Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\tSecond Language Acquisition-Learning Theories and Recent Approaches will aim to present the process of learning an additional language apart from one’s native language. The process of understanding, writing, and speaking another language with fluency involves complex intellectual and emotional responses as well as continuous information processing abilities. A variety of perspectives is needed for learning to take place. Many factors are involved, both internal and external, that determine why some learn a second language at a faster rate than another. With an internal or external focus of attention, various linguistic techniques have explored the basic questions about SLA. With the ability to covey and structure information in a second language, there is a need for what is being learned to be viewed from a variety of perspectives. The focus on continuous natural UG capability for language learning versus communicative processing requirements differs among viewpoints on how SLA develops.
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1. Introduction
Ferromagnetism is used to characterize magnetic behavior of a material, such as the strong attraction to a permanent magnet. The origin of this strong magnetism is the presence of a spontaneous magnetization which is produced by a parallel alignment of spins. Instead of a parallel alignment of all the spins, there can be an anti-parallel alignment of unequal spins. This results in a spontaneous magnetization which is called ferrimagnetism.
The resonance arises when the energy levels of a quantized system of electronic or nuclear moments are Zeeman split by a uniform magnetic field and the system absorbs energy from an oscillating magnetic field at sharply defined frequencies corresponding to the transitions between the levels. Classically, the resonance event occurs when a transverse ac field is applied at the Larmor frequency.
The resonance behaviour usually called magnetic resonance (MR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Main types of resonance phenomenon can be listed as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR), electron paramagnetic/spin resonance (EPR, ESR), spin wave resonance (SWR), ferromagnetic resonance (FMR), antiferromagnetic resonance (AFMR) and conductor electron spin resonance (CESR). The resonant may be an isolated ionic spin as in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Also, resonance effects are associated with the spin waves and the domain walls. The resonance methods are important for investigating the structure and magnetic properties of solids and other materials. These methods are used for imaging and other applications.
The following information can be accessed with the help of such resonance experiments. (i) Electrical structure of point defects by looking at the absorption in a thin structure. (ii) The line width with the movement of spin or surroundings isn’t changed. (iii) The distribution of the magnetic field in solid by looking at the of the resonance line position (chemical shift and etc.). (iv) Collective spin excitations.
The atoms of ferromagnetic coupling originate from the spins of d-electrons. The size of μ permanent atomic dipoles create spontaneously magnetized. According to the shape of dipoles materials can be ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, diamagnetic, paramagnetic and etc.
Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) technique was initially applied to ferromagnetic materials, all magnetic materials and unpaired electron systems. Basically, it is analogous to the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). The EPR technique gives better results at unpaired electron systems. The FMR technique depends on the geometry of the sample at hand. The demagnetization field is observed where the sample geometry is active. The resonance area of the sample depends on the properties of material. The FMR technique is advantageous because it does not cause damage to materials. Also, it allows a three dimensional analysis of samples. The FMR occurs at high field values while EPR occurs at low magnetic field values. Also, line-width of ferromagnetic materials is large according to paramagnetic materials. Exchange interaction energy between unpaired electron spins that contribute to the ferromagnetism causes the line narrowing. So, ferromagnetic resonance lines appear sharper than expected.
The FMR studies have been increased since the EPR was discovered in 1945 (Zavosky, 1945; Kittel, 1946, 1947, 1949, 1953, 1958; Kip, 1949; Bloembergen, 1950, 1954; Crittenden, 1953; Van Vleck, 1950; Herring, 1950; Anderson, 1953; Damon, 1953; Young, 1953; Ament, 1955; Ruderman, 1954; Reich, 1955; Kasuya, 1956; White, 1956; Macdonald, 1956; Mercereau, 1956; Walker, 1957; Yosida, 1957; Tannenwald, 1957; Jarrett, 1958; Rado, 1958; Brown, 1962; Frait, 1965; Sparks, 1969). The beginnings of theoretical and experimental studies of spectroscopic investigations of basic sciences are used such as physics, chemistry, especially nanosciences and nanostructures (Rodbell, 1964; Kooi, 1964; Bhagat, 1967, 1974; Sparks, 1970(a), 1970(b), 1970(c), 1970(d); Rachford, 1981; Dillon, 1981; Schultz, 1983; Artman, 1957, 1979; Ramesh, 1988(a), 1988(b); Fraitova, 1983(a), 1983(b), 1984; Teale, 1986; Speriosu, 1987; Vounyuk, 1991; Roy, 1992; Puszkarski, 1992; Weiss, 1955). The FMR technique can provide information on the magnetization, magnetic anisotropy, dynamic exchange/dipolar energies and relaxation times, as well as the damping in the magnetization dynamics (Wigen, 1962, 1984, 1998; De Wames, 1970; Wolfram, 1971; Yu, 1975; Frait, 1985, 1998; Rook, 1991; Bland, 1994; Patton, 1995, 1996; Skomski, 2008; Coey, 2009). This spectroscopic method/FMR have been used to magnetic properties (Celinski, 1991; Farle, 1998, 2000; Fermin, 1999; Buschow, 2004; Heinrich, 2005(a), 2005(b)), films (Özdemir, 1996, 1997), monolayers (Zakeri, 2006), ultrathin and multilayers films (Layadi, 1990(a), 1990(b), 2002, 2004; Wigen, 1993; Zhang, 1994(a), 1994(b); Farle, 2000; Platow, 1998; Anisimov, 1999; Yıldız, 2004; Heinrich, 2005(a); Lacheisserie, 2005; de Cos, 2006; Liua, 2012; Schäfer, 2012), the angular, the frequency (Celinski, 1997; Farle, 1998), the temperature dependence (Platow, 1998), interlayer exchange coupling (Frait, 1965, 1998; Parkin, 1990, 1991(a), 1991(b), 1994; Schreiber, 1996; Rook, 1991; Wigen, 1993; Layadi, 1990(a); Heinrich, 2005; Paul, 2005), Brillouin light scattering (BLS) (Grünberg, 1982; Cochran, 1995; Hillebrands, 2000) and sample inhomogeneities (Artman, 1957, 1979; Damon, 1963; McMichael, 1990; Arias, 1999; Wigen, 1998; Chappert, 1986; Gnatzig, 1987; Fermin, 1999) of samples. Besides using FMR to characterize magnetic properties, it also allows one to study the fundamental excitations and technological applications of a magnetic system (Schmool, 1998; Voges, 1998; Zianni, 1998; Grünberg, 2000, 2001; Vlasko-Vlasov, 2001; Zhai, 2003; Aktaş, 2004; Birkhäuser Verlag, 2007; Seib, 2009). The various thickness, disk array, half-metallic ferromagnetic electrodes, magnon scattering and other of some properties of samples have been studied using the FMR tehniques (Mazur, 1982; da Silva, 1993; Chikazumi, 1997; Song, 2003; Mills, 2003; Rameev, 2003(a), 2003(b), 2004(a), 2004(b); An, 2004; Ramprasad, 2004; Xu, 2004; Wojtowicz, 2005; Zakeri, 2007; Tsai, 2009; Chen, 2009). The magnetic properties of single-crystalline (Kambe, 2005; Brustolon, 2009), polycrystalline (Singh, 2006; Fan, 2010), alloy films (Sihues, 2007), temperature dependence and similar qualities have been studied electromagnetic spectroscopy techniques (Özdemir, 1998; Birlikseven, 1999(a), 1999(b); Fermin, 1999; Rameev, 2000; Aktaş, 2001; Budak, 2003; Khaibullin, 2004). The magnetic resonance techniques (EPR, FMR) have been applied to the iron oxides, permalloy nanostructure (Kuanr, 2005), clustered, thermocouple connected to the ferromagnet, thin permalloy layer and et al. (Guimarães, 1998; Spoddig, 2005; Can, 2012; Rousseau, 2012; Valenzuela, 2012; Bakker, 2012; Maciá, 2012; Dreher, 2012; Kind, 2012; Li, 2012; Estévez, 2012; Sun, 2012(a), 2012(b), 2012(c); Richard, 2012). Magneto-optic (Paz, 2012), dipolar energy contributions (Bose, 2012), nanocrystalline (Maklakov, 2012; Raita, 2012), La0.7Sr0.3MnO3 films (Golosovsky, 2012), La0.67Ba0.33Mn1-yAyO3, A - Fe, Cr (Osthöver, 1998), voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy (VCMA) and spin transfer torque (Zhu, 2012) and the typical properties of the inertial resonance are investigated (Olive, 2012). The exchange bias (Backes, 2012), Q cavities for magnetic material (Beguhn, 2012), MgO/CoFeB/Ta structure (Chen, 2012), the interfacial origin of the giant magnetoresistive effect (GMR) phenomenon (Prieto, 2012), self-demagnetization field (Hinata, 2012), Fe3O4/InAs(100) hybrid spintronic structures (Huang, 2012), granular films (Kakazei, 1999, 2001; Sarmiento, 2007; Krone, 2011; Kobayashi, 2012), nano-sized powdered barium (BaFe12O19) and strontium (Sr Fe12O19) hexaferrites (Korolev, 2012), Ni0.7Mn0.3-x CoxFe2O4 ferrites (NiMnCo: x = 0.00, 0.04, 0.06, and 0.10) (Lee, 2012), thin films (Demokritov, 1996,1997; Nakai, 2002; Lindner, 2004; Aswal, 2005; Jalali-Roudsar, 2005; Cochran, 2006; Mizukami, 2007; Seemann, 2010), Ni2MnGa films (Huang, 2004), magnetic/electronic order of films (Shames, 2012), Fe1-xGd(Tb)x films (Sun, 2012), in ε-Al0.06Fe1.94O3 (Yoshikiyo, 2012). 10 nm thick Fe/GaAs(110) film (Römer, 2012), triangular shaped permalloy rings (Ding, 2012) and Co2-Y hexagonal ferrite single rod (Bai, 2012) structures and properties have been studied by FMR tecniques (Spaldin, 2010). Biological applications (Berliner, 1981; Wallis, 2005; Gatteschi, 2006; Kopp, 2006; Fischer, 2008; Mastrogiacomo, 2010), giant magneto-impedance (Valenzuela, 2007; Park, 2007), dynamics of feromagnets (Vilasi, 2001; Rusek, 2004; Limmer, 2006; Sellmyer, 2006; Spinu, 2006; Azzerboni, 2006; Krivoruchko, 2012), magneto-optic kerr effect (Suzuki, 1997; Neudecker, 2006), Heusler alloy (HA) films (Kudryavtsev, 2007), ferrites (Kohmoto, 2007), spin polarized electrons (Rahman, 2008) and quantum mechanics (Weil, 2007) have been studied by FMR technique in generally (Hillebrands, 2002, 2003, 2006). In additional, electric and magnetic properties of pure, Cu2+ ions doped hydrogels have been studied by ESR techniques (Coşkun, 2012).
The FMR measurements were performed in single crystals of silicon- iron, nickel-iron, nickel and hcp cobalt (Frait, 1965), thin films (Knorr, 1959; Davis, 1965; Hsia, 1981; Krebs, 1982; Maksymowich, 1983, 1985, 1992; Platow, 1998; Durusoy, 2000; Baek, 2002; Kuanr, 2004), CoCr magnetic thin films (Cofield, 1987), NiFe/FeMn thin films (Layadi, 1988), single-crystal Fe/Cr/Fe(100) sandwiches (Krebs, 1989), polycrystalline single films (Hathaway, 1981; Rezende, 1993) and ultrathin multilayers of the system Au/Fe/Au/Pd/Fe (001) prepared on GaAs(001) (Woltersdorf, 2004). The FMR techniques have been succesfully applied peak-to-peak linewidth (Yeh, 2009; Sun, 2012), superconducting and ferromagnetic coupled structures (Richard, 2012) and thin Co films of 50 nm thick (Maklakov, 2012). The garnet materials (Ramesh, 1988 (a), 1988 (b)), polar magneto-optic kerr effect and brillouin light scattering measurements (Riedling, 1999), giant-magnetoresistive (GMR) multilayers (Grünberg, 1991; Borchers, 1998) and insulated multilayer film (de Cos, 2006; Lacheisserie, 2005) are the most intensely studied systems.
The technique of FMR can be applied to nano-systems (Poole, 2003; Parvatheeswara, 2006; Mills, 2006; Schmool, 2007; Vargas, 2007; Seemann, 2009; Wang, 2011; Patel, 2012; De Biasi, 2013). The FMR measurement on a square array of permalloy nanodots have been comparion a numerical simulation based on the eigenvalues of the linearized Landau-Lifshitz equation (Rivkin, 2007). The dynamic fluctuations of the nanoparticles and their anisotropic behaviour have been recorded with FMR signal (Owens, 2009). Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) modes for Fe70Co30 magnetic nanodots of 100 nm in diameter in a mono-domain state are studied under different in-plane and out-of-plane magnetic fields (Miyake, 2012). The FMR techniques have been accomplished applied to magnetic microwires and nanowire arrays (Adeyeye, 1997; Wegrowe, 1999, 2000; García-Miquel, 2001; Jung, 2002; Arias, 2003; Raposo, 2011; Boulle, 2011; Kraus, 2012; Klein, 2012). In additional, FMR measurements have been performed for nanocomposite samples of varying particles packing fractions with demagnetization field (Song, 2012). The ferromagnetic resonance of magnetic fluids were theoretically investigated on thermal and particles size distribution effects (Marin, 2006). The FMR applied to nanoparticles, superparamagnetic particles and catalyst particles (de Biasi, 2006; Vargas, 2007; Duraia, 2009).
In the scope of this chapter, we firstly give a detailed account of both magnetic order and their origin. The origin of magnetic orders are explained and the equations are obtained using Fig.1 which shows rotating one electron on the table plane. Then, the dynamic equation of motion for magnetization was derived. We mentioned MR and damping terms which have consisted three terms as the Bloch-Bloembergen, the Landau-Lifshitz and the Gilbert form. We indicated electron EPR/ESR and their historical development. The information of spin Hamiltonian and g-tensor is given. The dispersion relations of monolayer, trilayers, five-layers and multilayer/n-layers have regularly been calculated for ferromagnetic exchange-couple systems (Grünberg, 1992; Nagamine, 2005, Schmool, 1998). The theoretical FMR spectra were obtained by using the dynamic equation of motion for magnetization with the Bloch-Bloembergen type damping term. The exchange-spring (hard/soft) system which is the best of the sample for multilayer structure has been explained by using the FMR technique and equilibrium condition of energy of system. The FMR spectra originated from the iron/soft layers as shown in the exchange spring magnets in Fig.9. Finally, superparamagnetic/single-domain nanoparticles and their resonance are described in detail.
2. Magnetic order
Magnetic materials are classified as paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, antiferromagnetic and diamagnetic to their electronic order. Magnetic orders are divided in two groups as (i) paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, antiferromagnetic and (ii) diamagnetic. The magnetic moments in diamagnetic materials are opposite to each other as well as the moments associated with the orbiting electrons so that a zero magnetic moment μ is produced on macroscopic scale. In the paramagnetic materials, each atom possesses a small magnetic moment. The orientation of magnetic moment of each atom is random, the net magnetic moment of a large sample (macroscopic scale) of dipole and the magnetization vector are zero when there is no applied field.
Nanoscience, nanotechnology and nanomaterials have become a central field of scientific and technical activity. Over the last years the interest in magnetic nanostructures and their applications in various electronic devices, effective opto-electronic devices, bio-sensors, photo-detectors, solar cells, nanodevices and plasmonic structures have been increasing tremendously. This is caused by the unique properties of magnetic nanostructures and the outstanding performance of nanoscale devices. Dimension in the range of one to hundred nanometers, is called the nano regime. In recent years, nanorods, nanoparticles, quantum dots, nanocrystals etc. are in a class of nanostructures (Yalçın, 2012; Kartopu & Yalçın, 2010; Aktaş, 2006) studied extensively. As the dimensions of nano materials decrease down to the nanometer scale, the surface of nanostructures starts to exhibit new and interesting properties mainly due to quantum size effects.
3. Origin of magnetic moment
The magnetization of a matter is derived by electrons moving around the nucleus of an atom. Total magnetic moment occurs when the electrons such as a disc returns around its axis consist of spin angular momentum and returns around the nucleus consist orbital angular momentum. The most of matters which have unpaired electrons have a little magnetic moment. This natural angular momentum consists of the result of charged particle return around its own axis and is called spin of the particle. The origin of spin is not known exactly, although electron is point particle the movement of an electron in an external magnetic field is similar to the movement of the disc. In other words, the origin of the spin is quantum field theoretical considerations and comes from the representations of the Poincare algebra for the elementary particles. The magnetism related to spin angular momentum, orbital angular momentum and spin-orbit interactions angular momentum. The movement of the electron around the nucleus can be considered as a current loop while electron spin is considered very small current loop which generate magnetic field. Here, orbital angular momentum was obtained by the result of an electron current loop around the nucleus. Thus, both it is exceeded the difficulty of understanding the magnetic moment and the magnetic moment for an electron orbiting around the nucleus is used easily. The result of orbital-angular momentum (L→) adapted for spin-angular momentum (S→) (Cullity, 1990).
One electron is rotating from left to right on the table plane as shown in Fig.1. The rotating electron creates a current (i) on the circle with radius of r.
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the precession of a single electron on the table plane.
The magnetic moment of a single electron is defined as below
μ→=i⋅A→.E1
(1)
Where, A→is the circle area. The magnetic moment is written as follows by using the current (−e=i⋅t), one cycle (2πr=v⋅t) and angular momentum (L=me⋅v⋅r) definition.
μ→=−e2meL→E2
(2)
Where γ=e/2me and L→is the gyromagnetic (magneto-mechanical or magneto-gyric) ratio and the orbital-angular momentum, respectively. Therefore, the magnetic moment μ→ is obtained from Eq. (2) as below
μ→=−γL→.E3
(3)
The following expression is obtained when derivative of Eq.(3)
dμ→+γdL→+L→dγ=0.E4
(4)
For our purpose, we only need to know that γ is a constant anddγ=0. From this results,dμ→+γdL→=0. The derivative of time of this equation, the equation of motion for magnetic moments of an electron is found as below
1γdμ→dt=dL→dt=τ→.E5
(5)
This equation is related to τ→=dL→/dt in two dimensional motions on the plane and F→=dP→/dtin one dimensional motion. This motion corresponds to Newton’s dynamic equations. When an electron is placed in an applied magnetic fieldH→, the magnetic field will produce a torque (τ→) on the magnetic moment (μ→) of amountμ→×H→. The equation of motion for magnetic moment (μ→) is found by equating the torque as below
Figure 2.
Schematic representation of precession of a single magnetic moment μ→ in the external magnetic field around the z-axis.
1γdμ→dt=μ→×H→.E6
(6)
This expression is called the equation of motion for magnetic moment (μ→). The motion of magnetic moment (μ→) forms a cone related to H→when the angle θof magnetic moment and external magnetic field does not change. Therefore, in time (dt), the tip of the vector μ→ moves an angle(γH)dt. The magnetic moment vector make precession movement about H→ at a frequency ofγH/2π. This frequency, υ=ω/2π=γH/2π, is called the Larmor frequency. In general this Larmor frequency is used this form ω=γH in literature.
4. Magnetic resonance
Magnetic Resonance (MR) is a research branch which examines magnetic properties of matters. The magnetic properties of atom originate from electrons and nucleus. So, it is studied in two groups such as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)/electron spin resonance (ESR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). At ESR and NMR all of them are the sample is placed in a strong static magnetic field and subjected to an orthogonally amplitude-frequency. While EPR uses a radiation of microwave frequency in general, NMR is observed at low radio frequency range. The energy absorption occurs when radio frequency is equal with energy difference between electrons two levels. But, the transition must obey the selection rules. The splitting between the energy levels occurs when total angular moment of electron is different from zero. On the other hand, the splitting of energy levels has not been observed in the filled orbit. The precession motion of a paramagnetic sample in magnetic field is seen schematically in Fig. 2. If microwave field with υ-frequency at perpendicular is applied to the static field, it comes out power absorption when precession (ω0) is same with υ-frequency. The power increases when these frequencies come near to each other and it occurs maximum occurs at point when they are equal. This behaviour is called magnetic resonance (MR).
The magnetic materials contain a large number of atomic magnetic moment in generally. Net atomic magnetic moment can be calculated byM→=Nμ→. Where, N is the number of atomic magnetic moment in materials.
1γdM→dt=M→×H→effE7
(7)
This precession movement continue indefinitely would take forever when there is no damping force. The damping term may be introduced in different ways. Indeed, since the details of the damping mechanism in a ferromagnet have not been completely resolved, different mathematical forms for the damping have been suggested. The three most common damping terms used to augment the right-hand side of Eq. (7) are as follows:
(i) The Bloch-Bloembergen form: −M→θ,φT2−M→z−M0T1
(ii) The Landau-Lifshitz form: −λ|M→|2M→×M→×H→
(iii) The Gilbert form: α|M→|M→×dM→dt
Bloch-Bloembergen type damping does not converse Mso it is equivalent to the type of Landau-Lifshitz and the Gilbert only when αis small and for small excursion ofM→. For large excursion ofM, the magnitude of M→is certainly not protected, as the damping torque is in the direction of the magnetization component in this formularization. Hence, the observation of M in the switching experiments in thin films should be provide a sensitive test on the appropriate form of the damping term for ferromagnetism since M→ which is conserved during switching. This would suggest that the form of the Bloch-Bloembergen damping term would not be applicable for this type of experiment. The Gilbert type (Gilbert, 1955) is essentially a modification of the original form which is proposed firstly by Landau and Lifshitz (Landau & Lifshitz, 1935). It is very important to note that the Landau-Lifshitz and Gilbert type of damping conserve while the Bloch-Bloembergen (Bloembergen, 1950) type does not. Landau and Lifshitz observed that the ferromagnetic exchange forces between spins are much greater than the Zeeman forces between the spins and the magnetic fields in their formulation of the damping term. Therefore, the exchange will conserve the magnitude ofM→. In this formulation, since the approach of M→towards H→is due completely to the relatively weak interaction between M→andH→, we must require thatλ<<γM. In this small damping limit, the Landau-Lifshitz and the Gilbert forms are equivalence so that whether one uses one or the other is simply a matter of convenience or familiarity. However, Callen has obtained a dynamic equation by quantizing the spin waves into magnons and treating the problem quantum-mechanically (Callen, 1958). Subsequently, Fletcher, Le Craw, and Spencer have reproduced the same equation using energy consideration (Fletcher, 1960). In their reproduction, they found the mean the rate of energy transfer between the uniform precession, the spin waves (Grünberg, 1979, 1980) and the lattice.
5. Electron paramagnetic resonance
Stern and Gerlach (Gerlach, 1922) proved that the electron-magnetic moment of an atom in an external magnetic field originates only in certain directions in the experiment in 1922. Uhlenbek and Goudsmit found that the connection between the magnetic moment and spin angular momentum of electron (Uhlenbek, 1925), Rabi and Breit found the transition between the energy levels in oscillating magnetic field (Rabi, 1938). This also proved to be observed in the event of the first magnetic resonance. The EPR technique is said to be important of Stern-Gerlach experiment. Zavoisky observed the first peak in the electron paramagnetic resonance for CuCI22H2O sample and recorded (Zavoisky, 1945). The most of EPR experiments were made by scientists in the United Kingdom and the United States. Important people mentioned in the experimental EPR studies; Abragam, Bleaney and Van Vleck. The historical developments of MR have been summarized by Ramsey (Ramsey, 1985). NMR experiments had been done by Purcell et al. (Purcell, 1946). Today it has been used as a tool for clinical medicine. MRI was considered as a basic tool of CT scan in 1970s. The behaviors of spin system under the external magnetic field with the gradient of spin system are known NMR tomography. This technique is used too much for medicine, clinics, diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. General structure of the EPR spectrometer consist four basic parts in general. (i) Source system (generally used in the microwave 1-100 GHz), (ii) cavity-grid system, (iii) Magnet system and (iv) detector and modulation system. EPR/ESR is subject of the MR. An atom which has free electron when it is put in magnetic field the electron’s energy levels separate (Yalçın, 2003, 2007(a), 2007(b)). This separation originates from the interaction of the electrons magnetic moment with external magnetic field. Energy separating has been calculated by the following Hamiltonian.
H^=gμBH→⋅S^E8
(8)
It is called Zeeman Effect. If the applied magnetic field oriented z-axis energy levels are;
EMs=gμBH⋅Ms.E9
(9)
Here, gis the g-value (or Landé g-value) (for free electron ge=2.0023193and protongN=2.7896), μBis Bohr magneton (μB=(eh/4πme)=9.2740×10−24J/T) and Msis the number of magnetic spin quantum. If the orbital angular momentum of electron is large of zero (L>0)g -value for free atoms is following
g=1+S(S+1)−L(L+1)+J(J+1)2J(J+1).E10
(10)
The anisotropy of the g-factor is described by taking into account the spin–orbit interaction combined (Yalçın, 2004(c)). The total magnetic moment can be written at below;
μeff=gμBJ(J+1)E11
The values of orbital angular momentum of unpaired electrons for most of the radicals and radical ions are zero or nearly zero. Hence, the number of total electron angular momentum Jequals only the number of spin quantumS. So, these values are nearly 2. For free electron (Ms=±1/2) and for this electron;
ΔE=E+1/2−E−1/2=gμBH.E12
(11)
When the electromagnetic radiation which frequency υ is applied to such an electron system;
hυ=gμBH.E13
(12)
Figure 3.
The energy levels and resonance of free electron at zero field and increasing applied magnetic field. In this figure, while the value of magnetic field increases, the separating between energy levels increase. Arbitrary units used in vertical axes for χ2anddχ2/dH.
If this equation is provided the system absorbs energy from applied electromagnetic wave (see Fig. 3). It is called resonance effect. Material absorbs energy in two different ways from applied electromagnetic wave by according to the Eq.(12). Firstly, in Eq.(12), frequency of electromagnetic wave doesn’t change while the external magnetic field changes. Secondly, its opposite can be provided.
In this Fig.(3) it has been seen that magnetic susceptibility χ2 versus magnetic field. At the same time it is said the absorption curve. The magnetic field derivative beneath of this figure is FMR absorption spectrum (dχ2/dH). Here, Δppand 1/T2are linewidth, Hresis resonance field, ω/γis resonance frequency.
5.1. Spin Hamiltonian
The spin Hamiltonian is total electronic spins and nucleon spin I→ which have crystal lattice under the static magnetic field following;
(13)S^and I→ operators of electronic and nucleus, respectively. In this equation, first term is Zeeman effect, second one is thin layer effects, the third one is the effect of between electronic spin and nucleus-spin of ion and it is known that thin layer effects. The fourth term is the effect of nucleus with the magnetic field. The last one is quadrupole effect of nucleus. It can be added different terms in Eq.13 (Slichter, 1963).
5.2. g→→tensor
The total magnetic moment of ion isμ→=gμBJ→. J→is the ratio of total angular momentum to Planck constant. Landé factor g is depend onS→,L→,J→. For the base energy level if L→ is zero, gfactor is equal free electron’s g-factor. But, g-factor in the exited energy levels separated from the g-factor of free electron. The hamiltonian for an ion which is in the magnetic field is following (Weil, 1994).
H^=μBH→⋅(L^+geS^)+λL^⋅S^E15
(14)
In this equation, first term is Zeeman effects, second one is spin-orbit interaction. The first order energy of ion which shows |J,M〉and it is excepted not degenerate is seen at below.
EJ=〈J,M|geμBHzS^z|J,M〉+〈J,M|(μBHZ+λS^z)|J,M〉E16
(15)
We can write the hamiltonian equation which uses energy equations. There is two terms in the hamiltonian equations. The first term is the independent temperature coefficient for paramagnetic for paramagnetic, the last terms are only for spin variables. If the angular moment of ion occurs because of spin, g→→-tensor is to be isotropic.
6. Ferromagnetic resonance
The most important parameters for ferromagnet can be deduced by the ferromagnetic resonance method. FMR absorption curves may be obtained from Eq.(12) by chancing frequency or magnetic field. FMR signal can be detected by the external magnetic field and frequency such as EPR signal. The field derivative FMR absorption spectra are greater than in EPR as a generally. The linear dependence of frequency of resonance field may be calculated from 1 GHz to 100 GHz range in frequency spectra (L-, S-, C-, X-, K-, Q-, V-, E-, W-, F-, and D-band). The resonance frequency, relaxation, linewidth, Landé g-factor (spectroscopic g-factor), the coercive force, the anisotropy field, shape of the specimen, symmetry axes of the crystal and temperature characterized FMR spectra. The broadening of the FMR absorption line depend on the line width ( so called 1/T2 on the Bloch-Bloembergen type damping form). The nonuniform modes are seen in the EPR signal. The nonlinear effects for FMR are shown by the relationship between the uniform precessions of magnetic moments. The paramagnetic excitation of unstable oscillation of the phonons displays magneto-elastic interaction in ferromagnetic systems. This behaviour so called magnetostriction. The FMR studies have led to the development of many micro-wave devices. These phenomenon are microwave tubes, circulators, oscillators, amplifiers, parametric frequency converters, and limiters. The resonance absorption curve of electromagnetic waves at centimeter scale by ferromagnet was first observed by Arkad’ev in 1913 (Arkad’ev, 1913).
The sample geometry, relative orientation of the equilibrium magnetizationM→, the applied dc magnetic field H→and experimental coordinate systems are shown in Fig.4.
Figure 4.
Sample geometries and relative orientations of equilibrium magnetization M→ and the dc components of external magnetic field, H→for thin films.
The ferromagnetic resonance data analyzed using the free energy expansion similar to that employed
Where, EZ,Ea,Ed,Eexare Zeeman, magnetocrystalline anisotropy, demagnetization and ferromagnetic exchange energy. (θ,ϕ)and (θH,ϕH)are the angles for magnetization and applied magnetic field vector in the spherical coordinates, respectively. Magnetic anisotropy energy arises from either the interaction of electron spin magnetic moments with the lattice via spin-orbit coupling. On the other hand, anisotropy energy induced due to local atomic ordering. The θ in anisotropy energy is the angle between magnetization orientation and local easy axis of the magnetic anisotropy. Ku1and Ku2are energy density constants. The demagnetization field is proportional to the magnetic free pole density. The exchange energy for thin magnetic film may be neglected in generally. Because associated energies is small. But, this exchange energy are not neglected for multilayer structures. This energy occurs between the magnetic layers, so that this energy called interlayer exchange energy. This expression is seen at the end of this subject in details. Keff=πM2+KUis the effective uniaxial anisotropy term and Ku takes into account some additional second-order uniaxial anisotropy andHeff=2πMS+(2Ku/Ms) is the effective field for a single magnetic films. The equilibrium values of polar angles θfor the magnetization vector M→ are obtained from static equilibrium conditions. Eθ,Eϕ,EθθandEϕϕcan be easily calculated using the Eq. (16). Neglecting the damping term one can write the equation of motion for the magnetization vector M→as
1γdM→dt=M→×H→eff.E18
(17)
Here the H→effis the effective magnetic field that includes the applied magnetic field and the internal field due to the anisotropy energy. The dynamic equation of motion for magnetization with the Bloch-Bloembergen type damping term is given as Eq.(18).
1γdM→dt=M→×H→eff−M→−δizM0T.E19
(18)
Here, T=(T2,T2,T1)represents both transverse (for Mxand My components) and the longitudinal (for Mz components) relaxation times of the magnetization. That is, T1is the spin-lattice relaxation time, T2is the spin-spin relaxation time, and δiz=(0,0,1)for (x,y,z) projections of the magnetization. In the spherical coordinates the Bloch-Bloembergen equation can be written as below;
Figure 5.
Damped precession of a magnetic moment M→ toward the effective magnetic field H→effaccording to the Bloch-Bloembergen type equation (Aktaş, 1993, 1994; Yalçın, 2008(a)).
1γdM→dt=M→|M→|×∇→E−M→θ,ϕγT2−M→z−M0γT1.E20
(19)
Where, the torque is obtained from the energy density through the expression
∇→E=−(∂E∂θ)e^ϕ+1sinθ(∂E∂ϕ)e^θ.E21
(20)
For a small deviation from the equilibrium orientation, the magnetization vector M→can be approximated by
M→=Mse^r+mθe^θ+mϕe^ϕ.E22
(21)
Where the dynamic transverse components are assumed to be sufficiently small and can be given as
mθ(z,t)=mθ0expi(ωt±kz)mϕ(z,t)=mϕ0expi(ωt±kz)E23
(22)
Dispersion relation for films can be derived by using these solutions (Eq.(22)) in Eqs. (19) and (20). On the other hand, the eigen frequency of thin films mode is determined by the static effective field and can be derived directly from the total free energy for magnetic system/ferromagnet. It is given by the second derivatives of the total energy with respect to the θ andϕ (Smit, 1955; Artman, 1957; Wigen, 1984, 1988, 1992; Baseglia, 1988; Layadi, 1990; Farle, 1998). The matrices form for mθandmϕ is calculated using the Eq.(19) with Eq.(20, 21, 22).
Here (ω/γ)=gμBH is the Larmour frequency of the magnetization in the external dc effective magnetic field. This dispersion relation can be related as the angular momentum analogue to be linear momentum oscillator describedω=κ/μi. Here, restoring force constantκ is the second derivative of the potential part in the energy of systemκ=Exx. The inverse mass μi−1is given by the second derivative of the kinetic part in the energy with respect to linear momentumμi−1=Epp. The restoring constant in this chapter corresponds toEθθ. The inverse mass is proportional toEϕϕ. The Eθϕ arises when the coordinate system is not parallel to the symmetry and last term originated from relaxation term in Eq.(23) (Sparks, 1964; Morrish, 1965; Vittoria, 1993; Gurevich, 1996; Chikazumi, 1997)
The power absorption from radio frequency (rf) field in a unit volume of sample is given by
P=12ωχ2h12.E26
(24)
where ωis the microwave frequency, h1is the amplitude of the magnetic field component and χ2is the imaginary part of the high-frequency susceptibility. The field derivative FMR absorption spectrum is proportional to dχ2/dH and the magnetic susceptibility χis given as
χ=4π(mϕhϕ)ϕ=0E27
(25)
The theoretical absorption curves are obtained by using the imaginary part of the high frequency magnetic susceptibility as a function of applied field (Öner, 1997; Min, 2006; Cullity, 2009)
The dispersion relation can be derived by substituting Eq.(16) into Eq. (23) (Aktaş, 1997; Yalçın, 2004(a), 2004(b), 2008(a); Güner, 2006; Kharmouche, 2007; Stashkevich, 2009)
here, ω0=2πυis the circular frequency of the EPR spectrometer. Fitting Eq.(27) with experimental results of the FMR measurement at different out-of-plane-angle(θH), the values for the effective magnetization can be obtained.
Figure 6 uses of both experimental and theoretical coordinate systems for the nanowire sample geometry. Equilibrium magnetization M→ and dc-magnetic field H→ are shown in this figure and also the geometric factor and hexagonal nanowire array presentation of nanowire are displayed. The ferromagnetic resonance theory has been developed for thin films applied to nanowires with the help of the following Fig.6. The effective uniaxial anisotropy term for nanowire arrays filmsKeff=πM2(1−3P)+KUis written in this manner for arrayed nanowires. The first term in the Keff is due to the magnetostatic energy of perpendicularly-arrayed NWs (Dubowik, 1996; Encinas-Oropesa, 2001; Demand, 2002; Yalçın, 2004(a); Kartopu, 2009, 2010, 2011(a)) and constant with the symmetry axis along wire direction. The second term in the Keff is packing factor for a perfectly ordered hcp NW arrays. The packing factor is defined asP=(π/23)(d/r)2. The packing factor (P) of nanowires increases, nanowire diameter increases, the preferential orientation of the easy direction of magnetization changes from the parallel to the perpendicular direction to the wire axis (Kartopu, 2011(a)). As further, the effective uniaxial anisotropy (Keff) for a perfectly ordered hcp NWs should decrease linearly with increasing packing factor.Heff=2πMS(1−3P)+(2Ku/Ms), which is the effective anisotropy field derived from the total magnetic anisotropy energy of NWs Eq. (16). The values for total magnetization have been obtained by fitting Heffwith experimental results of FMR measurements at different angles (θH) of external fieldH→. The experimental spectra are proportional to the derivative of the absorbed power with respect to the applied field which is also proportional to the imaginary part of the magnetic susceptibility.
Figure 6.
a) Schematic representation of the cobalt nanowires and the relative orientation of the equilibrium magnetization M and the dc component of the external magnetic field H, for the FMR experiments and their theoretical calculations. (b) Hexagonal NW array exhibiting a total of seven wires and the dashed lines bottom of the seven wires indicate the six fold symmetry. (c) Sample parameters used in the packing factors P calculation.
The experimental data were analyzed by using magnetic energy density for a system consisting of n magnetic layers with saturation magnetization Ms and layer thickness ti. The magnetic energy density for the nanoscale multilayer structures the energy per unit surface area can be written as below
Where, θiis the polar angle of the magnetization Msto the z-axis and φi is the azimuth angle to the x-axis in the film plane. The first term is the Zeeman energy. The second and third terms correspond to first and second order magnetocrystalline energy with respectively. These energies due to the demagnetization field and any induced perpendicular anisotropy energy. On the other hand, these energies qualitatively have the same angular dependence with respect to the film normal. The second order magnetocrystalline energy term can be neglected for most of the ferromagnetic systems. The last two terms corresponds to bilinear and biquadratic interactions of ferromagnetic layers through nonmagnetic spacer via conduction energies. Ai,i∓1and Bi,i∓1are bilinear and biquadratic coupling constants, respectively. The bilinear exchange interaction can be written from Eq.16. Ai,i∓1can be either negative and positive depending on antiferromagnetic and ferromagnetic interactions, respectively. The antiparallel/perpendicular and parallel alignments of magnetization of nearest neighboring layers are energetically favorable for a negative/positive value ofBi,i∓1. Biquadratic interaction for spin systems have been analysed for Ising system in detail (Chen, 1973; Erdem, 2001). The biquadratic term is smaller than the bilinear interaction term. Therefore, it can be neglected for most of the ferromagnetic systems. The indirect exchange energy depends on spacer thickness and even shows oscillatory behavior with spacer thickness (Ruderman, 1954; Yosida, 1957; Parkin, 1990, 1991(a), 19901(b), 1994). The current literature on single ultrathin films and multilayers is given in below at table (Layadi, 1990(a), 1990(b); Wigen, 1992; Zhang, 1994(a), 1994 (b); Goryunov, 1995; Ando, 1997; Farle; 1998; Platow, 1998; Schmool, 1998; Lindner, 2003; Sklyuyev, 2009; Topkaya, 2010; Erkovan, 2011).
This type exchange-coupling system is located in an external magnetic field, the magnetic moment in each layer. The suitable theoretical expression may be derived in order to deduce magnetic parameter for ac susceptibility. The equation of precession motion for magnetization of the ith layer in the spherical coordinates with the Bloch-Bloembergen type relaxation term can be written as
1, 2, 3 number in this Eq.(30) corresponds toi−1,iandi+1, respectively. HereΩ=i(ωγ)+1γT2. Then dispersion relation for ferromagnetic exchange-coupled n-layers has been calculated using the (2nx2n) matrix on the left-hand side of Eq. (30) in below in detail.
(ωγ)2n+C(2n−2)/2(ωγ)2n−2+...+C1(ωγ)2+C0=0E33
(31)
Here, n is the number of ferromagnetic layer. C0, C1,...etc. are constant related toti,Ms,Eθiθi,Eφiφi,Eθiφi,\n\t\t\t\tsinθiandsin2θi. The dispersion relations for monolayer, trilayers, five-layers obtained from the Eq.(31). For tri-layers detail information are seen in ref. (Zhang, 1994(a); Schmool, 1998; Lindner, 2003). It is given that the dispersion relation for monolayer, trilayers, five-layers and multilayers/n-layers in Fig. 7.
Figure 7.
Schematic representation of the (a) one layer, (b) three layer, (c) five layer and (d) n magnetic layer and their relative orientation of the equilibrium magnetization M→ and the dc component of the external magnetic field H→ for the FMR experiments and their theoretical calculations.
6. Example: Exchange spring (hard/soft) behaviour
The Bloch wall, Néel line and magnetization vortex are well known properties for magnetic domain in magnetic systems. The multilayer structures are ordered layer by layer. The best of the sample for multilayer structure are exchange-spring systems. The equilibrium magnetic properties of nano-structured exchange-spring magnets may be studied in detail for some selected magnetic systems. The exchange systems are oriented from the exchange coupling between ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic films or between two ferromagnetic films. This type structure has been extensively studied since the phenomenon was discovered (Meiklejohn, 1956, 1957). Kneller and Hawing have been used firstly the “exchange-spring” expression (Kneller, 1991). Spring magnet films consist of hard and soft layers that are coupled at the interfaces due to strong exchange coupling between relatively soft and hard layers. The soft magnet provides a high magnetic saturation, whereas the magnetically hard material provides a high coercive field. Skomski and Coey explored the theory of exchanged coupled films and predicted that a huge energy about three times of commercially available permanent magnets (120 MGOe) can be induced (Skomski, 1993; Coey, 1997). The magnetic reversal proceeds via a twisting of the magnetization only in the soft layer after saturating hard layers, if a reverse magnetic field that is higher than exchange field is applied. The spins are sufficiently closed to the interface are pinned by the hard layer, while those in deep region of soft layer rotate up to some extent to follow the applied field (Szlaferek, 2004). To be more specific, the angle of the rotation depends on the distance to the hard layer. That is the angle of rotating in a spiral spin structure similar to that of a Bloch domain wall. If the applied field is removed, the soft spins rotate back into alignment with the hard layer.
The general expression of the free energy for exchange interaction spring materials at film (θi,i±1=π/2andθH=π/2) plane in spherical coordinate system as below.
The expression is obtained as following using ϕi→ϕi\'for magnetization’s equilibrium orientations of each layer at a state of equilibrium under the external magnetic field.
In this example, second-order anisotropy term (Kb,i=0) and biquadratic interaction constant (Bi,i±1=0) considered and the result obtained show as following as adapted with spring magnets SmCo(hard)/Fe(soft). For theoretical analysis, the exchange-spring magnet SmCo/Fe is divided into subatomic multi-layers (d=2 Å), and the spins in each layer are characterized by the average magnetization Mi, and the uniaxial anisotropy constant Ki, (Fig.8).
Figure 8.
Schematic illustration of phases of exchange spring magnets.
Sublayers are coupled by an exchange constant Ai,i+1( Astalos, 1998; Fullerton, 1998, 1999; Jiang, 1999, 2002, 2005; Grimsditch, 1999; Scholz, 2000; Hellwig, 2000; Pollmann, 2001; Dumesnil, 2002). ϕiis the angle formed by the magnetization of the i th plane with the in-plane (where the external field is always perpendicular to the film normal) easy axis of the hard layer (Yıldız, 2004(a), 2004(b)). The FMR spectra for exchange-spring magnet of SmCo/Fe have been analyzed using the Eqs. (26, 27, and 33) in Fig.9. Sm-Co (200 Å)/Fe (200 Å and 100 Å) bilayers have been grown on epitaxial 200 Å Cr(211) buffer layer on single crystal MgO(110) substrates by magnetron sputtering technique (Wüchner, 1997). To prevent oxidation Sm-Co/Fe film was coated with a 100 Å thick Cr layer. The FMR spectra for exchange-spring magnets of 200 Å and 100 Å Fe samples for different angles of the applied magnetic field in the film plane are presented in Fig.9.
There are three peaks that are one of them corresponds to the bulk mode and the remaining to the surface modes for 200 Å Fe sample. For more information about the FMR studies exchange spring magnets look at the ref. (Yildiz, 2004(a), 2004(b) ). Exchange-spring coupled magnets are promising systems for applications in perpendicular magnetic data recording-storage devices and permanent magnet (Schrefl, 1993(a), 1993(b),1998, 2002; Mibu, 1997, 1998).
Figure 9.
FMR spectra for SmCo(200 Å)/Fe(200 Å) (black line) and SmCo(200 Å)/Fe(100 Å) (blue line) samples. These FMR spectra originated from the iron/soft layers.
7. Superparamagnetic resonance
Magnetic nanoparticles have been steadily interested in science and nanotechnology. As the dimensions of magnetic nanoparticles decrease to the nanometer scale, these nanoparticles start to exhibit new and interesting physical properties mainly due to quantum size effects (Yalçın, 2004(a), 2008(b), 2012). A single domain particle is commonly referred to as superparamagnetic (Held, 2001; Diaz, 2002; Fonseca, 2002). The superparamagnetic/single-domain nanoparticles are important for non surgical interfere of human body. Even the intrinsic physical characteristics of nanoparticles are observed to change drastically compared to their macroscopic counterparts. Stoner-Wohlfarth (Stoner, 1948) and Heisenberg model (Heisenberg, 1928) to describe the fine structure were firstly used in detail. A simple (Bakuzis, 2004) and the first atomic-scale models of the ferrimagnetic and heterogeneous systems in which the exchange energy plays a central role in determining the magnetization of the NPs, were studied (Kodama, 1996, 1999; Kodama & Berkowitz, 1999). Superparamagnetic resonance (SPR) studies of fine magnetic nanoparticles is calculated a correlation between the line-width and the resonance field for superparamagnetic structures (Berger, 1997, 1998, 2000(a), 2000(b), 2001; Kliava, 1999). The correlation of the line-width and the resonance field is calculated from Bloch-Bloembergen equation of motion for magnetization. The SPR spectra, line width and resonance field may be analyzed by using the Eq.(34) in below. The equation of motion for magnetization with Bloch-Bloembergen type relaxation term for FMR adapted for superparamagnetic structures from Eqs.(18) and (19) in below.
Here, ΔH=1/γT2,Hr=−(ω/γ). This equation for SPR system so called modified Bloch for fine particle magnets. The SPR microwave absorption is proportional to the imaginary part of the dynamic susceptibility. The line shape and resonance field for superparamagnet is obtained. The temperature evolution for the SPR line-width for nanoparticles can be calculated byΔH=ΔTL(x). In this expression ΔTis a saturation line-width at a temperature T, L(x)=coth(x)−(1/x)is the Langevin function withx=MVHeff/kBT, Vis the particle volume. The superparamagnetic (Chastellain, 2004; Dormer, 2005; Hamoudeh, 2007), core-shell nanoparticles and nanocrystalline nanoparticles (Woods, 2001; Wiekhorst, 2003; Tartaj, 2004) have been performed for possible biological applications (Sun,2005; Zhang, 2008). In additional, superparamagnetic nanoparticles have been used for hydrogels, memory effects and electronic devices (Raikher, 2003; Sasaki, 2005; Heim, 2007).
8. Result and discussions
The EPR, FMR and SPR signals have been observed in Fig.10. The EPR signal has reached approaching peak level about 3000 G as seeing at Fig.10. It’s symmetric and line width are narrower than resonance field, in generally. If EPR samples show crystallization, resonance field value starts to change. The EPR signal can be observed at lower temperature about 3000 G and the signal can show crystalline property. The signal is observed in two different areas at FMR spectra as the magnetic field is parallel and perpendicular to the film. The FMR spectra are observed at low field when the magnetic field is parallel to the film, in generally. On the other hand, the FMR spectra are observed at highest field when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the film. For other conditions FMR signals are observed between these two conditions for thin films. FMR spectra can be seen a wide range of field so as to the thin films are full.
Figure 10.
a) The EPR/ESR experimental signal for La0.7Ca0.3MnO3 samples at room temperature (see, Kartopu, 2011 (b)). (b) Theoretical FMR spectra calculated from Eq. (26) with Eq.(27) at parallel (θ=90o;~ 2000 G) and perpendicular (θ=0o;~7000 G) position of OPG case. (c) The theoretical (red-dot line in online) and experimental FMR spectra for Ni NWs (P= 29,6; L=0,8 μm, τ=13 ) (see for detail, Kartopu, 2011 (a)). (d) The theoretical SPR signal for superparamagnet by Eq.(34) at room temperature.
FMR spectra are similar to thin films at nanowire samples. In case of occupancy rate is that as the theoretical P<33%for Nickel (Ni) it behaviors like thin film. But, in case of occupancy rate is that as the theoretical P<33%it behaviors different from thin film. This situation is clearly visible fromHeff=2πMS(1−3P)+(2Ku/Ms). If the occupancy rate is P<33%sample’s signals show the opposite behavior according to thin film FMR signals. Look at for more information (Kartopu, 2011 (a)). This is perceived as changes the direction of the easy axis. The changes of easy axes depend on magnetization (Terry, 1917) and porosity (Kartopu, 2011 (a)) for magnetic materials/transition elements. The SPR signal is similar to EPR signal. SPR peak may show symmetrical properties both at room temperature and low temperatures. The SPR signal is in the form of Lorentzian and Gaussian line shapes at all temperature range. Specially prepared nanoparticles SPR peak exhibit shift in symmetry. The line width of SPR peak expands at low temperature.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Muhittin Öztürk and Songül Özüm of Niğde University for valuable discussions an the critical reading of the chapter. This study was supported by Research found (Grant No. FEB2012/12) of Niğde University.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/45527.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/45527.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45527",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45527",totalDownloads:11584,totalViews:1474,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:87,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 25th 2012",dateReviewed:"February 13th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 31st 2013",dateFinished:"July 29th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/45527",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/45527",book:{id:"3527",slug:"ferromagnetic-resonance-theory-and-applications"},signatures:"Orhan Yalçın",authors:[{id:"101308",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Yalçın",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Yalçın",slug:"dr.-orhan-yalcin",email:"yalcin@nigde.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101308/images/2212_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Niğde University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Magnetic order",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Origin of magnetic moment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Magnetic resonance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Electron paramagnetic resonance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Spin Hamiltonian",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. g→→tensor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Ferromagnetic resonance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Example: Exchange spring (hard/soft) behaviour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Superparamagnetic resonance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"8. Result and discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"Acknowledgement",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AdeyeyeA. O.BlandJ. A. C.DabooC.HaskoD. G.1997Magnetostatic interactions and magnetization reversal in ferromagnetic wiresPhys. Rev. 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1. Introduction
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide [1]. Especially, rectal cancer accounts for 30–40% of colorectal cancer, and the treatment strategy is different and more complicated compared to colon cancer because of its anatomical features. Although the treatment outcome of rectal cancer has greatly improved with the development of multimodality treatment including neoadjuvant radiotherapy, cytotoxic chemotherapy, and target agents, surgery remains the mainstay of therapy. Since the concept of total mesorectal excision (TME) was first described by Richard Heald in 1979, this procedure became the gold standard technique for rectal cancer surgery until now [2]. The fundamental principle of TME is en bloc resection of the rectum with its surrounding fatty tissue complex which contains the blood vessels and lymphatics down to the pelvic floor. To achieve complete TME and sphincter preserving surgery in low-lying rectal cancer, knowledge for regarding the pelvic fascia (mesorectal, parietal) and autonomic nerves, a thorough understanding of the pelvic floor anatomy is essential.
2. Pelvic anatomy
2.1 Basic anatomy of the rectum and mesorectum
The rectum is the most distal part of the large intestine that exists from the sacral promontory level to the anorectal ring. The anterior and lateral portion of the upper one-third of the rectum is covered with peritoneum, and the middle one-third of the rectum is covered with peritoneum on its anterior portion. The lower one-third cannot be observed in the intraperitoneal space because it is located in the extraperitoneal space. The taenia coli disappears in the rectum, forming one longitudinal muscle layer surrounding the rectum. The length of the rectum is approximately 12-15 cm and has three curvatures, which is related to Houston’s valves. The upper and lower part are convex to the right, and the middle portion is convex to the left. The middle valve is the most prominent and is located approximately equal to the level of peritoneal reflection [3].
The rectum is surrounded by a fatty tissue complex called the mesorectum, which corresponds to the mesentery of the rectum. Mesorectum contains abundant blood vessels, lymphatics, and lymph nodes, and it is enveloped by thin visceral pelvic fascia [4]. It is developed thickest in the posterolateral side and the anterior part is formed relatively thin. In addition, the volume of the mesorectum decreases as it approaches the pelvic floor, and disappears approximately 2 cm above the levator ani muscle (Figure 1). A number of studies have revealed that the mesorectum is an important structure for tumor spreading, and en bloc resection through sharp dissection of mesorectum is very important in improving treatment outcomes [2, 5, 6].
Figure 1.
Anatomy of the rectum and mesorectum. (a) Structures around the rectum. The rectum is surrounded by mesorectum, and the rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum. (b) Total mesorectal excision (TME). En bloc resection of mesorectum is important.
2.2 Fascia structures around the rectum
Dissecting the correct anatomical plane can lead to good oncological outcomes and preserve the autonomic nerves to prevent postoperative urinary, sexual, and defecatory dysfunction. If pelvic dissection is performed along the exact embryologic fascial plane, the operation can be done without bleeding. To perform precise total mesorectal excision, a thorough understanding of the fascia around the rectum and pelvic cavity is essential. Figure 2 shows the anatomical relationship of the fascia around the rectum.
Figure 2.
Anatomy of fascia around the rectum. The fascia propria of the rectum covers the rectum and mesorectum. The presacral fascia covers the anterior surface of the sacrum. It combines with the fascia propria of the rectum at the S4 level (recto-sacral fascia = Waldeyer’s fascia). Denonvilliers’ fascia is a dense membrane between the rectum and seminal vesicles.
2.2.1 Fascia propria of the rectum and presacral fascia
The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum, also called as mesorectal fascia. The mesorectal fascia corresponds to the visceral fascia of the rectum. Caudally, it ends at the internal sphincter and laterally ends at the internal iliac artery, and is connected to the parietal pelvic fascia [7]. A magnetic resonance image scan (MRI) can clearly show the boundaries of these mesorectum and mesorectal fascia (Figure 3). During total mesorectal excision, it is important to completely excise this mesorectal fascia without damage to obtain optimal oncologic outcome [6, 8, 9].
Figure 3.
Magnetic resonance image scan. Magnetic resonance image scan (MRI) can clearly show the boundaries of these mesorectum and mesorectal fascia. (a) T2 weighted image on MRI. Axial view. The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum (mesorectal fascia). (b) T2 weighted image on MRI. Coronal view. Mesorectum, mesorectal fascia, and puborectalis muscle.
The presacral fascia, also called as parietal pelvic fascia, covers the anterior surface of the sacrum and encloses the sacral vessels and nerves. It combines with the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level and became part of the anococcygeal ligament at the level of anorectal junction. The presacral venous plexus is formed by the two lateral sacral veins, the middle sacral vein, and the communicating veins, and it runs underneath the presacral fascia. If the dissection plane is too deep to damage the presacral fascia during the posterior dissection, life-threatening massive bleeding can occur and it often is difficult to control. Therefore, dissection should be done along with the space between the mesorectal fascia and the presacral fascia until the recto-sacral fascia is encountered [10, 11].
2.2.2 Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia)
Recto-sacral fascia, also known as Waldeyer’s fascia, is a dense connective tissue linking the presacral fascia to the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level. As the posterior dissection proceeds down along the plane between the mesorectal fascia and the presacral fascia, a dense, tough recto-sacral fascia is identified. To enter the retro-rectal space and reach the pelvic floor, this fascia must be incised and dissected further caudally. This fascia has a different thickness from individuals, it is not visible when it is too thin. Because the presacral artery and venous plexus and autonomic nerves pass behind this fascia, it is important to perform sharp division to avoid excessive bleeding due to presacral vein injury (Figure 4) [8, 12].
Figure 4.
Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia). Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia) is a dense connective tissue linking the presacral fascia to the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level. It is important to perform sharp dissection [11].
2.2.3 Denonvilliers’ fascia
During the anterior dissection of the rectum, a thin, dense connective tissue layer known as the Denonvilliers’ fascia presents between the seminal vesicles and rectum [13]. The rectum can be separated from the seminal vesicles and prostate by opening this membrane at the level of anterior peritoneal reflection. After incising the fascia and entering the embryologic plane between the rectum and the seminal vesicles, the dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia [14]. It is because there were neurovascular bundles running from the pelvic plexus to the ventral side of the Denonvilliers’ fascia, especially in the directions of 10 and 2 o’clock, and these neurovascular bundles were related to urogenital function (Figure 5) [15]. However, if the deeply infiltrative tumor is located on the anterior wall of the rectum, the dissection should be performed in front of the Denonvilliers’ fascia for curative resection. In females, there is a thin membranous structure that separates the rectum and vagina, which is called the rectovaginal septum. Although Denonvilliers reported that the Denonvilliers’ fascia was not present in females, many researchers considered that the rectovaginal septum was consistent with the Denonvilliers’ fascia in males (Figure 6) [16, 17, 18, 19]. During the anterior dissection of the rectum in female, care must be taken not to perforate the vagina since this septum is very thin.
Figure 5.
Denonvilliers’ fascia. During anterior dissection of the rectum. The dense connective tissue between rectum and seminal vesicles can be seen. The dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia.
Figure 6.
Rectovaginal septum. In female, the rectovaginal septum was consistent with the denonvilliers’ fascia in male.
2.3 Anal canal
The rectum enters the pelvic floor and becomes the anus. The anal canal is defined as from the dentate line to the anal verge by anatomists, but most surgeons consider the anal canal from the anorectal ring to the anal verge [20]. The anorectal ring is where the rectum enters the pelvic floor and is angled by the puborectalis muscle. This ring can be palpated by a meticulous digital rectal exam. The dentate line, which divides the upper two-thirds and lower third of the anal canal, is an anatomically important landmark of the anal canal, and there are 6–14 longitudinal folds on the dentate line known as columns of Morgagni (Figure 7). The upper and lower part of the anal canal differs in venous and lymphatic drainage, innervation, and the epithelial surface based on the dentate line. Above the dentate line, the blood drains into the portal venous system, and lymphatics drains to the superior rectal and iliac lymphatic chains. Below the dentate line, the blood drains into the caval system, and lymphatics drain into the inguinal lymph nodes.
Figure 7.
Anal canal and anal sphincter complex. (a) The dentate line divides the upper two thirds and lower third of the anal canal, and there are longitudinal folds known as columns of Morgagni. The external sphincter consists of three separate parts: Subcutaneous, superficial, and deep part [21]. (b) External anal sphincter. Lt. Hemipelvis.
There are two sphincter muscles surrounding the anus, the internal sphincter and the external sphincter. The internal sphincter is connected from the inner circular smooth muscle of the rectum and descends to 1–1.5 cm below the dentate line. Its length is about 2.5–4 cm and the mean thickness is about 0.5 cm. It is an involuntary smooth muscle and plays an important role in the maintenance of fecal incontinence because it contributes a majority of the resting pressure of the anal canal. The outer longitudinal muscle of the rectum conjoins the fibers from the puborectalis muscle and is located between the external and internal sphincter. The external sphincter muscle is a striated muscle surrounding the internal sphincter in the shape of a cylinder, and it extends slightly below the internal sphincter. The external sphincter consists of three separate parts: subcutaneous, superficial, and deep part. The subcutaneous external sphincter attaches to the perianal skin encircling the anus. The external anal sphincter is innervated by the rectal branch of the pudendal nerve and is under voluntary control [20, 22, 23]. The intersphincteric groove between the internal and external sphincter is an important landmark in surgery for patients with distal rectal cancer such as intersphincteric resection (ISR) [24].
2.4 Pelvic floor
The pelvic floor is a structure that forms the bottom of the pelvis, and plays an important role in supporting the pelvic organs. In the past, pelvic floor muscles could not be visualized clearly, however, the development of magnetic resonance imaging assessments and improvements in minimally invasive surgery techniques such as laparoscopy and robotic surgery can clearly show the anatomy of this region It is mainly composed of the levator ani muscle complex: pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle. The levator ani muscle received direct innervation from sacral nerve roots (S3-S5) and play an important role in cooperative action through coordinated contraction and relaxation during defecation [25]. The pubococcygeus is located in the most anterior portion of the levator ani muscles, and from both pubic bone to the coccyx. The iliococcygeus is the posterior part of the levator ani muscle and extends from the ischial spine to the anococcygeal raphe and coccyx. The puborectalis muscle, which is located below the pubococcygeus, forms a U-shaped ring around the rectum and makes an anorectal angle to prevent fecal incontinence. The coccygeus muscle, which is also a part of the pelvic floor, is located posterior portion of the levator ani muscle and reinforces the posterior pelvic floor (Figure 8) [20]. The pelvic floor has two hiatuses: the urogenital hiatus and the rectal hiatus. The rectal hiatus is located in the posterior of the pelvic floor through which the anal canal passes. The perineal body, a pyramidal fibromuscular mass, is located between the urogenital hiatus and the anal canal, strengthens the pelvic floor [26]. During distal rectal cancer surgery for sphincter preservation such as ISR, the intersphincteric space between the puborectalis muscle and the rectal wall should be identified, and the dissection continues down to the deep part of the anal canal through the intersphincteric space (Figure 9) [24]. On the other hand, during an abdominoperineal resection, the levator ani muscles must be cut [27].
Figure 8.
Anatomy of the pelvic floor. (a) Inferior view. The levator ani muscle consists of pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle [21]. (b) Pelvic floor muscles and anal sphincter complex [20].
Figure 9.
Levator ani muscles and intersphincteric space. (a) Puborectalis and pubococcygeus muscle. (b) Intersphincteric space between rectum and puborectalis muscle.
2.4.1 Anococcygeal ligaments
The anococcygeal ligament is a fibrous membrane, which extends between the coccyx and the margin of the anal canal. In an anatomical study, the anococcygeal ligament was divided into two layers. The ventral layer of the ligament was loose and rich in small and fragile vessels and extended from the presacral fascia to the conjoint longitudinal muscle layer of the anal canal. The dorsal layer of the ligament was thin and dense and extended between the coccyx and external anal sphincter (Figure 10) [28]. To fully mobilize the rectum from the pelvic floor at the final stage of total mesorectal excision, the anococcygeal ligament must be divided. If the anococcygeal ligament cannot be seen in the final step, it can be visualized after the mesorectum is completely mobilized from the pelvic floor.
Figure 10.
Anococcygeal ligament. (a) Anococcygeal ligament and pelvic floor. During posterior dissection of the rectum. (b) Anococcygeal ligament during cadeveric dissection. Lt. hemipelvis.
2.5 Surgical plane for very low-lying rectal cancer
In case of very low-lying rectal cancer, several surgical options can be considered (Figure 11). If the tumor did not invade the anal sphincter complex, the ultra-low anterior resection with coloanal anastomosis could be considered. If the tumors are located close to the dentate line, the intersphincteric resection (ISR) could be considered. The ISR is the partial or complete resection of the internal anal sphincter along the intersphincteric plane. However, if the tumor invades the external sphincter complex, the abdominoperineal resection (APR) should be performed. For invasive low rectal cancer which invades the levator ani muscle, extralevator APR (ELAPE) should be considered to achieve adequate resection margin. The ELAPE is the cylindrical anorectal excision and removes more tissue around the tumor including levator ani muscle (Figure 12). This procedure has the advantage of reducing the risk of tumor perforation during operation and acquiring sufficient safety resection margin, but there is still controversy about the long-term oncologic outcome [29]. In addition, the postoperative complications can be increased due to the wide resection range.
Figure 11.
Low-lying rectal cancer. (a) T2 weighted image on MRI. Coronal view. The low-lying rectal cancer invades internal anal sphincter. (b) T2 weighted image on MRI. Sagittal view.
In terms of quality of life, the importance of not only oncological outcomes but also functional outcomes such as urinary function, sexual function, and defecatory function after rectal cancer surgery have been emphasized. Urinary dysfunction after rectal surgery occurs in approximately 27%, and it includes difficulty emptying the bladder and incontinence [30, 31]. Sexual dysfunction for males consists of erectile dysfunction, absence of ejaculation, or retrograde ejaculation. For females, it causes sexual dysfunction such as impaired ability to achieve orgasm, decreased vaginal secretion, or dyspareunia [15]. The major cause of postoperative urogenital dysfunction is autonomic nerve damage that occurs during surgery. As minimally invasive surgery such as laparoscopy and robotic approach develops, meticulous nerve preserving surgery became possible with good visualization of the pelvic autonomic nerves [32, 33, 34]. To preserve the postoperative urogenital function, a thorough understanding of the anatomy of the pelvic autonomic nerve is crucial.
2.6.1 Superior hypogastric plexus and hypogastric nerves
The superior hypogastric plexus, which is a collection of sympathetic nerve bundles arising from T10-L3, forms a dense nerve plexus at the anterior area to the body of L5 and bifurcates into hypogastric nerves at the level of the sacral promontory (Figure 13). The superior hypogastric plexus runs around the inferior mesenteric artery. Therefore, this nerve can be damaged during dissection around the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery, and it results in retrograde ejaculation, urinary incontinence [35]. The hypogastric nerve crosses the left common iliac artery at the level of the first sacrum and descends to the pelvic cavity along the lateral pelvic wall.
Figure 13.
Hypogastric nerves. The hypogastric nerves run from the superior hypogastric plexus and descend to the pelvic cavity and meet the pelvic splanchnic nerves.
2.6.2 Pelvic splanchnic nerves
The pelvic splanchnic nerves are considered to be parasympathetic nerves that arise from the second to fourth sacral spinal nerves. These nerves enter the pelvis through the sacral foramen, posterior to the parietal fascia that covers the piriformis muscle and crosses the retrorectal space, to enter the visceral compartment through the visceral fascia about 4 cm from the midline. Small branches of the pelvic splanchnic nerves run medially and enter the mesorectum (Figure 14). These nerves regulate the emptying of the urinary bladder and influence erectile functions and motility of the rectum. Therefore, damage to these nerves causes erectile dysfunction and decreased blood flow to the vagina and vulva, which can reduce vaginal lubrication.
Figure 14.
Pelvic splanchnic nerves. The pelvic splanchnic nerves arise from the S2 to S4 spinal nerves. Small branches of the pelvic splanchnic nerves run medially and enter the mesorectum.
2.6.3 Inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus
The pelvic splanchnic nerves meet the hypogastric nerves and form the inferior hypogastric plexus at the lateral pelvic wall. It lies outside the fascia propria in the superficial layer of the parietal fascia. The inferior hypogastric plexus can be observed as a mesh-like structure at the posterolateral pelvic wall close to the prostate and seminal vesicles. Because the inferior hypogastric plexus consists of both sympathetic and parasympathetic efferent fibers, any damage to this plexus may cause severe disturbances in urogenital and sexual function including erection and ejaculation. It extends forward to form neurovascular bundles running down the seminal vesicle at 2 o’clock and 10 o’clock direction (Figure 15). These neurovascular bundles run through the posterolateral border of the prostate and continue to the periprostatic plexus, which supplies to the prostate, seminal vesicles, corpi cavernosi, and the vas deferens [15, 36]. Injury to the neurovascular bundles during anterior dissection may cause urinary and sexual dysfunction. Meticulous dissection is required because nerve damage may occur when surgery is performed along the wrong plane or excessive traction is performed.
Figure 15.
Inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus. The inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus is a network of sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers arising from the hypogastric nerves and the pelvic splanchnic nerves. It can be observed as a mesh-like structure at the posterolateral pelvic wall. It extends forward to form neurovascular bundles running down the seminal vesicle on both sides.
3. Conclusion
The rectum is surrounded by a fatty tissue complex called the mesorectum, which contains abundant blood vessels, lymphatics, and lymph nodes. The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the mesorectal fascia. During total mesorectal excision, it is important to completely excise this mesorectal fascia without damage. The mesorectal fascia conjoins with the recto-sacral fascia, which extends forward from the presacral fascia at the level of S4, and descends to the pelvic floor. To enter the retro-rectal space and reach the pelvic floor, this fascia must be incised and sharp dissection should be performed to prevent severe bleeding due to injury to the presacral plexus. During the anterior dissection of the rectum, it is important to recognize Denonvillers’ fascia located between the rectum and seminal vesicles, and dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia. The pelvic floor is a structure that forms the bottom of the pelvis and is mainly composed of the levator ani muscle complex: pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle. The levator ani muscle received direct innervation from sacral nerve roots (S3-S5) and play an important role in cooperative action during defecation. To reach the deep part of the anal canal, the dissection should be performed between the puborectalis muscle and the rectal wall. During the whole process of TME, surgeons should take care to identify and preserve the autonomic nerve in order to avoid postoperative urogenital dysfunction. Care should be taken not to damage the superior hypogastric nerve during IMA ligation, and not to damage the pelvic plexus during posterolateral pelvic dissection. In addition, during anterior dissection of the rectum, it is important to perform meticulous dissection so as not to injure small numerous neurovascular bundles running in the 2 o’clock and 10 o’clock directions of the seminal vesicle. Based on a sufficient understanding of pelvic anatomy, precise surgical techniques using advanced surgical tools will give favorable oncologic and functional outcomes for rectal cancer patients.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
None.
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Accurate TME along the embryologic plane not only reduces local recurrence rate but also preserves urinary and sexual function by minimizing nerve damage. In the past, pelvic floor muscles and autonomic nerves could not be visualized clearly, however, the development of imaging studies and improvements of minimally invasive surgical techniques such as laparoscopic and robotic surgery can clearly show the anatomy of the pelvic region. In this chapter, we will provide accurate anatomy of the rectum and the anal canal, pelvic fascia, and the pelvic autonomic nerve. 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Pelvic anatomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Basic anatomy of the rectum and mesorectum",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Fascia structures around the rectum",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Fascia propria of the rectum and presacral fascia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Denonvilliers’ fascia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Anal canal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.4 Pelvic floor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.4.1 Anococcygeal ligaments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.5 Surgical plane for very low-lying rectal cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.6 Pelvic autonomic nerve system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.6.1 Superior hypogastric plexus and hypogastric nerves",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.6.2 Pelvic splanchnic nerves",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.6.3 Inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, Parkin DM, Pineros M, Znaor A, et al. Cancer statistics for the year 2020: An overview. International Journal of Cancer. 2021. DOI: 10.1002/ijc.33588'},{id:"B2",body:'Heald RJ, Husband EM, Ryall RDH. The mesorectum in rectal cancer surgery—the clue to pelvic recurrence? British Journal of Surgery. 1982;69:613-616. DOI: 10.1002/bjs.1800691019'},{id:"B3",body:'Engin O. Colon polyps and the prevention of colorectal cancer: Springer; 2015. 249 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-17993-3'},{id:"B4",body:'Culligan K, Walsh S, Dunne C, Walsh M, Ryan S, Quondamatteo F, et al. The mesocolon: a histological and electron microscopic characterization of the mesenteric attachment of the colon prior to and after surgical mobilization. Annals of Surgery. 2014;260:1048-1056. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000000323'},{id:"B5",body:'Bokey EL, Öjerskog B, Chapuis PH, Dent OF, Newland RC, Sinclair G. Local recurrence after curative excision of the rectum for cancer without adjuvant therapy: role of total anatomical dissection. British Journal of Surgery. 1999;86:1164-1170. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2168.1999.01216.x'},{id:"B6",body:'Silva-Velazco J, Stocchi L, Valente MA, Church JM, Liska D, Gorgun E, et al. The relationship between mesorectal grading and oncological outcome in rectal adenocarcinoma. Colorectal Disease. 2019;21:315-325. DOI: 10.1111/codi.14535'},{id:"B7",body:'Stelzner S, Heinze T, Nikolouzakis TK, Torge Mees S, Witzigmann H, Wedel T. Perirectal fascial anatomy: New insights into an old problem. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2021;64:91-102. DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0000000000001778'},{id:"B8",body:'Kim NK, Kim HS, Alessa M, Torky R. Optimal complete rectum mobilization focused on the anatomy of the pelvic fascia and autonomic nerves: 30 years of experience at Severance Hospital. Yonsei Medical Journal. 2021;62:187-199. DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2021.62.3.187'},{id:"B9",body:'Heald RJ, Santiago I, Pares O, Carvalho C, Figueiredo N. The perfect total mesorectal excision obviates the need for anything else in the management of most rectal cancers. Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery. 2017;30:324-332. DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1606109'},{id:"B10",body:'Lou Z, Zhang W, Meng RG, Fu CG. Massive presacral bleeding during rectal surgery: from anatomy to clinical practice. World Journal of Gastroenterology : WJG. 2013;19:4039-4044. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v19.i25.4039'},{id:"B11",body:'Kim NK. Anatomic basis of sharp pelvic dissection for curative resection of rectal cancer. Yonsei Medical Journal. 2005;46:737-749. DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2005.46.6.737'},{id:"B12",body:'Açar Hİ, Kuzu MA. Anatomical planes in rectal cancer surgery. Turkish Journal of Colorectal Disease. 2019;29:165-170. DOI: 10.4274/tjcd.galenos.2019.2019-10-2'},{id:"B13",body:'Lindsey I, Guy RJ, Warren BF, Mortensen NJ. Anatomy of Denonvilliers\' fascia and pelvic nerves, impotence, and implications for the colorectal surgeon. British Journal of Surgery. 2000;87:1288-1299. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2168.2000.01542.x'},{id:"B14",body:'Zhu XM, Yu GY, Zheng NX, Liu HM, Gong HF, Lou Z, et al. Review of Denonvilliers\' fascia: the controversies and consensuses. Gastroenterology Report. 2020;8:343-348. DOI: 10.1093/gastro/goaa053'},{id:"B15",body:'Nagpal K, Bennett N. Colorectal surgery and its impact on male sexual function. Current Urology Reports. 2013;14:279-284. DOI: 10.1007/s11934-013-0341-x'},{id:"B16",body:'Kim JH, Kinugasa Y, Hwang SE, Murakami G, Rodriguez-Vazquez JF, Cho BH. Denonvilliers\' fascia revisited. Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy : SRA. 2015;37:187-197. DOI: 10.1007/s00276-014-1336-0'},{id:"B17",body:'Kraima AC, West NP, Treanor D, Magee DR, Rutten HJ, Quirke P, et al. Whole mount microscopic sections reveal that Denonvilliers\' fascia is one entity and adherent to the mesorectal fascia; implications for the anterior plane in total mesorectal excision? European Journal of Surgical Oncology. 2015;41:738-745. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejso.2015.03.224'},{id:"B18",body:'Ludwikowski B, Hayward IO, Fritsch H. Rectovaginal fascia: An important structure in pelvic visceral surgery? About its development, structure, and function. Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 2002;37:634-638. DOI: 10.1053/jpsu.2002.31624'},{id:"B19",body:'Aigner F, Zbar AP, Ludwikowski B, Kreczy A, Kovacs P, Fritsch H. The rectogenital septum: morphology, function, and clinical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2004;47:131-140. DOI: 10.1007/s10350-003-0031-8'},{id:"B20",body:'Lee JM, Kim NK. Essential anatomy of the anorectum for colorectal surgeons focused on the gross anatomy and histologic findings. Annals of Coloproctology. 2018;34:59-71. DOI: 10.3393/ac.2017.12.15'},{id:"B21",body:'Richard L. Drake, A. Wayne Vogl and Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray\'s Atlas of Anatomy, 5, 213-292'},{id:"B22",body:'Kim NK, Sugihara K, Liang J-T. Surgical treatment of colorectal cancer: Asian perspectives on optimization and standardization; : Springer Singapore 2018. 414 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-5143-2'},{id:"B23",body:'Fritsch H, Brenner E, Lienemann A, Ludwikowski B. Anal sphincter complex: reinterpreted morphology and its clinical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2002;45:188-194. DOI: 10.1007/s10350-004-6144-x'},{id:"B24",body:'Rullier E, Zerbib F, Laurent C, Bonnel C, Caudry M, Saric J, et al. Intersphincteric resection with excision of internal anal sphincter for conservative treatment of very low rectal cancer. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 1999;42:1168-1175. DOI: 10.1007/Bf02238569'},{id:"B25",body:'Eickmeyer SM. Anatomy and physiology of the pelvic floor. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America. 2017;28:455-460. DOI: 10.1016/j.pmr.2017.03.003'},{id:"B26",body:'Siccardi MA, Bordoni B. Anatomy, Abdomen and Pelvis, Perineal Body [Internet]. 2021. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537345/ [Accessed: 2021-04-01]'},{id:"B27",body:'Stelzner S, Holm T, Moran BJ, Heald RJ, Witzigmann H, Zorenkov D, et al. Deep pelvic anatomy revisited for a description of crucial steps in extralevator abdominoperineal excision for rectal cancer. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2011;54:947-957. DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0b013e31821c4bac'},{id:"B28",body:'Kinugasa Y, Arakawa T, Abe S, Ohtsuka A, Suzuki D, Murakami G, et al. Anatomical reevaluation of the anococcygeal ligament and its surgical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2011;54:232-237. DOI: 10.1007/DCR.0b013e318202388f'},{id:"B29",body:'Tao Y, Han JG, Wang ZJ. Extralevator abdominoperineal excision for advanced low rectal cancer: Where to go. World Journal of Gastroenterology : WJG. 2020;26:3012-3023. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v26.i22.3012'},{id:"B30",body:'Kim NK, Kim YW, Cho MS. Total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer with emphasis on pelvic autonomic nerve preservation: Expert technical tips for robotic surgery. Surgical Oncology. 2015;24:172-180. DOI: 10.1016/j.suronc.2015.06.012'},{id:"B31",body:'Chew MH, Yeh YT, Lim E, Seow-Choen F. Pelvic autonomic nerve preservation in radical rectal cancer surgery: changes in the past 3 decades. Gastroenterology Report. 2016;4:173-185. DOI: 10.1093/gastro/gow023'},{id:"B32",body:'Luca F, Valvo M, Ghezzi TL, Zuccaro M, Cenciarelli S, Trovato C, et al. Impact of robotic surgery on sexual and urinary functions after fully robotic nerve-sparing total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Annals of Surgery. 2013;257:672-678. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0b013e318269d03b'},{id:"B33",body:'Garbarino GM, Canali G, Tarantino G, Costa G, Ferri M, Balducci G, et al. Laparoscopic versus open rectal resection: a 1:2 propensity score-matched analysis of oncological adequateness, short- and long-term outcomes. International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 2021;36:801-810. DOI: 10.1007/s00384-021-03841-w'},{id:"B34",body:'Hur H, Bae SU, Kim NK, Min BS, Baik SH, Lee KY, et al. Comparative study of voiding and male sexual function following open and laparoscopic total mesorectal excision in patients with rectal cancer. Journal of Surgical Oncology. 2013;108:572-578. DOI: 10.1002/jso.23435'},{id:"B35",body:'Mari GM, Crippa J, Cocozza E, Berselli M, Livraghi L, Carzaniga P, et al. Low ligation of inferior mesenteric artery in laparoscopic anterior resection for rectal cancer reduces genitourinary dysfunction: Results from a randomized controlled Trial (HIGHLOW Trial). Annals of Surgery. 2019;269:1018-1024. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002947'},{id:"B36",body:'Hollabaugh Jr RS, Steiner MS, Sellers KD, Samm BJ, Dmochowski RR. Neuroanatomy of the pelvis: Implications for colonic and rectal resection. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2000;43:1390-1397. DOI: 10.1007/BF02236635'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sanghyun An",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Surgery, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju, Korea
Department of Surgery, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju, Korea
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The higher the frequency is, the smaller is the antenna size and the microwave characteristics are improved. Thus, a high frequency is favorable for miniaturization and weight reduction. In this chapter, a method of obtaining a radar image through a 94-GHz frequency modulation continuous wave (FMCW) radar is proposed. In addition, a method of motion compensation is described, and the W-band SAR image after motion compensation is confirmed. 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Physical Sciences, Technology and Engineering Board
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Chemistry
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Ayben Kilislioglu - Department of Chemical Engineering Istanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
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Goran Nikolic - Faculty of Technology, University of Nis, Leskovac, Serbia
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Mark T. Stauffer - Associate Professor of Chemistry, The University of Pittsburgh, USA
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Margarita Stoytcheva - Autonomous University of Baja California Engineering Institute Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
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Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
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Earth and Planetary Science
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Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
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İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
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Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
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Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
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Engineering
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Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
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Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
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Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
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Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
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Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
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Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
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Materials Science
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Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
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Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
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Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
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Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
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Mathematics
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Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
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Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
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Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
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Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
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Physics
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Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
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Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
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Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
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Robotics
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Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
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Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
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Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
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Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
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Environmental Sciences
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Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
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Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
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Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
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Immunology and Microbiology
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Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
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Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
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Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
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Medicine
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Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
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Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
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Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
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Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
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Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\\n
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Ophthalmology
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\\n\\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\\n\\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
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Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
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Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\\n\\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
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Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\\n\\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\\n
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Gastroenterology
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\\n\\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\\n\\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\\n\\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\\n\\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n
\\n\\n
Hematology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\\n\\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\\n\\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\\n\\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\\n\\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\\n
\\n\\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\\n\\n
Business, Management and Economics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\n\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\n\n
\n\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\n\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\n\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\n\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\n
\n\n
Engineering
\n\n
\n\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\n\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\n\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\n\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\n\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\n\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\n
\n\n
Materials Science
\n\n
\n\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\n\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\n\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\n\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\n
\n\n
Mathematics
\n\n
\n\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\n
\n\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\n\n
\n\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\n\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\n
\n\n
Physics
\n\n
\n\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\n\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\n\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\n
\n\n
Robotics
\n\n
\n\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\n\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\n\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\n\n
\n\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\n\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\n\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\n
\n\n
Environmental Sciences
\n\n
\n\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\n\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\n\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\n\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\n
\n\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\n\n
\n\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\n\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\n\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\n
\n\n
Medicine
\n\n
\n\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\n\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\n\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\n\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\n
\n\n
Ophthalmology
\n\n
\n\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\n\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\n\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\n\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\n\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\n\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\n\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\n\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\n
\n\n
Gastroenterology
\n\n
\n\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\n\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\n\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\n\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n
\n\n
Hematology
\n\n
\n\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\n\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\n\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\n\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\n\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\n\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\n
\n\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\n\n
Business, Management and Economics
\n\n
\n\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Denis Erasga - De La Salle University, Phillippines
\n\t
Rosario Laratta - Associate Professor of Social Policy and Development Graduate School of Governance Studies, Meiji University, Japan
\n
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. 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They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. 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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83080",title:"Boron Doping in Next-Generation Materials for Semiconductor Device",slug:"boron-doping-in-next-generation-materials-for-semiconductor-device",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106450",abstract:"The article surveys the most recent achievements starting with the boron doping mechanism, mainly focused on doping in semiconductor materials such as Si, Ge, graphene, carbon nanotube, or other 2D materials. Frequently used doping methodologies are discussed, including ion implantation and solid-phase doping, mainly focused on recent developing techniques of monolayer doping. These doped materials’ structural, electronic, and chemical properties are addressed to understand the boron doping effect better. Theoretical and experimental information and data are used to support such atomic-level effects. Therefore, this review can provide valuable suggestions and guidelines for materials’ properties manipulation by boron doping for further research exploration.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Linh Chi T. Cao, Luqman Hakim and Shu-Han Hsu"},{id:"83055",title:"Boron Clusters in Biomedical Applications: A Theoretical Viewpoint",slug:"boron-clusters-in-biomedical-applications-a-theoretical-viewpoint",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106215",abstract:"In this chapter, we presented an analysis of the recent advances in the applications of boron clusters in biomedical fields such as the development of biosensors and drug delivery systems on the basis of quantum chemical calculations. Biosensors play an essential role in many sectors, e.g., law enforcement agencies for sensing illicit drugs, medical communities for detecting overdosed medications from human and animal bodies, etc. The drug delivery systems have theoretically been proposed for many years and subsequently implemented by experiments to deliver the drug to the targeted sites by reducing the harmful side effects significantly. Boron clusters form a rich and colorful family of atomic clusters due to their unconventional structures and bonding phenomena. Boron clusters and their complexes have various biological activities such as the drug delivery, imaging for diagnosis, treatment of cancer, and probe of protein-biomolecular interactions. For all of these reactivities, the interaction mechanisms and the corresponding energetics between biomaterials and boron clusters are of essential importance as a basic step in the understanding, and thereby design of relevant materials. During the past few years, attempts have been made to probe the nature of these interactions using quantum chemical calculations mainly with density functional theory (DFT) methods. This chapter provides a summary of the theoretical viewpoint on this issue.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Ehsan Shakerzadeh, Elham Tahmasebi, Long Van Duong and Minh Tho Nguyen"},{id:"83048",title:"Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetodielectric Properties of Bi-Based Modified Ceramic Composites",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-magnetodielectric-properties-of-bi-based-modified-ceramic-composites",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106569",abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce a promising composite material, which can be used as a potential candidate in the field of charge storage, sensors, and spintronic devices. The structural, magnetic, and magnetodielectric properties of the pure cum composite samples are investigated. The Rietveld refinement of the X-ray data confirmed the presence of a single (A21am) and mixed phases (A21am + R-3c + Pbam) in the pure and composite sample, correspondingly. The SEM microstructure suggests the contrasting nature of the homogeneous and heterogeneous distribution of grains in the corresponding pure and composite sample. The magnetic properties of the composite sample increase due to the enhanced exchange interaction between the different magnetic ions. The frequency-dependent dielectric subjected to a constant magnetic field indicates the signature of magnetodielectric (MD) coupling for both the samples. The field variation of the MD loop shows the symmetric hysteresis loop in the composite due to the addition of magnetostrictive La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 and the non-collinear antiferromagnetic Bi2Fe4O9 phase. The maximum value of MD% (~0.12%) is enhanced by ~13 times in the composite than in the pure sample. Therefore, the improved MD coupling and symmetric switching of the MD loop of the composite make it a suitable candidate for low power consumption storage devices.",book:{id:"11117",title:"Smart and Advanced Ceramics and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11117.jpg"},signatures:"Rasmita Jena, Kouru Chandrakanta and Anil Kumar Singh"},{id:"83035",title:"Breaking the Property Trade-Offs by Using Entropic Conceptions",slug:"breaking-the-property-trade-offs-by-using-entropic-conceptions",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106532",abstract:"Entropic conception has been used as an effective strategy for developing materials to break the property recordings of current materials, for example, breaking the trade-off between the high-strength and low-ductility structural alloys. The performance of materials usually under a complex circumstance, a balance of multiple properties, for example, combined the high-strength, high ductility, high conductivity, high corrosion resistance, high irradiation resistance, etc., the strategy of high-entropy-alloy (HEA) will provide a materials design and development technology to realize the goal. Magnetic materials usually exhibit excellent magnetic properties but weak mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The reported unique behaviors of HEAs, for example, self-healing effects may be the mechanism for the high irradiation resistance of the HEAs, and self-sharpening behaviors of the tungsten-based HEAs main closely be related to the serration behaviors.",book:{id:"11468",title:"High Entropy Materials - Microstructures and Properties",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11468.jpg"},signatures:"Yong Zhang and Xuehui Yan"},{id:"82929",title:"Prediction of Solubility and Miscibility Parameters of Bismuth-Arsenic Complex and Amorphous Mineral Compounds Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation",slug:"prediction-of-solubility-and-miscibility-parameters-of-bismuth-arsenic-complex-and-amorphous-mineral",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106316",abstract:"Bismuth is one of the most difficult impurities to remove in mining concentrates and low concentrations generate problems in silver and copper refineries. Therefore, financial penalties are established when concentrations exceed 0.05%. Some researchers had used arsenic to remove bismuth with results of up to 52% of extraction. Unfortunately, this mechanism is not yet fully understood. The objective of this research was to obtain the solubility parameters of amorphous mineral compounds, including bismuth-based compounds, through computational simulation using molecular dynamics. The composition of the mineral sample was determined by X-ray diffraction and the crystalline species were obtained and modeled using Materials Studio software. The nanostructures were optimized by an energy minimization methodology using the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno algorithm and were validated using the figure of merit equation and density. Simulations were performed using the Universal Force Field at constant pressure and temperature. The results of the minerals identified in the sample were compared with arsenic trioxide, indicating miscibility between As2O3 and Bi2O3, possible miscibility with 10 other minerals, and immiscibility with the rest. The results indicate that As2O3 can be successfully used for the removal of Bi2O3 without a negative effect on the recovery of other minerals of higher commercial value.",book:{id:"11467",title:"Bismuth-Based Nanostructured Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg"},signatures:"Francisco Adrián De la Torre-Martínez, Efren Delgado, María Dolores Josefina Rodríguez Rosales, Hiram Medrano-Roldán, Javier López-Miranda and Damián Reyes-Jáquez"},{id:"82940",title:"Role of Surface Defects and Optical Band-gap Energy on Photocatalytic Activities of Titanate-based Perovskite Nanomaterial",slug:"role-of-surface-defects-and-optical-band-gap-energy-on-photocatalytic-activities-of-titanate-based-p",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106253",abstract:"In recent years, water pollution has become one of the major challenges faced by humans because of consistent rise in population and industrial activities. Water pollution due to discharge from cosmetics and pharmaceutical wastes, organic dyes, and heavy metal seen as carcinogens has the potential to disrupt hormonal processes in the body. Different approaches such as chlorination, aerobic treatment, aeration, and filtration have been deployed to treat wastewaters before being discharged into the streams, lakes, and rivers. However, more attention has been accorded to treatment approaches that involve use of nanomaterial due to non-secondary pollution, energy efficiency, and ease of operation. Titanate-based perovskite (TBP) is one of the most frequently studied nanomaterials for photocatalytic applications because of its stability and flexibility in optical band-gap modification. This chapter provided an overview of basic principles and mechanisms of a semiconductor photocatalyst, and current synthesis techniques that have been used in formulating TBP nanomaterial. The effect of reaction conditions and approaches such as doping, codoping, composites, temperature, pH, precursor type, surface area, and morphology on surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP nanomaterial was highlighted. Importantly, the impact of surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP on its photocatalytic activities was discussed. Finally, how to enhance the degradation efficiency of TBP was proposed.",book:{id:"11469",title:"Recent Advances in Perovskite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11469.jpg"},signatures:"Izunna Stanislaus Okeke, Priscilla Yahemba Aondona, Amoge Chidinma Ogu, Eugene Echeweozo and Fabian Ifeanyichukwu Ezema"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:81},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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