beatrice Heineking and Nikolaus A. 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It is more common during the neonatal period than at any other age with the estimated incidence of 0.25 per 1000 live births. The absence of specific clinical presentation makes diagnosis of meningitis more difficult in neonates than in older children. Culture of cerebrospinal fluid is the traditional gold standard for diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, so all newborn infants with proven or suspected sepsis should undergo lumbar puncture. However, deciding when to perform lumbar puncture and interpretation of the results are challenging. Although the pathophysiology of neonatal meningitis is complex and not fully understood, researches on diagnostic and prognostic tools are ongoing. Prevention of neonatal sepsis, early recognition of infants at risk, development of novel, rapid diagnostics and adjunctive therapies, and appropriate and aggressive antimicrobial treatment to sterilize cerebrospinal fluid as soon as possible may prevent the lifelong squeal of bacterial meningitis in newborn infants.",book:{id:"7527",slug:"neonatal-medicine",title:"Neonatal Medicine",fullTitle:"Neonatal Medicine"},signatures:"Mehmet Şah İpek",authors:[{id:"267903",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mehmet Şah",middleName:null,surname:"İpek",slug:"mehmet-sah-ipek",fullName:"Mehmet Şah İpek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"194",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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