Genetic abnormalities identified in leukemia associated SD.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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It was divided into three main sections: 1. Evaluating the Thyroid Gland and its Diseases includes basic and clinical information on the most novel and quivering issues in the area. 2. Psychiatric Disturbances Associated to Thyroid Diseases addresses common psychiatric disturbances commonly encountered in the clinical practice. 3. Treatment of Thyroid and Parathyroid Diseases discusses the management of thyroid and parathyroid diseases including new technologies.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0221-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6869-0",doi:"10.5772/1727",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"thyroid-and-parathyroid-diseases-new-insights-into-some-old-and-some-new-issues",numberOfPages:332,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1d264ee64e50893c0a9e40405a70656e",bookSignature:"Laura Sterian Ward",publishedDate:"March 7th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1258.jpg",numberOfDownloads:66727,numberOfWosCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:53,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 9th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 6th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 11th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 9th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"40956",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:"Sterian",surname:"Ward",slug:"laura-ward",fullName:"Laura Ward",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40956/images/system/40956.JPG",biography:"Dr. Ward is Associate Professor of Medicine at the Universidade Estadual de Campinas in São Palo, Brazil. She earned both her MD and PhD from the Paulista School of Medicine at the Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Dr. Ward has published over 110 peer-reviewed articles and 40 book chapters, including 5 chapters in international books. She is the editor of a Thyroid Manual that was translated to spanish and is currently on its second edition. Dr. Ward guided 10 doctoral thesis and sponsored 20 MAster pos-graduated students and 3 post-doctoral feloows. She has been recognized as Researcher of the Brazilian National Council of Research and awarded the Latin American Thyroid Association Prize in 2011. Her current interests include the investigation of genes involved in the metabolism of estrogen in Graves’ disease and in thyroid cancer; development of targets and biologic sensors for the diagnostic and therapeutics of human disease; and evaluation of the clinical utility of serum markers for thyroid malignancy.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"State University of Campinas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1012",title:"Neuroendocrinology",slug:"medicine-endocrinology-neuroendocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"31300",title:"\ufeffIntroduction to Thyroid: Anatomy and Functions",doi:"10.5772/37942",slug:"introduction-to-thyroid-gland-anatomy-and-functions",totalDownloads:6006,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Evren Bursuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/31300",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/31300",authors:[{id:"114874",title:"Dr.",name:"Evren",surname:"Bursuk",slug:"evren-bursuk",fullName:"Evren Bursuk"}],corrections:null},{id:"31301",title:"The Thyroglobulin: A Technically Challenging Assay for a Marker of Choice During the Follow-Up of Differentiated Thyroid Cancer",doi:"10.5772/25643",slug:"the-thyroglobulin-a-technically-challenging-assay-for-a-marker-of-choice-during-the-follow-up-of-dif",totalDownloads:2103,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Anne Charrié",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/31301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/31301",authors:[{id:"64000",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",surname:"Charrie",slug:"anne-charrie",fullName:"Anne Charrie"}],corrections:null},{id:"31302",title:"Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma - 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\r\n\tIn March 2022, another book on human migration seems important when the events or tragedies unfolding in Eastern Europe are considered. People have always migrated and have moved, but, specifically looking at the last three hundred years, involuntary migration is on the rise. Involuntary migration does not only affect Europe; Asia, Africa, and North as well as South America, have had their fair share of natural catastrophes, invasions, and wars.
\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present.
\r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes).
\r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been?
\r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated.
\r\n\t
Constitutional trisomy 21 or Down syndrome (DS) is the most common human genetic aneuploidy caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21 chromosome. The incidence of DS is estimated at 1 per 700 births (Malinge et al., 2009) and is the most common genetic factor predisposing to childhood leukemia. People with DS present several clinical phenotypes, including cognitive impairment, craniofacial dysmorphy, gastrointestinal tract abnormalities, congenital heart defects, endocrine abnormalities, neuropathology leading to dementia and immunological defects. Concerning the hematopoietic system, children with DS frequently show abnormalities in platelet counts, macrocytosis and an increased prevalence of leukemia (Lange, 2000; Roizen & Amarose, 1993).
\n\t\tThe high frequency of leukemia in children with DS suggests that trisomy 21 is involved directly and functionally to the malignant transformation of hematopoietic cells. However, DS is not a classic genomic instability syndrome, since the overall risk of developing cancer, in particular solid tumors, including neuroblastoma and Wilms tumor, is lower in these people (Hasle, 2001; Malinge et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\tNewborns with DS have a risk 10 to 20 times higher of developing acute leukemia (AL) when compared with the incidence rates of leukemia in the general child population (Hitzler et al., 2003). The AL in children with DS presents an intriguing relationship between the age at onset of disease and the subtype of leukemia cell. DS children older than 4 years have predominantly acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), whose incidence is approximately 20 times higher than in the general population. However the DS patients aged under 3 years are more likely to develop acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMKL), with an incidence 500 times higher than in children without DS(Hitzler et al., 2003; Issacs, 2003; Lange, 2000; Malinge et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\tThe condition of patients with DS awakens, therefore, a special interest in studies on leukemogenesis not only by the high prevalence of AMKL, usually rare in the general pediatric population, but also by another form of clonal proliferation called transient myeloproliferative disorder (TMD) which affects between 5 and 10% of newborns with DS. The TMD is a clonal disease characterized by accumulation of immature megakaryoblasts in fetal liver and peripheral blood, a picture indistinguishable from AL (Hitzler et al., 2003; Malinge et al., 2009; Pine et al., 2007; Rainis et al., 2003; Zipursky, 2003). It is unclear whether all AMKLs are preceded by TMD, since several TMD cases are underdiagnosed. One study suggests that the prognosis for AMKLs preceded by TMD is better than de novo AMKL (Klusmann et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tIn contrast to AMKL, TMD usually evolves to spontaneous remission within the first three months of life and therefore is considered a pre-leukemic syndrome. This spontaneous remission can vary from 59 to 64% (Kanezaki et al., 2010; Massey et al., 2006). However, approximately 20% of children diagnosed with TMD will develop AMKL after 2 to 3 years of TMD spontaneous remission, which does not regress without chemotherapy (Malinge et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\tThe biological mechanism of TMD spontaneous remission is not clear. Holt et al. (2002) showed that telomerase activity was decreased at the beginning of congenital leukemia and suggested that this deficiency could explain the spontaneous regression. Furthermore, the factors underlying the transformation of the TMD "benign" status for "evil" in AMKL are unknown (Izraeli et al., 2007; Malkin et al., 2000; Rainis et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tIn rare cases, the TMD is fatal due to poor prognostic factors such as liver fibrosis or liver dysfunction, manifested by jaundice, bleeding diathesis, fetal hydrops, cardiopulmonary failure, high white blood cell (WBC) and failure of spontaneous remission within the first 3 months (Malinge et al., 2009; Massey et al., 2006; Pine et al., 2007; Shimizu et al., 2008). Most of these variants were found in all reports. However, the risk factors for the progression to AMKL remain unclear (Kanezaki et al., 2010). Three studies in the United States, Japan and Europe reported the natural course of TMD in 264 children with DS. These studies confirmed the transient course of this disease that usually resolved spontaneously within the first 3 months of life. However, these studies revealed that the disease is not benign, since early deaths have been reported in 15 to 20% of the cases (Klusmann et al., 2008; Massey et al., 2006; Muramatsu et al., 2008). Kanezaki et al. (2010) also reported early death in 24.2% of the DS patients with TMD.
\n\t\tThe
The
\n\t\t\t\t
Models for the expression of GATA-1 isoforms. The GATA-1 protein is translated from the GATA1 mRNA, whereas the GATA-1s protein can be translated either from the GATA-1 mRNA or from the alternative spliced GATA1s mRNA lacking exon 2.
The analysis of megakaryocyte-specific knockdown of
Mutations in
Mutations in
Studies have shown that
A model for multi-step leukemogenesis in DS. The accumulation of hits (multiple genetic abnormalities) characterizes the evolution of TMD for AMKL.
Somatic mutations in the N-terminus activation domain of
The expression levels of GATA-1 isoforms are crucial for the proper development of erythroid and megakaryocytic cells and compromised GATA-1 expression is a causal factor in leukemia (Shimizu et al., 2008). These findings strongly suggest that the qualitative deficit of GATA-1 contributes to the genesis of TMD and AMKL (Kanezaki et al., 2010). The selection of mutations that retain GATA-1s may result in disruption of normal balance between GATA-1 and GATA-1s, which probably would be involved in regulating normal development of megakaryocytes (Izraeli et al., 2007), but pass to act as an oncogene directly in the presence of trisomy 21. Alternatively, GATA-1s may be required for survival of leukemic blasts and the oncogenic effect may be purchased by the loss of the heavy chain of GATA-1. Another possibility is that this type of mutation may reflect specific mechanisms of selection or generation of this mutation in the presence of trisomy 21 (Rainis et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tAccording some evidences the arising of AL is due to the cooperation between one class of mutations which interferes with differentiation (class II mutations) and another class which confers a proliferative advantage to cells (class I mutations) (Deguchi & Gilliland, 2002). It has been shown that high level expression of exogenous GATA-1 lacking the N-terminus induced differentiation rather than decreased the aberrant growth of GATA1-null megakaryocytes (Kuhl et al., 2005; Muntean & Crispino, 2005). This observation suggested that abundant GATA-1s functions like a class I mutation in TMD blasts. In contrast, reducing GATA-1 expression leads to differentiation arrest and aberrant growth of megakaryocytic cells (Vyas et al., 1999). The present data suggest that GATA-1s is expressed at very low levels in TMD blasts with GATA-1s low mutations. These levels may not be sufficient to provoke normal maturation. Together, these findings suggest that the low expression of GATA-1s might function like class II mutations in TMD blasts. Additional class I mutations or epigenetic alterations might be more effective in the development of leukemia in blast cells expressing GATA-1s at low levels (Kanezaki et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRainis et al. (2003) reported two patients with identical
\n\t\t\t\tWechsler et al. (2002) analyzed the X chromosome inactivation in cell lysates from BM of women carrier from AMKL. Since the female leukemic cells showed the X chromosome inactivation due to monoclonality, and the mutant allele was detected only in leukemic cells, they predicted that the wild-type allele should be on the inactive X chromosome. As expected, only the truncated protein GATA-1s was observed. On the other hand Rainis et al. (2003) proposed that if there was no process of X chromosome inactivation,
\n\t\t\t\tAhmed et al. (2004) described for the first time multiple independent
GATA-1s is no different from wild type in their ability to bind to DNA and interact with its co-factor friend of GATA-1(FOG-1), but shows a reduction in their ability to transcriptional activation since it was truncated to its activation domain N-terminal (Rainis et al., 2003; Wechsler et al., 2002).
\n\t\t\tFOG-1 binds specifically to the NF zinc finger motif of GATA-1, and is expressed abundantly in erythroid and megakaryocytic cells (Crispino et al., 1999). FOG-1 is encoded by the gene
A missense mutation in the
The occurrence of mutations in exon 2 of
Based on numerous studies with mutations in
The identification of activating mutations in tyrosine kinase genes in TMD and AMKL specimens has provided new insights into the evolution of AMKL.
Types of leukemia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMutated gene | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tLocalization | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFrequencies recorded | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | GATA1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tXp11.23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t97,3% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
TMD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tJAK3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19p13.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12,5% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | TP53 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17p13.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7,7% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | GATA1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tXp11.23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t89,2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | JAK3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19p13.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13,2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
AMKL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFLT3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13q12.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5,7% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | TP53 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17p13.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21,4% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | JAK2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9p24.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6,2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Genetic abnormalities identified in leukemia associated SD.
The functional contribution of the trisomy 21 in hematologic malignancies is supported by several observations such as the high incidence of leukemia in DS patients, the fact that TMD and AMKL blasts present trisomy 21 (even in children without DS), and that acquired trisomy or tetrasomy of chromosome 21 is frequently observed in blasts of different types of leukemia, including hyperdiploid ALL and de novo AML (Vyas & Crispino, 2007).
\n\t\t\tIt is assumed that the cells of DS complete or partial trisomy of Hsa21, approximately 33.7 Mb, promote an overexpression of at least one of the 364 known genes, 31 antisense transcripts, and five different miRNAs (miR-99a, let-7c, miR-155, miR-125b-2, and miR-802), which could cooperate with the loss of GATA-1 in the pathogenesis of AMKL. Mutations in several genes on chromosome 21 have been identified in leukemia, and many of them recognized as encoding transcription factors acting at various stages of hematopoiesis. There should be contribution of genes present on chromosome 21 that cooperate with mutations of the
The identification of the Down Syndrome Critical Region (DSCR) on the 21q22 band based in the genotype-phenotype correlations of partial trisomy in children suspected of having DS disclosed a list of genes potentially implicated in the clinical phenotype. However no specific genes have been certainly linked to the increased incidence of leukemia in DS. Few strong candidates include
Since the TMD is originated in a fetal liver progenitor and is restricted to children with DS (or to rare cases of acquired trisomy 21), it is presumed that trisomy 21 directly affects the development of hematopoietic cells during gestation. It has been shown that
The functional perturbations induced by trisomy 21 probably induce a highly susceptible cellular environment to additional transformations such as
Two microarray studies comparing AMKL versus non-DS AML have recently been reported (Bourquin et al., 2006; Ge et al., 2006) and 76 genes were described that discriminate between DS AMKL and non-DS. For example, genes encoding erythroid markers, glycophorin A and CD36, were found meaningly overexpressed in AMKL, as confirmed by immunophenotypic analysis of blasts (Langebrake et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tAnalysis of the gene expression data also revealed that there is an overall increase in expression of chromosome 21 genes in AMKL, relative to non-DS AMKL. By gene set enrichment analysis, 47 Hsa21 genes, including
Of the genes on chromosome 21, several are compelling candidate leukemia oncogenes. Of these, four such candidates are
Inherited hypomorphic mutations in
In different types of cancer, it has been shown that the
Overexpression of
The ETS family member
Hsa21 encode five miRNAs and overexpression of some of these has been observed in brain and heart tissues of people with DS and has been implicated in normal and pathologic hematopoiesis (Kuhn et al., 2008). For example, miR-99a is up-regulated during megakaryocytic differentiation of CD34+ cells, whereas miR-155 and let-7c are down-regulated (Garzon et al., 2006). Notably, miR-155 has been linked to myeloproliferative and B-lymphoproliferative disorders (Garzon & Croce 2008; O’Connell et al., 2008). Studies have implicated miR-125b-2, which is overexpressed in TMD and AMKL samples compared with normal megakaryocytes, in the megakaryocytic leukemia of DS (Klusmann, 2007).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tKlusmann et al. (2010) showed that miR-125b-2 is an oncogene potentially involved in the pathogenesis of trisomy 21-associated leukemia. They demonstrated in mice and human that overexpression of miR-125b-2 led to specific hyperproliferation and enhanced self-renewal capacity of megakaryocytic progenitor (MPs) and megakaryocytic/erythroid progenitors (MEPs), without affecting their normal differentiation. The miR-125b was highly expressed in AMKL blasts, whereas the identified target genes of miR-125b were down-regulated. Thus, miR-125b-2 has a role in regulating megakaryopoiesis and in the pathogenesis of trisomy 21-associated TMD and AMKL, in cooperation with GATA1s. The miR-125b-2 exerts its oncogenic potential by at least two different mechanisms: blocking post-transcriptional miRNA processing through repression of
The diagnosis of TMD usually occurs during the first weeks after birth and is observed as hydrops fetalis. The elevated blood count associated with hepatomegaly is the common symptom in an asymptomatic neonate. Infants with TMD can also display occasionally jaundice and bleeding diatheses, respiratory distress coupled with ascites, pleural effusion, signs of heart failure, and skin infiltrates. There is megakaryocytic infiltration and liver fibrosis, likely caused by excess cytokines secreted from the megakaryoblasts. The full clinical TMD may develop only at the second or third week of life. Laboratory tests are significant for either thrombocytosis or thrombocytopenia accompanied by elevated leukocytes with excess of blasts. The blood smear may show nucleated red cells, giant platelets and megakaryocytic fragments, and, most significantly, typical deeply basophilic blasts with blebs characteristic to megakaryocytic blasts. The differential diagnosis includes leukoerythroblastic reaction associated with prematurity, sepsis, or asphyxia. However, the blasts of TMD usually persist for several weeks, and
AMKL is preceded in 20 to 60% of cases by an indolent prephase of myelodysplasia (MDS), characterized by thrombocytopenia and dysplastic changes, BM aspiration is often dry, and fibrosis is detected in BM biopsy (Creutzig et al., 1996; Lange et al., 1998). This MDS can last several months or years before progressing to leukemia. In contrast to MDS in non-DS children, which requires stem-cell transplantation for cure, MDS in children with DS present a highly favorable response to chemotherapy alone (Lange et al., 1998). Therefore, Hasle et al. (2003) suggested that all cases of MDS and overt myeloid leukemia in DS, children should be classified as one disease entity, and referred to as ‘‘acute myeloid leukemia of Down syndrome’’ or ML DS. As this is a unique disease, it should be classified separately from other cases of AML in the WHO-classification.
\n\t\t\tImmunophenotyping characterizes the hematopoietic lineage involved and their degree of maturation by monoclonal antibodies labeled with fluorochromes. Flow cytometry reveals that blasts are positive for CD34, CD33, CD41, CD61, glycophorin A, and often CD7 and CD36 (Langebrake et al., 2005, Massey et al., 2006). Savasan & Ravindranath (2003) observed that blasts of DS children with AMKL express CD36, in contrast to the low or no expression of CD36 in AML without DS. If 25% of blast cells are not detected, the diagnosis of AMKL can be given by the megakaryocytic markers CD41, CD61 and CD42a. The immunophenotype of the blasts in AMKL is generally similar to TMD, except that the percentage of CD34 cells may be lower in AMKL (Langebrake, 2005;\n\t\t\t\tMalinge et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\tPine et al. (2005) demonstrate the possibility of using specific
This approach serves as a valuable tool in monitoring the spontaneous remission of TMD and in assessing response to treatment of AMKL subcytologic level. In addition, the MRD based GATA-1s mutations has been much in demand as a prognostic parameter for newborns with TMD. One may speculate, for example, that every group of newborns showing apparent remission of TMD can be divided into two subgroups: one in which the size of the clone of blasts in TMD after morphological remission continues to decline to become undetectable versus a second group, in which a clone of blasts in the TMD remains detectable submicroscopic level. It is interesting to correlate these patterns of MRD kinetics in TMD with the probability of developing AMKL later (Hitzler & Zipursky, 2005).
\n\t\t\tAdditional copies of chromosome 8 and 21 in addition to the constitutional trisomy 21 are the most frequent in AMKL, and are found in approximately 10 to 15% for each chromosome. Cytogenetic findings associated with a high rate of relapse in non-DS AML, such as monosomy 7 and deletion 5/5q- also occur in DS patients but do not seem to have a negative impact on prognosis in the rare cases (Gamis et al., 2003, 2005; Rainis et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tThe approach of molecular techniques including: PCR amplification of
Until recently, there were no reports on the expression levels of GATA-1s in TAM blasts, and the risk factors for the progression to AMKL. In 2010, Kanezaki et al. tested whether the spectrum of transcripts derived from the mutant
Nevertheless, neither mice nor humans with germline mutations expressing GATA-1s develop TMD or AMKL without trisomy 21 (Hollanda et al., 2006; Li et al., 2005). Therefore, the role of the trisomy 21 in the cellular transformation in AMKL seems to be fundamental (Klusmann et al., 2010).It remains unknown which factors on chromosome 21 cooperate with the oncogenic GATA-1s and which factors are involved in this transition from preleukemia to AMKL in only a part of these children (Kanezaki et al., 2010; Klusmann et al., 2007; Langebrake et al., 2006; Malinge et al., 2009).
\n\t\tDS children with AMKL have an excellent prognostic, with an approximately 80% cure rate, in relation to children without DS who develop AML (Arico et al.; 2008; Creutzig et al., 2005; Gamis et al., 2003; Rao et al., 2006; Taub et al., 1996). This outcome is possible on contemporary AML protocols which based in reducing treatment intensity regimens has considerably reduced the mortality rates in children with DS (Creutzig et al., 2005; Gamis et al., 2003; Whitlock et al., 2005; Zeller et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tAMKL blasts have shown hypersensitivity to varied chemotherapeutic drugs (Zwaan et al., 2002). Probably the hypersensibility of the blasts to cytarabine (ARA-C) is due of the effect of
Researchs in prospective clinical trials are trying to demonstrate whether treatment of TMD by low-dose cytarabine could prevent the arise of AMKL. Another related question to be clarified is whether treatment of clinically silent disease, identified by molecular detection of
In conclusion, many questions remain unanswered concerning the factors that contribute to the progression of TMD and AMKL in DS-patients. Progress in research to unravel these questions will improve diagnosis and treatment. Furthermore, ensuring the diagnosis of
Review supported by CAPES – Project CEP-FM 34/2008 and SES-DF 339/08.
\n\t\tGlobally, the building sector is accountable for 30% of the total final energy consumption and without action, the energy demand in this sector could increase by another 30% by 2060 [1]. Again, buildings represent 28% of global energy-related CO2 emissions worldwide [2]. This sector’s energy consumption is related to human programmes involving the use of equipment, lighting and other electrical appliances [3]. The household/residential sector, which forms part of the total building stocks, has been identified as one of the target groups for energy efficiency programmes [4, 5] also underscored that households can adopt and implement energy efficiency measures to reduce energy consumption significantly.
The residential sector in Ghana accounts for 47% of the total final energy consumption [6], compared to other countries such as the United States (25%), United Kingdom (30%), Japan (26%), Saudi Arabia (50%), China (15.8%) and Malaysia (15%) [5, 7, 8, 9]. Electrical appliances such as refrigerators, freezers and room air conditioners (RACs), which are energy-intensive, are among the most common Ghanaian household appliances. Whilst refrigerators and freezers consume between 25–30% of the total residential energy use, air conditioners account for 6.5% of residential energy use in Ghana [10]. Whilst [11] indicated that most of the markets in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries are inundated with “used electrical appliances” [12], assert that this phenomenon was a result of the proliferation of used or “second-hand” goods from Europe and elsewhere. For instance, it has been estimated that there were over two (2) million used and inefficient refrigerating appliances in Ghana in 2012 that were laden with hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) [13]. This large number was primarily due to the introduction of standards and labelling in developed countries and the era of energy efficiency programmes in Europe in the early 1970s saw many of these countries disposing of their old and energy inefficient appliances into SSA [14]. The share of the used electrical appliance market in Ghana at the time was about 80%, thereby promoting climate injustice [14]. These used and inefficient refrigerating appliances consume, on average, 1200 kWh per unit per year compared to 250 kWh and 400 kWh per year in Europe and the US respectively [15].
Minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and the introduction of more efficient appliances through energy efficiency standards and labelling (EES&L) programmes have been identified as potential means of reducing the energy consumption of these inefficient appliances. It has been noted that improving energy efficiency is the best way to simultaneously meet sustainable development goals (SDGs) 7 and 13 in the energy sector [16]. This approach, when used judiciously, frees resources for other projects, helps economies to grow and reduces environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. MEPS programmes have also proven to be effective in stimulating the development of cost-effective, energy-efficient technologies and are said to be the cornerstone of most national energy and climate change mitigation programmes [17].
Ghana’s move to improve its energy efficiency is part of a larger energy sector reform programme designed to support the country’s long-term economic developmental agenda. In 2002, Ghana, therefore, identified the benefits of MEPS such as EES&L programmes for equipment and other electrical appliances such as deep freezers, RACs, refrigerators, industrial motors and lighting systems [18]. These standards and labelling programmes serve as benchmarks and catalysts in meeting the MEPS objectives.
According to [19], energy efficiency legislations and policies have continued to increase globally through energy efficiency research and developmental programmes [20]. However, several barriers attributable to the low adoption and implementation of MEPS in SSA have to be overcome. These barriers, according to [21, 22], include financial constraints, techno-economic, political-institutional barriers, market barriers, lack of incentives and lack of information (knowledge). As a result of market failures in SSA, [23] suggested in his paper, “The market for lemons: Quality and uncertainty in the market mechanism”, that in markets where consumers do not have reliable and adequate information in respect of the quality of the products, it leads to the proliferation of cheaper and low-quality products. The effect of this failure is that more efficient products or appliances are pushed out of the market space.
Notwithstanding these continental constraints, Ghana was able to overcome these barriers through stakeholders’ consultative engagements using the
Energy efficiency standards and labelling (non-ducted air conditioners and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations 2005 (L. I 1815);
Energy efficiency (prohibition of manufacture, sale or importation of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air-conditioner) regulations 2008 (L. I 1932);
Energy efficiency standards and labelling (household refrigerating appliances) regulations 2009 (L. I 1958); and
Energy commission (efficiency standards and labelling (light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations 2017 (L. I 2353).
These standards and labelling initiatives provide a mandatory labelling regime in Ghana, where energy guide labels have to be affixed conspicuously on these appliances to indicate the minimum energy performance levels of these appliances. The indicators on these energy guide labels include annual energy consumption, type of refrigerant, climate class, star rating, manufacturer, model number, fresh and frozen volumes. This mandatory labelling regime is intended to promote energy efficiency, transform the appliances market, reduce energy demand in households and reduce Ghana’s energy-related CO2 and ozone-depleting substances (ODS) emissions. This paper reviews the impact of the first three regulations and other energy efficiency projects between 2007 and 2020.
To commence the enforcement of these regulations, the national refrigerator turn-in and rebate scheme was launched by the Government of Ghana, on the advice of the Ghana Energy Commission in July, 2012. The objective was to recover about fifty thousand (50,000) inefficient refrigerating appliances from homes and encourage individuals to use more energy-efficient ones. So, in 2013, the Ghana Energy Commission commenced the full implementation of these regulations at the ports of entry. It is therefore imperative to review and establish the impact of these regulations between 2007 and 2020.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the next section following the introduction looks at the methodology being employed. The concept of energy efficiency is examined in Section 3. Section 4 provides the Global and National overviews of MEPS implementations. Testing and inspection protocols for refrigerating, lighting and air-conditioning equipment in Ghana are considered in Section 5. Section 6 offers the discussion of the results of some of the real impacts due to MEPS whilst Section 7 concludes the paper.
This section explains the methodology adopted for this work.
The content of this desktop review is based on energy efficiency appliance import data, policy documents and market transformation data from the Ghana Energy Commission, Energy Foundation, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Institute of Industrial Research (CSIR-IIR), Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA-Custom Division) and Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). Other sources of information include the International Energy Agency (IEA) as well as other related web searches. Besides, global and SSA energy efficiency documents were also reviewed by examining secondary data from standards, regulations, protocols, market report series and other available statistical data.
The basic assumption for computing electricity savings is that without MEPS regulation and its accompanying awareness programmes. Eqs. (1)–(4) were used to estimate the annual energy saving per appliance, total energy savings for all the appliances and CO2 emissions reductions between 2007 and 2020 as a result of MEPS implementation. Therefore, the annual electricity saving,
where
The total annual electricity saving,
The total cost savings from MEPS implementation are computed in terms of the electricity savings from operating a more efficient appliance. Thus, the annual electricity savings computed using Eq. (2) is used to estimate the total cost savings by multiplying the computed electricity savings with the electricity tariff as shown in Eq. (3):
where
The annual carbon emission reduction,
where
Several definitions for energy efficiency have emerged over the years. Energy efficiency may be considered as investing in more energy-efficient technologies or appliances which results in more energy savings. [24] defines energy efficiency as “using energy cautiously and economically to sustain everyday life, live comfortably and support wellbeing”. According to [25], energy efficiency is achieving the same service and performance while using technology with less energy use and therefore enhancing the security of the energy supply. For [26], energy efficiency is an effective tool for reducing electricity or energy consumption which limits greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and thereby reducing global warming.
This section reviews the Global and the Ghanaian perspectives of MEPS and EES&L programmes.
Both minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and energy efficiency standards and labelling (EES&L) for appliances are the two known key mitigation strategies for electricity conservation worldwide [27]. MEPS is a technique of eliminating inefficient performing appliances through the prescription of minimum efficiency (or maximum energy consumption) that manufacturers must achieve [28]. The benefits of MEPS, according to [29, 30] include the following:
It allows manufacturers and suppliers to increase appliance efficiency since less-efficient appliances will no longer be tolerated for sale in the regulated market;
It encourages manufacturers to explore innovative and efficient technologies to gain a competitive edge;
It provides market consistency and certainty, thus creating economies of scale;
Consumers enjoy electricity cost savings over the lifetime of the appliance as these appliances on the market now consume less energy to operate; and
Appliance purchase prices are largely falling in real terms in many countries with MEPS regulations due to competition, economies of scale and marketplace innovations.
The main objectives of the EES&L regime are to [31];
Prevent the influx of substandard appliances on the market;
Provide the consumer an appliance the needed information to make an informed choice;
Provide information regarding the running cost of the appliance; and
Fulfil environmental treaty commitments such as the Paris Agreement, Kyoto Accord, Kigali Amendment, Montreal Protocol, Rotterdam Convention and Basel Convention.
EES&L programmes, introduced in the 1970s, are now being implemented in over eighty (80) countries including Ghana. The programmes cover more than fifty (50) types of appliances and equipment [32]. Testing protocols are used to determine appliance performance relating to energy efficiency. These protocols are periodically revised to ensure they keep up with trends and advances in technology.
Over the past decades, Ghana has made significant progress in its energy energy efficiency programmes [33]. These programmes put Ghana on the world map as a pioneer in SSA as a result of extensive collaborations of stakeholders and institutions such as the Ghana Energy Commission, Ministry of Energy, Ghana Standards Authority, Ghana Energy Foundation and CLASP [14]. Ghana experienced widespread power shortages due to series of droughts spanning from the 1980s to the 1990s. Energy efficiency programmes were identified to solve these power shortages as it delivers benefits faster than building new generating power plants [14]. The Government of Ghana, therefore, decided to support energy efficiency standards, policies and programmes. Consequently, the Ghana Electrical Appliance Labelling and Standards Programme (GEALSP) was launched to help transform the country’s appliance market. An initial assessment to determine the energy savings potential was then carried out from energy efficiency projects [10].
A comprehensive national household survey on demand-side management (DSM) was then conducted by the Ghana Energy Commission between 2003 and 2006. The results from the survey revealed that residential energy consumption, for example, was 50% of the total national energy use and refrigerating appliances accounted for nearly 59% of the residential use [15]. These used refrigerating appliances consume on average 1200 kWh per annum compared to 250 kWh and 400 kWh per annum in Europe and the US respectively [15] as illustrated in Figure 1 for comparative energy use basis.
Refrigerator Electricity use for Ghana, Europe and US in 2007 [
Energy efficiency programmes for household appliances was crucial and therefore needed to be adopted and implemented without further delay to bring Ghana’s consumption down (proposed standard—the green line in Figure 1). According to [33], energy efficiency is considered a “
No | Types of barriers | Measures |
---|---|---|
1. | Financial | Implementation of tax incentives and national programmes. For instance, between 2003 and 2016, import duties and taxes were removed from the importation and sale of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). |
2. | Market | Import duties and value-added tax (VAT) on compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) were removed by government in April 2003, thus making them available and affordable to consumers. |
3. | Lack of information (knowledge) | Organization of national energy efficiency campaigns throughout the country using both print and electronic media. Also, leaflets, brochures and flyers were printed and distributed, including town hall meetings where relevant stakeholders were engaged. |
4. | Institutional | Holding stakeholders’ consultations and institutional reforms. For instance, Public Utility Regulatory Commission (PURC) is mandated to set electricity tariffs independent of governmental influence and to reward efficient users and punish inefficient users of electricity. Also, the Ghana Energy Commission came in with the labelling programme in 2005 to help in transforming the appliance market. |
5. | Technical | Technical cooperation with developmental partners was encouraged to offer training to Ghanaians. For instance, between 2012 and 2013, over 600 technicians were trained to carry out installation, repairs and maintenance of the new and efficient refrigerating appliances under the Ghana Energy Foundation and UNDP project to transform the appliance market. |
6. | Political | Independent regulatory bodies were created to deal with the energy crisis. For instance, the Ghana Energy Commission and Public Utility Regulatory Commission were mandated to carry out technical and economic regulations of the power sector respectively. The Ghana Grid Company was also responsible for the national network, separated from the distribution operator. All these programmes were moved from the Ministry of Energy to prevent any political interference. |
Types of energy efficiency barriers and measures to overcome them.
Four (4) Legislative Instruments (L.Is) were subsequently enacted by the Ghanaian Parliament in collaboration with the Ghana Energy Commission and Ghana Standards Authority. The first, energy efficiency regulations for non-ducted room air conditioners (RACs) and compact fluorescent lights (L.I. 1815) was developed in 2005 [34], which mandates that all RACs imported into Ghana must meet the minimum energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 2.8 W of cooling per watt of power input, equivalent to a 1-star rating. The second energy efficiency regulations (L.I. 1932) was also enacted in 2008 to help prevent the importation or sale of used inefficient refrigerating and air conditioning appliances in Ghana. To ensure that only energy efficient refrigerating appliances are imported and sold in Ghana, the energy efficiency standards and labelling regulation for household refrigerating appliances (L.I. 1958) was enacted in 2009. Finally, in 2017, the energy efficiency standards and labelling for light-emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent regulations (L.I. 2353) was enacted. The purpose of the fourth regulation is to enforce the standards for minimum energy efficiency for self-ballasted fluorescent lamps and light-emitting diode lamps imported or manufactured in Ghana.
Details of these four regulations and standard protocols for determining the energy efficiency star ratings for (non-ducted air-conditioners, household refrigerating appliances and lamps and CFLs), categories of household refrigerators and initial luminous efficacy of the lamps are available and can be assessed under Legislative Instruments (list of L.I’s for energy efficiency) at [35].
In conclusion, Ghana has developed and implemented four (4) main end-use policies, regulations and standards to promote demand-side management (DSM). Seventeen (17) other regulations are currently being developed for other electrical appliances such television (TV) sets, electric motors, washing machines, blenders, etc. Table 2 lists the four (4) regulations, its scope and targets, the year they were enacted by the Ghanaian Parliament and their implementation dates.
L.I. | Regulation | Scope & targets | Year passed | Year implemented |
---|---|---|---|---|
1815 | Energy efficiency standards and labelling (non-ducted air conditioners and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations. | Gives legal backing to the use of energy-efficient non-ducted air conditioners and fluorescent lamps. | 2005 | 2014 |
1932 | Energy efficiency (prohibition of manufacture, sale or importation of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air-conditioner) regulations. | Places total ban on the importation and sale of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air conditioners effective January 2012. | 2008 | 2013 |
1958 | Energy efficiency standards and labelling (household refrigerating appliances) regulations. | Provides for the enforcement of minimum energy efficiency and labelling for household refrigerating appliances. | 2009 | 2013 |
2353 | Energy commission (efficiency standards and labelling (light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations. | Provides for the enforcement of minimum energy efficiency and labelling for light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps. | 2017 | 2020 |
Main end-use policies and regulations.
To achieve the full potential of the MEPS programmes, Ghana adopted rigorous testing, approval and inspection procedures for importing these regulated appliances into the country. Currently, Ghana does not manufacture these appliances, so testing is done by third-party accredited laboratories such as Vkan Certification & Testing Co., Ltd. (CVC), Intertek, TUV-Rhineland, DEKRA Product Testing & Certification, General Society of Surveillance (SGS) and Bureau Veritis (BVAC). These testing facilities are recommended and designated by the Ghana Standards Authority and Ghana Energy Commission. A performance test report, which details the performance of the appliance in terms of energy consumption, approved refrigerant, climate class, star rating, etc. from these facilities, is then submitted to the Ghana Energy Commission by the importer concerning a particular model, for evaluation. Certificate of approval (COA), containing parameters of the said model, is issued to the importer for model(s) that meet the MEPS requirements as laid down in the energy efficiency guidelines [31].
The testing, approval and inspection procedures of a model are summarized in Figures 2 and 3.
Testing and approval processes for model(s) to be imported into Ghana.
Physical inspection procedures of a model at the ports of entry.
Having reviewed all the available documents, regulations, standards, procedures and processes, the next section provides some of the real impacts resulting from MEPS implementation in Ghana since 2007.
This section discusses the impact of the major energy efficiency programmes resulting from MEPS implementation in Ghana based on Eqs. (1)–(4) between 2007 and 2020.
In 2007, Ghana implemented an efficient lighting project (CFL exchange programme) regarding its policy directions in the area of energy efficiency. On the advice of the Ghana Energy Commission, the Government procured and distributed over six (6) million compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) to replace the estimated six million incandescent lamps at no cost to the beneficiaries [36]. As a result of this project, incandescent lamp usage in households has reduced from 58–3% while CFLs penetration increased from 20% in 2007 to 79% in 2009 [36]. The country’s peak electricity demand was accordingly reduced by 124 MW and peak electricity consumption by 72.8 GWh per year due to this policy implementation. This resulted in an energy cost saving of about US$ 39.5 million per year and carbon dioxide (CO2) savings estimated at 105,000 tonnes per year [36]. Consequently, there was a delay in the generation expansion of thermal energy investment of US$ 105 million. At US$ 120/bbl, energy cost saving would amount to US$ 39.5 million per year [37]. The project received a Global Energy Efficiency Award in 2010 organized by the Energy Efficiency Global Forum in Brussels, Belgium (12–14 April 2011) [36].
Reports available at the Ghana Energy Commission indicated that the Government of Ghana, in September 2012, through the Ghana Energy Commission, launched the national refrigerator turn-in and rebate scheme with the support of the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), Global Environment Facility (GEF) and Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol (MFMP). The scheme, which encouraged consumers to exchange their old refrigerators for new and efficient ones, available at a discounted price, was to recover about 50,000 inefficient refrigerating appliances from homes and promote the use of more energy-efficient ones and transform the refrigerating appliances market in the country. By mid-June, 2016, a total of 10,472 units of old energy-inefficient appliances have been replaced across the country with new energy-efficient ones [38]. Customers who participated in the project had their consumption reduced from 1200 kWh per year to 385 kWh per year, resulting in a saving of about 400 GWh of electricity, 1.1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) and about 1500 kg of Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) recovered [38]. This translated into a household income saving of about US$ 140 per year [38].
The enforcement of L.I. 1932 at Ghana’s ports of entry by the Ghana Energy Commission prohibited the importation of an estimated number of 4,854,864 units of used refrigerating appliances between 2013 and 2020. A total of 5825.84 GWh of electricity would have been consumed with over 2.33 million tonnes of CO2 released into the atmosphere if the ban was not enforced. However, data available at the Ghana Energy Commission shows that a total of 46,666 used refrigerators and 11,003 used RACs were imported through illegal means by some recalcitrant importers. They were subsequently confiscated by the Ghana Energy Commission inspectors positioned at the ports and evacuated for e-disposal [39]. Figure 4 shows the yearly trend in the importation of used refrigerators, particularly the downward trend between 2013 and 2020 during MEPS implementation.
Yearly imported used refrigerating appliances to Ghana from 2005 to 2020.
The average annual energy consumptions of a used refrigerator and used RAC are 1200 kWh per year and 4000 kWh per year respectively [39]. The rigorous enforcement of L.I. 1932 since 2013, yielded a total of 100 GWh of electricity and 40,000 tonnes of CO2 savings for those confiscated used appliances based on Eqs. (2) and (3).
Enforcing L.I. 1958 resulted in the importation of 2,378,432 new and efficient refrigerating appliances into the country between 2013 and 2020, thus preventing the importation of used and inefficient ones [39]. Data analysis indicated that 92% of all refrigerating appliances imported between 2013 and 2020 were new and efficient in accordance with L.I. 1958. About 74.8% of these appliances were 2- to 5-star rated with 87.2% of all imports laden with R600a refrigerant (hydrocarbon) [39], which has both low global warming potential (GWP) and low ozone-depleting potential (ODP) and therefore more energy-efficient [40]. The remaining 8%, which were used refrigerators were confiscated. The rise in the importation and sale of new refrigerating appliances is primarily due to strict regulations, procedures and controls implemented at the ports of entry, regular market surveillance and stringent compliance monitoring. These measures help to ensure that only appliances that meet MEPS are permitted into the Ghanaian market. Figure 5 shows how the refrigerating appliance market in Ghana has evolved/transformed over the years (2005–2020) from being a completely used and inefficient refrigerator market (88.9% inefficient in 2005) to new and efficient ones (99.1% efficient in 2020) as a result of MEPS implementation.
Evidence of transformed market through MEPS from 2005 to 2020.
The average annual energy consumption of these new and efficient appliances has dropped drastically due to MEPS implementation compared with the used refrigerators. Consumption values reduced from about 1400 kWh per unit per year to 340 kWh per unit per year [39]. Figure 6 shows the trend in the average annual energy consumption patterns of refrigerating appliances over the years especially that during the implementation period.
Average annual energy consumption patterns for new fridges.
Assuming that 90% of the new refrigerating appliances were sold between 2013 and 2020. Figure 7 presents the analysis of the total electricity and CO2 emission savings based on Eqs. (1)–(3). From the analysis, a total of 5845 GWh electricity has been saved with a corresponding 2.56 million tonnes of CO2 emission savings resulting from MEPS due to L.I. 1958 enforcement. This is equivalent to more than 3.4% of the total
Analysis of total electricity and CO2 emission savings for refrigerating appliances.
A total of 904,923 new RACs were imported and inspected at the Port of Tema since 2014 [39]. About 54.6% of the RACs on the Ghanaian market are 1-star rated with an average EER of 2.87, which is above the minimum EER of 2.80 with an average annual rated power consumption of 3347.4 kWh [37]. Also, 56% of the RACs were laden with R410a refrigerant which is more energy-efficient than R22 [40]. The average annual energy consumption of a used RAC is 4000 kWh per year [39]. Therefore, 652.6 kWh of electricity has been saved per unit per year due to MEPS. Assuming that 90% of the new RACs were sold between 2014 and 2020. Figure 8 presents the analysis of the total electricity and CO2 emission savings using Eqs. (1)–(3). From the analysis, about 1900 GWh electricity has been saved with a corresponding 783,000 tonnes of CO2 emission savings resulting from MEPS due to L.I. 1815 enforcement.
Analysis of total electricity and CO2 emission savings for RACs.
Analysis of some of the reports at the Ghana Energy Commission indicated that the compliance levels of the refrigerating appliances and RACs have been increasing over the years. Between 2017 and 2020, the compliance level of the imported refrigerating appliance increased from 92.6% to 97.0% whilst that of RACs also saw an upsurge from 79.2% to 96.8% [37, 39]. Figure 9 shows the trends in the compliance levels of these appliances from 2017 to 2020.
Trends in compliance levels for refrigerating appliances and RACs from 2017 to 2020.
The analysis further revealed that the following factors contributed to the high compliance levels in an attempt to transform the appliance market in Ghana [37, 39]:
Submission of performance test report by importers from third-party accredited laboratories to the Ghana Energy Commission for evaluation and approval or otherwise;
Establishment of import appliance database/register;
Operationalization of the GCNet/ICUMS digital portals for approving only appliances that meet MEPS;
Rigorous physical examination procedures/protocols put in place at the ports of entry;
Regular and consistent market surveillance;
Stringent compliance monitoring;
Removal of non-compliant appliances from showrooms for testing and re-labelling;
Payment of enforcement fees for non-compliance;
Verification and challenge testing procedures; and
Development of a Certified Appliances Mobile Application (APP) which contains all the approved appliances, nearby shops, tips on how to save energy. This APP also helps consumers to make an informed purchase decision. To download the APP, retailers and consumers are required to search for
Ghana’s drive to transform the appliance market from the used and inefficient appliances to new and efficient ones has been highly recommended over the years. From this review or study, Ghana developed and implemented MEPS successfully for refrigerating appliances, RACs and lighting systems. This was done through the engagement of relevant stakeholders with complementary financial and technical assistance from development partners. Through MEPS implementation, annual average energy consumptions of refrigerating appliances and RACs have decreased drastically. The implementation of MEPS programmes in Ghana during the period under review yielded 8317.8 GWh (8.32 TWh) of electricity savings, while at the same time reducing fossil CO2 emissions by 4.60 million tonnes. This figure roughly corresponds to the total thermal electricity generated (8424 GWh) in 2017 [6]. At 10 US cents per kWh, about USD 832 million has been saved on electricity bills. This enormous financial saving and environmental benefit resulting from deferred electricity consumption amplifies the positive implication of energy efficiency and MEPS programmes. In conclusion, the implementation of energy efficiency programmes delayed the construction of a 950 MW power plant capacity. The 17 other regulations that are currently being developed for other electrical equipment such as television sets, electric motors, washing machines, blenders, etc. must be concluded in good time to enable further energy savings for the country.
I would like to thank the following organizations that contributed valuable information on the subject: Ghana Energy Commission, Energy Foundation, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Institute of Industrial Research, Ghana Revenue Authority, International Energy Agency (IEA), European Union (EU), Collaborative Labelling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP) and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL).
The author, Edwin Kwasi Tamakloe is an employee of the Ghana Energy Commission which is one of the stakeholder institutions discussed in the article. This is indicated transparently in the author affiliations.
See Figure A1.
Sample of a three (3) star rated energy guide label for refrigerating appliance in Ghana [
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The immunoglobulin repertoire is provided by the process of somatic germ line recombination, which is the only controlled alteration of the genomic DNA after meiosis. It takes place in mammalian B lymphocyte (B cells) precursors in the bone marrow. The genome germ line sequence of undeveloped B cells is organized in gene segments and compromise V (variable), D (diversity), and J (joining) gene segments constituting the variable domain of the heavy chain and only V and J genes for building up the variable domain of the light chain. The rearrangement of the variable region follows a strict order. The following processes that participate in the generation of antibody diversity were summarized—allelic, combinational, and junctional diversity, pairing of IgH and IgL, and receptor editing—which all together produce the primary antigen repertoire (pre-antigen stimulation). When a B cell encounters a foreign antigen, affinity maturation and class switch are induced. Thereby the antibody repertoire increases. 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The construction of ribosomes is exceedingly complex and consumes the majority of the cell materials and energy. The materials for ribosome production are supplied by nutrients. Therefore, the production of ribosomes is restricted by environmental nutrients, and cells need mechanisms to control ribosome production in order to reconcile demands for cell activities with available resources. Transcription of ribosomal RNA is an essential step in ribosome biogenesis. It strongly affects the total amount of ribosome production, and thus rapidly growing cells have an elevated level of ribosomal RNA transcription. Ribosomal RNA transcription is controlled by many mechanisms, including the efficiency of preinitiation complex formation for RNA polymerase I (Pol I) and epigenetic marks in ribosomal RNA genes. These are affected by cell cycle progression, signal transduction pathways, cell-damaging stresses, nutrients such as glucose, and the metabolites. Recent studies also suggest that the epigenetic marks, acetylation and methylation, may be not only controlled by nutrients but also function as reservoirs for biological resources in chromatin. Further studies would provide information about the mechanisms cells use to adjust production of cellular components to available resources and clues for developing novel anti-cancer treatments.",book:{id:"7204",slug:"gene-expression-and-regulation-in-mammalian-cells-transcription-toward-the-establishment-of-novel-therapeutics",title:"Gene Expression and Regulation in Mammalian Cells",fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Regulation in Mammalian Cells - Transcription Toward the Establishment of Novel Therapeutics"},signatures:"Yuji Tanaka and Makoto Tsuneoka",authors:[{id:"219040",title:"Prof.",name:"Makoto",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuneoka",slug:"makoto-tsuneoka",fullName:"Makoto Tsuneoka"},{id:"219221",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuji",middleName:null,surname:"Tanaka",slug:"yuji-tanaka",fullName:"Yuji Tanaka"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"400",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/213872",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"213872"},fullPath:"/profiles/213872",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()