Evolution of the main land uses in the Centre region, between 1995 and 2018.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6026",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Recently, new compounds from medicinal plants were discovered, and they were used as anti-severe diseases. Therefore, this book covers interested research topics dealing with isolation, purification, and identification of active ingredients from wild and medicinal plants. This discovery will lead to an increase in the global pharmaceutical market as well as open such new gate for medicinal plant research. This book will add significant information to medical researchers and can be used for postgraduate students.",isbn:"978-953-51-2976-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2975-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5475-4",doi:"10.5772/67161",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",numberOfPages:282,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f5988dd981b01f4497052300329105b2",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",publishedDate:"March 8th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6026.jpg",numberOfDownloads:42461,numberOfWosCitations:55,numberOfCrossrefCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:88,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:185,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 2nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/54719/images/system/54719.jpg",biography:"Prof. Hany A. El-Shemy received a Ph.D. in Biochemistry from the University of Cairo, Egypt, and a Ph.D. in Genetic Engineering from the University of Hiroshima, Japan. He holds two patents and has written thirteen international books. He has also published more than 100 SCI journal papers and 55 conference presentations. Dr. El-Shemy was a technique committee member as well as chair of many international conferences. He has also served as editor for journals including PLOS ONE, BMC Genomics, and Current Issues in Molecular Biology. He has received several awards, including state prizes from the Academy of Science, Egypt (2004, 2012, and 2018), the Young Arab Researcher prize from the Shuman Foundation, Jordan (2005), and Cairo University Prizes (2007, 2010, and 2014). He served as an expert for the African Regional Center of Technology, Dakar, Senegal, as well as a visiting professor at Pan African University, African Union. He served as vice president of the Academy of Science and Technology, Egypt, from 2013 to 2014. Since 2014 he has been the dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University. In 2018, he was elected a fellow of the African Academy of Science.",institutionString:"Cairo University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"339",title:"Herbology",slug:"herbology"}],chapters:[{id:"53277",title:"Medicinal Plants of the Indigenous Tribes in Peninsular Malaysia: Current and Future Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/66658",slug:"medicinal-plants-of-the-indigenous-tribes-in-peninsular-malaysia-current-and-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:2576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main aim of this paper is to compile information on plant that is known to be medicinal to the indigenous tribes in Peninsular Malaysia. Information is compiled from various sources. Current trends on studies of medicinal plants of the indigenous tribes and threats to the sustainability of the plants are also discussed. Focus of future studies on medicinal plants utilized by the indigenous tribes will also be discussed.",signatures:"Pozi Milow, Sorayya Malek and Raznan Mohd. Ramli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53277",authors:[{id:"25628",title:"Dr.",name:"sorayya",surname:"malek",slug:"sorayya-malek",fullName:"sorayya malek"},{id:"193814",title:"Dr.",name:"Pozi",surname:"Milow",slug:"pozi-milow",fullName:"Pozi Milow"},{id:"195926",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd Raznan",surname:"Ramli",slug:"mohd-raznan-ramli",fullName:"Mohd Raznan Ramli"}],corrections:null},{id:"53695",title:"Aromatic Plants from Western Balkans: A Potential Source of Bioactive Natural Compounds",doi:"10.5772/67039",slug:"aromatic-plants-from-western-balkans-a-potential-source-of-bioactive-natural-compounds",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Documentation of traditionally used aromatic and medical plants has been carried out in many European countries over the last several years. Over the last decade, the Western Balkans has become the area of a huge number of ethnobiological field studies. Many of those focused on Balkans ethnobotany are linked to the long and ongoing history of gathering and trading local wild aromatic and medicinal plants from this territory into Western European markets. But only less than a half percent of these have been studied for their chemical composition and medicinal value. The most investigated aromatic species in this area belongs to the few biggest families: Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae and Rosaceae. Medicinal value of plants lies in some chemical substances that produce physiological action on the human body, which leads to positive effect on health. Essential oils are secondary metabolites which are the most examined, as well as various plant extracts. Isolation and identification of the compounds in combination with its biological screening can considerably contribute to plant studies. Also, application of new activities and novel techniques for susceptibility testing provide better knowledge of wild growing medicinal plants as potential sources of biological agents and justified their traditional uses.",signatures:"Ana M. Džamić and Jelena S. Matejić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53695",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53695",authors:[{id:"194026",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Dzamic",slug:"ana-dzamic",fullName:"Ana Dzamic"},{id:"194032",title:"Dr.",name:"Jelena",surname:"Matejic",slug:"jelena-matejic",fullName:"Jelena Matejic"}],corrections:null},{id:"53312",title:"Tahitian Vanilla (Vanilla ×tahitensis): A Vanilla Species with Unique Features",doi:"10.5772/66621",slug:"tahitian-vanilla-vanilla-tahitensis-a-vanilla-species-with-unique-features",totalDownloads:8820,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter reviews the main findings on Tahitian vanilla (Vanilla ×tahitensis) over the last 10 years. It brings new insights into the hybrid origin of V. ×tahitensis and its diversification in French Polynesia. It details then the different analytical methods used to characterize the flavour properties and the aroma impact compounds of Tahitian vanilla, with a special emphasis on how they can be used to differentiate Tahitian vanilla from other vanillas. Finally, the effect of the curing process on the chemical composition and the sensory properties is discussed. These results highlight the need to include some of the key volatile compounds into a more adapted quality control, in order to describe the characteristic sensory properties of Tahitian vanilla but also those from other origins.",signatures:"Christel Brunschwig, François-Xavier Collard, Sandra Lepers-\nAndrzejewski and Phila Raharivelomanana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53312",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53312",authors:[{id:"193993",title:"Dr.",name:"Christel",surname:"Brunschwig",slug:"christel-brunschwig",fullName:"Christel Brunschwig"},{id:"194035",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Lepers-Andrzejewski",slug:"sandra-lepers-andrzejewski",fullName:"Sandra Lepers-Andrzejewski"},{id:"194036",title:"Dr.",name:"Francois-Xavier",surname:"Collard",slug:"francois-xavier-collard",fullName:"Francois-Xavier Collard"},{id:"194037",title:"Prof.",name:"Phila",surname:"Raharivelomanana",slug:"phila-raharivelomanana",fullName:"Phila Raharivelomanana"}],corrections:null},{id:"53480",title:"Evaluation of Genetic Diversity in Chlorophytum borivilianum (Santp. and Fernan.) Using Molecular Markers: An Endangered Medicinal Plant",doi:"10.5772/66536",slug:"evaluation-of-genetic-diversity-in-chlorophytum-borivilianum-santp-and-fernan-using-molecular-marker",totalDownloads:2050,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chlorophytum borivilianum is a traditional medicinal plant distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics. In the present investigation, RAPD and ISSR analyses were used to assess the genetic diversity among 21 accessions collected from different geographical regions of India using 20 RAPD primers and 6 ISSR primers. RAPD and ISSR primers revealed 92.26% and 82.76% polymorphism, respectively. Similarity in coefficient values ranged from 0.321 to 0.707 for RAPD and 0.363 to 0.846 for ISSR markers. The dendrogram developed by RAPD and ISSR marker‐based analysis grouped the 21 accessions into different clusters. Mantel test employed for detection of goodness of fit established the cophenetic correlation value for both the primer systems and it was observed to be significant. Clustering of accessions within groups was also similar based on RAPD‐ and ISSR‐derived dendrograms. In our study, both marker systems were similar except for the percentage polymorphism which was found to be greater using RAPD, thus indicating the greater effectiveness of RAPD primers for estimating genetic variation of C. borivilianum.",signatures:"Sanghamitra Samantaray and Umakanta Ngangkham",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53480",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53480",authors:[{id:"194074",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanghamitra",surname:"Samantaray",slug:"sanghamitra-samantaray",fullName:"Sanghamitra Samantaray"},{id:"196047",title:"Dr.",name:"Umakanta",surname:"Ngangkham",slug:"umakanta-ngangkham",fullName:"Umakanta Ngangkham"}],corrections:null},{id:"53145",title:"Investigation of Campomanesia Components: A Fruit of Brazilian Cerrado",doi:"10.5772/66220",slug:"investigation-of-campomanesia-components-a-fruit-of-brazilian-cerrado",totalDownloads:1945,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A survey of chemical composition of the fruit of Campomanesia adamantium used by rural and urban inhabitants of the cities of the Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil, was carried out by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) aiming at the detection of minerals. Fifteen minerals were detected in the peel, pulp, and seeds of plant. The concentrations of elements K, Ca, Na, and P are found to be present at the major level in peel, pulp, and seeds of fruit. The zinc concentration is very low compared to other detected elements. The levels of some chemical elements in the fruit do not exceed the limits established by international legislation. Animal studies should be performed. The knowledge of the chemical elements in plants has economic interest, and involves global health problem.",signatures:"Nayara Vieira de Lima, Daniela Granja Arakaki, Paula F. Saldanha\nTschinkel, Anderson Fernandes da Silva, Rita de Cássia Avellaneda\nGuimarães, Priscila Aiko Hiane and Valter Aragão do Nascimento",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53145",authors:[{id:"193805",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita De Cássia",surname:"Avellaneda Guimarães",slug:"rita-de-cassia-avellaneda-guimaraes",fullName:"Rita De Cássia Avellaneda Guimarães"},{id:"195948",title:"MSc.",name:"Nayara",surname:"Vieira De Lima",slug:"nayara-vieira-de-lima",fullName:"Nayara Vieira De Lima"},{id:"195949",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Granja Arakaki",slug:"daniela-granja-arakaki",fullName:"Daniela Granja Arakaki"},{id:"195950",title:"MSc.",name:"Paula Fabiana",surname:"Saldanha Tschinkel",slug:"paula-fabiana-saldanha-tschinkel",fullName:"Paula Fabiana Saldanha Tschinkel"},{id:"195951",title:"MSc.",name:"Anderson",surname:"Fernandes Da Silva",slug:"anderson-fernandes-da-silva",fullName:"Anderson Fernandes Da Silva"},{id:"195952",title:"Dr.",name:"Priscila Aiko",surname:"Hiane",slug:"priscila-aiko-hiane",fullName:"Priscila Aiko Hiane"},{id:"195953",title:"Dr.",name:"Valter",surname:"Aragão Do Nascimento",slug:"valter-aragao-do-nascimento",fullName:"Valter Aragão Do Nascimento"}],corrections:null},{id:"53291",title:"Aromatherapeutic Textiles",doi:"10.5772/66510",slug:"aromatherapeutic-textiles",totalDownloads:2925,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Only innovative products will be sustainable to open up new markets and new horizons for textile industry. As a response to consumer demand, in recent years textile manufacturers are demonstrating increasing interest in added value products by getting the insect repellents, cosmetics, antimicrobials, phase-change materials, fire retardants, counterfeiting, polychromic and thermochromic effects. Aromatherapy application in textile industry led to a series of value-added products that give besides comfort a number of other properties (anti-acne, antimicrobial, fragrance, anti-inflammatory sedation, or soothing properties). In recent years, aromatherapeutic textiles were applied in many fields such as food, cosmetics, medicine, tobacco, textiles, leather, papermaking and pharmaceutical industries. The purpose of this chapter was to present the essential oils used in textile finishing, textile supports used for aroma finishing, embedding methods and the controlled release of essential oils.",signatures:"Angela Cerempei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53291",authors:[{id:"193622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Angela",surname:"Cerempei",slug:"angela-cerempei",fullName:"Angela Cerempei"}],corrections:null},{id:"53463",title:"Thymus Plants: A Review—Micropropagation, Molecular and Antifungal Activity",doi:"10.5772/66623",slug:"thymus-plants-a-review-micropropagation-molecular-and-antifungal-activity",totalDownloads:2462,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Medicinal and aromatic plants are important sources for plant secondary metabolites. The genetic manipulation of plants associated with in vitro plant regeneration systems facilitates efforts to engineer secondary product metabolic pathways. The fungal infections have been increasing in recent years due to several factors, namely, the increased incidence of high-risk patients, particularly immunocompromised hosts. Aromatic plants have been empirically used as antimicrobial agents, but the mechanisms of action are still unknown. Thyme has a great interest due to the possibility of its use in different applications, in medicine, in the cosmetic industry, or as food additives. Several studies have shown that thyme oils possess antimicrobial activity. Increasingly, plant breeding has taken advantage of molecular biology developments in order to genotype the species of interest to accelerate their selection. These approaches consist in choosing desired genotypes based on molecular markers or the knowledge of the genes involved in a particular trait. The in vitro culture techniques can be used to multiply plants selected after molecular and antifungal studies. The course of the investigation and the current state in relation to micropropagation, molecular studies, and antifungal action of the Thymus genus plants will be presented.",signatures:"Fernanda Leal, Meriem Taghouti, Fernando Nunes, Amélia Silva,\nAna Cláudia Coelho and Manuela Matos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53463",authors:[{id:"66270",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Leal",slug:"fernanda-leal",fullName:"Fernanda Leal"}],corrections:null},{id:"53245",title:"Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer × Panax quinquefolius L. Leaves and Parental Lines",doi:"10.5772/66511",slug:"comparative-proteomic-analysis-of-panax-ginseng-c-a-meyer-panax-quinquefolius-l-leaves-and-parental-",totalDownloads:1561,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Heterosis refers to the superior performance of heterozygous F1 hybrid plants with respect to those of their genetically distinct parents. Despite its wide use in crops, heterosis is seldom applied in the Panax genus, and its molecular basis remains unclear. Thus, this study is aimed to obtain hybrid F1s and identify the proteins associated with heterosis. Hybrid F1 plants and parental inbred lines were obtained using the embryo rescue technique, and the proteomes of their leaves were analyzed using two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis. A total of 236 differentially expressed proteins were found, among which 84 nonadditive proteins indicated a heterosis pattern in the hybrid. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis revealed that photosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and protein and amino acid synthesis were the most abundant classes of nonadditive proteins. Of the proteins in these categories, 10, 6, and 4 proteins, respectively, showed above high parent expression in the hybrid leaves. These results imply that the increment in photosynthetic capacity, carbohydrate decomposition, and nitrogen fixation might be related to the heterosis of the hybrid biomass and ginsenoside production in the hybrid leaves. This study could provide a basis for hybrid breeding of the Panax genus.",signatures:"Xiujuan Lei, Zhiqing Wang, Juan Song, Shao Liang, Lina Yao,\nZhifang Hou and Yingping Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53245",authors:[{id:"193552",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Xiujuan",surname:"Lei",slug:"xiujuan-lei",fullName:"Xiujuan Lei"},{id:"195965",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhiqing",surname:"Wang",slug:"zhiqing-wang",fullName:"Zhiqing Wang"},{id:"195966",title:"Ms.",name:"Juan",surname:"Song",slug:"juan-song",fullName:"Juan Song"},{id:"195967",title:"Mr.",name:"Shao",surname:"Liang",slug:"shao-liang",fullName:"Shao Liang"},{id:"195968",title:"Mr.",name:"Lina",surname:"Yao",slug:"lina-yao",fullName:"Lina Yao"},{id:"195969",title:"Ms.",name:"Zhifang",surname:"Hou",slug:"zhifang-hou",fullName:"Zhifang Hou"},{id:"195970",title:"Prof.",name:"Yingping",surname:"Wang",slug:"yingping-wang",fullName:"Yingping Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"52942",title:"Combinations of Extracts of Propolis and Other Compounds Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/66219",slug:"combinations-of-extracts-of-propolis-and-other-compounds-against-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcu",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is a microorganism of great health risk because of its high resistance to antibiotics. Methicillin-resistant strains (MRSA) are most at risk, especially in hospital patients and children. In recent years, it has been shown that a combination therapy of two or more drugs is more effective than monotherapy traditional. Furthermore, it has also been seen that many natural substances and plant extracts can inhibit the MRSA growth and other microorganisms. However, little has been studied about the combinations of different extracts or extracts combination with other commonly used drugs. The purpose of this work was to evaluate of extracts of propolis with garlic, oregano and ciprofloxacin to inhibit growth of MRSA strains, using isobolographic method. The results showed that combinations of garlic with propolis inhibit the growth of MRSA, but only in small concentrations. High concentrations of these two extracts appear to have an antagonistic effect. Combinations of propolis and oregano show a synergistic effect at any concentration. Finally, the combination of propolis with ciprofloxacin has an antagonistic effect. The action of ciprofloxacin is decreased when was combined with propolis. Health professionals should know this to warn patients when they use a natural resource, especially if a drug is being administered.",signatures:"Eduardo Lozano Guzmán and Francisco Javier Moreno Cruz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52942",authors:[{id:"193472",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Lozano",slug:"eduardo-lozano",fullName:"Eduardo Lozano"}],corrections:null},{id:"52636",title:"Olea europaea subsp. africana (Oleaceae)",doi:"10.5772/65725",slug:"olea-europaea-subsp-africana-oleaceae-",totalDownloads:2485,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Background: Medicinal plants have been used as a key source for medication and they remain to provide new therapeutic remedies to date. Extracts of Olea europaea subsp. africana Oleaceae (leaf, bark and root) are used extensively in Africa to treat various diseases traditionally. Phytochemistry has identified phenols, terpenoids and coumarins in different parts of the plant. However, little pharmacological studies have been done on Olea europaea subsp. africana. The present review aims to compile available information on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Olea africana.",signatures:"Nontokozo Z. Msomi and Mthokozisi. B. C Simelane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52636",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52636",authors:[{id:"193091",title:"Dr.",name:"Mthokozisi",surname:"Simelane",slug:"mthokozisi-simelane",fullName:"Mthokozisi Simelane"},{id:"195504",title:"Ms.",name:"Nontokozo",surname:"Msomi",slug:"nontokozo-msomi",fullName:"Nontokozo Msomi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53045",title:"Chemical Structure, Quality Indices and Bioactivity of Essential Oil Constituents",doi:"10.5772/66231",slug:"chemical-structure-quality-indices-and-bioactivity-of-essential-oil-constituents",totalDownloads:4385,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:27,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Essential oil (EO) is a mixture of low molecular weight constituents that are responsible for its characteristic aroma. These constituents include terpenoid and non‐terpenoid hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives. This chapter focuses on the heterogeneous composition of the essential oils. It discusses the usage of essential oil constituents as a key marker of the oil quality, freshness and unique characteristics. It describes the biological activity and synergistic effect of the essential oil constituents as antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer agents.",signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53045",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53045",authors:[{id:"193168",title:"Prof.",name:"Nashwa",surname:"Morsy",slug:"nashwa-morsy",fullName:"Nashwa Morsy"}],corrections:null},{id:"53418",title:"Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.): An Important Medicinal and Aromatic Crop",doi:"10.5772/66506",slug:"fenugreek-trigonella-foenum-graecum-l-an-important-medicinal-and-aromatic-crop",totalDownloads:3556,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an annual forage legume and a traditional spice and aromatic crop that has been grown for centuries across the Indian subcontinent. In addition to South Asia, the crop is also grown in some parts of North Africa, Middle East, Mediterranean Europe, China, South East (SE) Asia, Australia, the USA, Argentina and Canada. The plant has been used traditionally in Indian Ayurvedic medicines as well as in traditional Tibetan and Chinese medication for several centuries. Modern research has also demonstrated that fenugreek seed and leaves are useful in the treatment of a number of diseases including successfully reducing blood sugar and blood cholesterol levels in both animals and humans. The plant has recently attracted great interest in the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and functional food industries due to its rich medicinal properties.",signatures:"Peiman Zandi, Saikat Kumar Basu, William Cetzal-Ix, Mojtaba\nKordrostami, Shahram Khademi Chalaras and Leila Bazrkar Khatibai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53418",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53418",authors:[{id:"193070",title:"Dr.",name:"Peiman",surname:"Zandi",slug:"peiman-zandi",fullName:"Peiman Zandi"},{id:"196977",title:"Dr.",name:"Saikat",surname:"Kumar Basu",slug:"saikat-kumar-basu",fullName:"Saikat Kumar Basu"},{id:"196978",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Cetzal-Ix",slug:"william-cetzal-ix",fullName:"William Cetzal-Ix"},{id:"196979",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",surname:"Kordrostami",slug:"mojtaba-kordrostami",fullName:"Mojtaba Kordrostami"},{id:"196980",title:"MSc.",name:"Shahram",surname:"Khademi Chalaras",slug:"shahram-khademi-chalaras",fullName:"Shahram Khademi Chalaras"},{id:"196981",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",surname:"Bazrkar Khatibai",slug:"leila-bazrkar-khatibai",fullName:"Leila Bazrkar Khatibai"}],corrections:null},{id:"53379",title:"Oregano Essential Oil in Animal Production",doi:"10.5772/66703",slug:"oregano-essential-oil-in-animal-production",totalDownloads:2472,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There is an increasing interest in the use of natural additives in food production such as the use of phytogenic feed additives especially for use in swine and poultry. Essential oils are a natural alternative that can be used in animal feed due to their potential health benefits, improved performance and meat production. Oregano essential oil minimises meat downgrading due to transport stress or the modification of the ruminal microorganisms. This review suggested a promising development of food natural preservative against spoilage microorganisms in food systems by the use of oregano essential oil. The addition of oregano essential oil is a good way of preserving meat and could replace the synthetic antioxidants. Moreover, oregano oil and modified atmosphere packaging exhibit an additive preservation effect in fresh meat. Oregano essential oil is effective for controlling the growth of microorganisms. However, for meat quality, special attention should be put on the optimal oregano essential oil dose and meat handling to control or improve the physical, chemical and sensory properties of meat.",signatures:"Alma Delia Alarcon-Rojo, Hector Janacua-Vidales and Ana Renteria-\nMonterrubio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53379",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53379",authors:[{id:"114470",title:"Dr.",name:"Alma D.",surname:"Alarcon-Rojo",slug:"alma-d.-alarcon-rojo",fullName:"Alma D. 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The use of vegetal substances with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to increase the shelf life in meat and meat products is a promising technology. Taking into account that the diet with antioxidant may be absorbed and prevent lipid oxidation and colour deterioration, the possibility of feeding animal diets contains aromatic and medicinal plant (as thyme leaf, rosemary and sage) as natural antioxidants and antimicrobials represent a very interesting opportunity to replace synthetic antioxidants. In this sense, herbs of the Labiatae family, such as rosemary and sage, have been extensively studied for antioxidant and antimicrobial activities in a variety of systems. This review gives an overview of the current knowledge and recent trends in the use of plant-derived compounds from aromatic and medicinal as antimicrobials and antioxidant in animal diet and its effect on meat quality, their potentials and challenges.",signatures:"Gema Nieto and Gaspar Ros",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53685",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53685",authors:[{id:"141016",title:"Dr.",name:"Gema",surname:"Nieto",slug:"gema-nieto",fullName:"Gema Nieto"},{id:"141332",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaspar",surname:"Ros",slug:"gaspar-ros",fullName:"Gaspar Ros"}],corrections:null},{id:"53633",title:"Vanillin and Its Detection in Air",doi:"10.5772/66737",slug:"vanillin-and-its-detection-in-air",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vanillin (4‐hydroxy‐3‐methoxybenzaldehyde) is an important flavor and aroma molecule, which has been widely used in not only foods and beverages such as chocolate and dairy products, but also masking unpleasant tastes in medicines or livestock fodder. Its chemical properties, manufacturing methods, novel applications, and developments in fast detections in air are discussed in detail.",signatures:"Saaya Minematsu and Xing-Zheng Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53633",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53633",authors:[{id:"193397",title:"Prof.",name:"Xing-Zheng",surname:"Wu",slug:"xing-zheng-wu",fullName:"Xing-Zheng Wu"},{id:"196370",title:"Ms.",name:"Saaya",surname:"Minematsu",slug:"saaya-minematsu",fullName:"Saaya Minematsu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"497",title:"Soybean and Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11aa0c9ed0f6ea8da765be93b50954bb",slug:"soybean-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Hany El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"496",title:"Soybean and Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"66d40dbc031b2825ba95f7ac2bfae1b6",slug:"soybean-and-health",bookSignature:"Hany El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/496.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"495",title:"Soybean",subtitle:"Physiology and Biochemistry",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"09e5f0af30214d460498f8d770e985cf",slug:"soybean-physiology-and-biochemistry",bookSignature:"Hany A. 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The first Portuguese Landscape Architect, Francisco Caldeira Cabral, reflected on how nature conservation should not be seen from a museology perspective, where Man is external to the object of protection. He defended that every person is an integral part of nature conservation by actively participating in protecting natural resources and constructing the landscape.
Since our existence, humankind has established interactive and empirical relationships with the Landscape [2], searching for defensive systems at higher elevations and safeguarding the fertile valleys as food producers essential for survival. But the interaction between Man and the ecosystems is bidirectional, where an action of Man on a particular ecosystem will imply a reaction and an adaptation of the ecosystem [3].
Landscape and land-use planning are intended to plan human interventions that maintain or promote the landscape’s dynamic stability. The stability of the landscape is associated with slow landscape evolutions (pedogenesis), while instability is characterized by rapid changes (morphogenesis) [4]. The balance between morphogenetic and pedogenetic processes is a natural process of the landscape, which can be intensified towards instability by an incorrect action in the territory. The planning of human intervention in the territory in harmony with ecological systems has resulted in preserving natural resources and nature conservation.
The understanding of the functioning of natural systems, or ecosystems, as a support for decision making [5] emerged after the foundation of ecology as a science, in the mid-nineteenth century, by Ernest Haeckel. The evolution of knowledge about the ecological processes in a given territory allowed the development of ecology-based landscape planning methodologies.
Following the Convention on Biological Diversity [6], one of the decisions taken at the fifth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity [7] was that biodiversity conservation objectives could only be achieved through an ecological-based approach:
Ecological-based methodologies start from the knowledge and spatialization of natural processes that occur in a given territory [8]. With this approach, the most significant areas for ecosystem functioning are identified in the landscape, with various potentialities, and actions are planned without compromising the stability and balance of the landscape. This approach is related to the concept of ecological suitability to the various human activities that do not compromise the proper functioning of ecological processes [9].
The concept of ecological suitability was used in the United States of America and the United Kingdom, using the manual overlay of transparent supports, whose methodologies were refined throughout the 1960s [10]. Other landscape architects followed, such as the work done by Philip Lewis, in 1964, to classify all the environmental resources of the State of Wisconsin, with the purpose of delimiting the areas where building should not be done [11]. The concept of ecological suitability was also considered in McHarg’s [12] and Steiner [13] methodologies with the study of environmental processes and cultural integration in the choice of the best use, according to the intrinsic characteristics of the systems. In Portugal, contemporary with McHarg’s methodology, the Algarve Plan was completed by landscape architects A. Barreto, A. Castelo-Branco and A. Dentinho, with methodologies based on ecological suitability of the Landscape [11].
The adequate planning of the landscape, according to the ecological processes that occur in it, impacts not only the ecological balance but also on the economic and social balance. This type of intervention has the ability, in a cost–benefit analysis, to be the best way to prevent future costs arising from natural disasters (flood prevention, fire risk reduction, mass movement), maintain water quality, ensure greater agricultural productivity, and contribute to the enhancement of urban areas [14]. Of this last point, the study done [15] in the case study of Cologne (Germany) concluded that increasing urban parks by 1%, about 500 meters from housing, leads to the growth of housing sales prices by 0.1%. With a priori protection of natural resources, engineering solutions are less, and the cost is lower [14].
The economic valuation of ecosystems was developed with the emergence of the ecosystem services concept [16] and spread at the beginning of the 21st century with the publications of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Different local scientific and political communities started raising awareness of the importance and benefits of ecosystem services. Several initiatives and methodologies have emerged to quantify these services in monetary value. However, there are sometimes limitations in quantifying an ecosystem service [17].
Ecological-based planning has the added advantage of helping to increase the number or quality of services provided by ecosystems. Inherent in the concept of ecological-based planning is the continuity and ecological network [18]. In fact, landscape connectivity is a component of landscape structure that facilitates or impedes the flows of natural cycles [19]. Those authors believe that it is more critical to establish connectivity than the proximity of areas studied in “island biogeography” [20].
Like nature conservation, the ecological continuity of ecosystems is a broad concept that involves the need to promote continuity between plant and animal species and that of all ecological cycles: water, nutrients, carbon, etc. For this, the planning of these continuities (ecological structures or networks) cannot be disconnected from the function and its “congruent form”, as defined by the landscape architect Francisco Caldeira Cabral [1]. The land-use planning approach advocated, plans the landscape from a biophysical and not only biological perspective [11, 21], where the continuous structures of the landscape are identified and planned according to their function and coherent form.
The importance of connecting nature protection areas, establishing a network or infrastructure has been reinforced [22]. According to this publication, this type of infrastructure, designated by green infrastructure, can mitigate fragmentation and promote the various benefits of maintaining and restoring ecosystems and their services, not only inside Natura 2000 areas.
However, as mentioned above, nature conservation should be understood as a comprehensive and integrative concept of Man and ecological processes, not limited to classified areas (RAMSAR Areas, Biogenetic Reserves, Natura 2000 Network, etc.). Nature conservation will emerge from the correct occupation and use of the Landscape by Man, both in terms of building, forest, woodland and/or agriculture. Therefore, the incorporation of ecological processes in the nature conservation strategy is necessary [23], not forgetting that: (1) ecosystems are spatially and temporally dynamic; (2) ecosystem components interact with each other contributing to biodiversity; (3) ecological processes act as species-selective forces; (4) in highly modified sites ecosystem restoration is a conservation priority.
The concept of structure in landscape architecture is necessarily related to spatialization. In this structure, relationships between ecosystems or elements are expressed [24]. The structure integrates the landscape system’s objective and subjective components, articulating significant features that relate to each other [11]. Infrastructure is a structure that serves as the base for something to be developed. Thus, when we refer to green infrastructure, we are talking about a planned network of structural spaces rather than a network of spaces disconnected from the biophysical structure of the territory. The concept of green infrastructure is broad and varied, but it is considered the one summarized by Naumann [25], whose definition is frequently used:
Green infrastructure planning involves an assessment of the types of natural and cultural resources available and a prioritization of the resources most important to present and future needs [14]. Therefore, a green infrastructure strategy includes the process of identifying, assessing, and prioritizing areas that are critical to preserving a healthy community. In addition to prioritizing areas, there is also a need to implement actions to ensure their conservation [14]. Mapping natural resources are thus the first step in building a green infrastructure map to inform which areas need conservation actions and which need restoration actions.
The European Biodiversity Strategy for 2020 [26] highlighted the importance of using green infrastructures in landscape planning since it can ensure the “best functional connectivity between ecosystems within and between Natura 2000 areas and in the wider countryside” ([27]: 6). The indication in a European document of the importance of ensuring functional connectivity between ecosystems, even outside protected areas, through landscape planning was a crucial step towards elevating nature conservation to a more comprehensive status than protecting particular species. Recently, the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 [28], as a core part of the European Green Deal, defines an action plan towards protecting nature and reversing the degradation of ecosystems.
Green infrastructure is also a tool to achieve economic and social benefits through natural solutions. This concept of natural solutions (or nature-based solutions) was further developed by the working groups of the European Commission [27] as a solution inspired, supported or copied from nature. The green infrastructure strategy itself states that “Green infrastructure can make a significant contribution to the effective implementation of all policies where some or all of the desired objectives can be achieved in whole or in part through nature-based solutions.” ([29]: 3).
The scientific community widely refers to ecosystem services as benefits that a population acquires, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions [16]. Ecosystem services result from flows of materials, energy, and information from natural capital stocks capable of producing human well-being [16]. Their monetary quantification [30], with specific units [31] or measured through indicators [32] as well as a qualitative assessment [33] has been addressed in the last decades.
These services were categorized into several typologies by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [34]: supporting (services required to produce all other ecosystem services); provisioning (products obtained from ecosystems); regulating (benefits obtained through the regulation of ecosystem processes); and cultural (non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems). The landscape is intended to be one where ecosystem services are provided in balance with the physical structure that supports them, so the various actors dealing with land-use planning must understand the support structure of the landscape.
To contribute to a consistent definition of ecosystem services, Fisher [35] introduces the importance of ecosystems’ structure and their processes and functions. In this approach, ecosystem services are characteristics of ecosystems used directly or indirectly by humans to produce well-being. Accordingly, ecosystem structure is itself a service because it provides a platform for ecosystem processes. Related to this idea, the same authors say that the configuration of ecosystem structure and processes is necessary for the healthy functioning of ecosystems and their services, relating them to the concept of (green) infrastructure. The spatial characteristics of ecosystems are also a way to classify their services, so it will be important in planning to know what services are available and how they flow through the landscape. In this way, it is important to understand the relationships between the production of the service and the place where the benefit occurs, recognizing the dynamic characteristics of ecosystems. In this regard, [35] propose a system for classifying ecosystem services into three categories: (1) in situ (services produced and benefits provided occur at the same location); (2) Omni-directional (where services are provided at a single location, but the benefit occurs in the landscape surrounding the service production with no defined direction); (3) directional - where service provision benefits from a specific location due to the direction of flow.
The Ecosystem services were also an integral part of the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2020 [26]. According to this strategy, ecosystems and their services would be maintained and enhanced by creating green infrastructure and restoring at least 15% of degraded ecosystems. Ecosystem services were then identified through indicators associated with each ecosystem, assessed according to the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services [36]. The European methodologies followed for mapping ecosystems [36] use the interpretation of different land use and land cover classes and relate them to the European Habitat Classification (EUNIS). As a result, the analysis of ecosystem services while assessing land-use mapped ecosystems tends to present itself transformed into an “in situ” category, in the sense of [36], where the production of the service and the benefit are located in the same place. Another consequence of a methodology based on current land use mapping is to assess the use and service regardless of whether it is in an area of greater ecological suitability. Such is the example of forests that are all converted into ecosystems capable of producing the same services regardless of the type of forest species. This is an incorrect approach since it is well known that different forest trees or stands provide different ecosystem services. In Portugal, this is very relevant since most of the forest stands are not native (maritime pine, eucalyptus) providing poorer ecosystem services when compared with native stands (oak).
It is essential to consider that the landscape has different capabilities to provide specific ecosystem services [33], being of a more profound complexity than just an assessment by current land use. The structure of the ecosystem assumes a vital role in supporting the very functioning of the ecosystem. Interestingly, authors such as Burkhard [33] consider that the typology of supporting ecosystem services (defined in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), is understood as those that ensure ecological integrity. However, supporting services are considered difficult to map [37], and it is considered that the link between supporting services and human well-being occurs indirectly [34]. Therefore, supporting services have received much less attention among four types of ecosystem services. Despite European recommendations to map ecosystems and their services, recent publications have failed to include supporting services [38].
In this sense, it is considered that by mapping green infrastructure, the supportive services are provided in conjunction with other ecosystem services. Incorporating structural components of ecosystems also allows for a complete approach to mapping ecosystems and their services by encompassing the various relationships between the area of production of the service and the site of benefit from that service.
Including ecosystem services in landscape planning will need to go through defining the goal of achieving multiple ecosystem services [39]. However, the function of an ecosystem must be ensured in planning regardless of the benefit it may provide [40]. Maximizing one ecosystem service may jeopardize the balance of all other ecosystem services, as exemplified by Dosskey [39] in the US Green Belt region, where agricultural productivity was put as a priority at the expense of water quality and wildlife. It should be desirable for public policy to seek a degree of multifunctionality across cultural landscapes and to achieve the greatest degree of multifunctionality in green infrastructure [40]. The same author considers that monofunctional landscapes will require greater inputs to continue to provide values and functions and are likely to become unsustainable and require restoration.
Ecosystems are naturally multifunctional, making available services determined by landscape structure [39]. Modifying landscape structure can rebalance the services available. Thus, the landscape planning process will need to include an understanding of the current functioning of the landscape and an assessment of whether changing the landscape structure can affect the ecological functions and services provided [39]. Ecologically based planning aims to define the best use which implicitly includes the best use of natural resources without compromising their existence and their stability in the system [41]. This applies both to landscapes dominated by native vegetation, forming a dense woodland, and to agricultural or production forest areas properly integrated into the landscape and its structure with good management practices and appropriate design.
Ecosystem restoration is often focused on the recovery of a particular plant or animal community, often appearing related to landscape fragmentation [42]. The restoration of an ecosystem, which is itself a complex system, will involve the recovery of the ecological functions of the system. The functions that are easily altered by the degradation of an ecosystem are soil structure, nutrient flow, and water cycling [43]. The restoration of an ecosystem will mainly involve the recovery of the lost functions, because this loss has also contributed to its own degradation:
The ecosystem restoration will involve the recovery of its ecological integrity. The integrity of an ecosystem includes the integrity of the system’s structure and function, the maintenance of its components and its dynamic interactions [44]. From this perspective, any loss of system components leads to a loss of system integrity. According to Forman [45] and Thorn [46] a system with ecological integrity exhibits natural conditions of productivity, biodiversity, soil and water conservation, which are the goal of any sustainable environment [47]. The integrity of an ecosystem includes an adequacy of uses to the ecological characteristics of the system, meeting the dynamic stability of the landscape, making it resilient.
Ecosystem restoration is defined by the Society for Ecological Restoration as the process of supporting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed [48]. These last three states can be equated to various states of morphogenesis, where an imbalance of landscape stability occurs. A morphogenesis ecosystem can be at different levels of imbalance from degradation to complete destruction. When ecosystems are being overexploited or degraded the health of the ecosystem goes into decline as well as its integrity and resilience [49]. This state of decline can be reversed with recovery actions, which in turn lead to ecosystem rebalance in Tricart’s [3] interpretation of dynamic equilibrium. An ecosystem in equilibrium provides a greater number or a higher quality of services.
A Landscape-scale ecosystem restoration involves restoring a set of ecosystems to recover natural and cultural values and ecosystem service flows [49]. Hobbs [50] argues that the recovery of ecosystems should not focus on replicating the conditions prior to disturbance, but should be managed in a future perspective, not forgetting that the landscape is temporally and spatially dynamic. Besides, there are two types of recovery [51]: one in which the goal is the recovery of biotic continuity, and another, corresponding to more severe situations of degradation, will involve the physical recovery of the ecosystem. An example of the latter is the case of the obstruction of a river, where the goal will be to recreate the continuity of water flow. According to those authors, there are thus two thresholds that, if crossed, imply different interventions, the biotic threshold, and the abiotic threshold. The least severe situation of degradation of an ecosystem will thus imply changes in land use.
The ecosystem restoration can integrate cultural values, for example, an agricultural area located on productive soils and with good management practices (including compartmentalization hedges, contour farming) contributes to increased productivity, biodiversity, and soil and water conservation. Designing green infrastructure with planned land uses, consistent with its different ecological characteristics, guarantee the ecosystem’s integrity and allow it to assess restoration needs.
The absence of an ecological-based landscape and land-use plan can have severe consequences in the increase of soil degradation and floods, decrease of biodiversity, and increased fire risk. This landscape degradation is present in several areas of Portugal. Also, a consequence of the set of policies followed since the beginning of the 20th century. In the 1930s, Portugal went through a wheat campaign that destroyed the fertility of the soil. Later, the monoculture campaigns of maritime pine and eucalyptus continue the degradation of the soil and the destruction of the landscape, which we still see happening, especially in the north of the Tagus river, in the Centre and North regions.
The Centre Region (Figure 1) corresponds to a Statistical Territorial Unit (NUT) and comprises about 2,819,936 hectares. This region includes different landscape typologies, such as the southwest western zone with fruit productivity, the coastal zone with low and high coastlines, and an inland zone dominated by maritime pine and eucalyptus in formations of schist and granite. This area is characterized by a rugged relief in the most central location, such as Serra da Estrela, where Rio Mondego begins, the Serra da Lousã and the Serra do Açor. The Natura 2000 network includes 21 Special Areas of Conservation.
Location of the Centre region in Portugal.
In an evaluation of land use from the 1990s to the present, it was possible to understand the evolution of the different land uses (Figure 2 and Table 1). This analysis was done with the interpretation and reclassification of the Land-Use and Land Cover maps produced by DGT (1995, 2007, 2010, 2018) [52]. In this period of 24 years, there is an oscillation of maritime pine, which tends to stabilize at 22%. The percentage of eucalyptus in the central zone has increased since 1995, from 9.7% of the total area, to 17% in 2018, i.e., it has practically doubled. On the other hand, the area occupied by agriculture has decreased since 1995. Native species include cork oak, holm oak, other oaks and also chestnut stands (archaeophyte), and oscillate between the years analyzed, with occupations between 6 and 9%.
Evolution of the main land use classes in the Centre region, between 1995 and 2018 (data base: DGT, land use and land cover map).
Main Land Uses in Centre Region | % in 1995 | Variation | % in 2007 | Variation | % in 2010 | Variation | % in 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maritime pine | 26,7% | ↘ | 20,0% | ↗ | 22,5% | ↘↔ | 22,3% |
Eucalyptus | 9,7% | ↗ | 10,9% | ↗ | 13,5% | ↗ | 17,2% |
Schrubland | 11,7% | ↗ | 16,4% | ↘ | 12,3% | ↗ | 13,3% |
Agriculture | 31,3% | ↘ | 25,5% | ↘ | 26,2% | ↘ | 23,3% |
Native | 7,6% | ↘ | 5,8% | ↘ | 6,4% | ↗ | 9,3% |
Evolution of the main land uses in the Centre region, between 1995 and 2018.
There is in fact a very serious problem of inappropriate land uses that lead to the destruction of landscapes with negative consequences for those who live there, but also for those who live further away, for example, the impacts derived from water quality. Since the end of the 19th century, the oaks and chestnut trees and the traditional pastures, were replaced, first by maritime pine, which were planted on the community lands (“Baldios”), and then by eucalyptus. Land property fragmentation and, consequently, the landowners’ increase also aggravated the land management problem.
A balanced landscape constituted by agriculture on the best soils, mixed woodland complementing agriculture and all its by-products, pastoralism in articulation with woodland and agriculture, villages, towns, and cities strategically located in situations of greater comfort and proximity to the food and materials produced was replaced by a landscape ecologically degraded, humanely depopulated and which burns extensively and repeatedly.
The policies disconnected from the ecological capacity of the land, led to the current situation of mega-fires, with loss of life and property and land abandonment. Analyzing the centre region in terms of burnet areas, 40% of the region was burned between 1995 and 2017. About 25% of the Centre Region burned once (Table 2), but 11% burned twice (Figure 3). In the megafires from 2017, the Centre Region was the most affected, representing 15% of total region area (416 thousand hectares). It is very urgent to develop adequate land-use plans for the rural areas.
Fire frequency between 1990 and 2017.
The creation of a healthier landscape implies the conservation of natural resources, the creation of a balanced, multifunctional system with landscape recovery using native species. This will lead to creation of different economies, where ecosystem services payment can also take place.
Fire frequency (number of times between 1990 and 2017) | Area (ha) | % |
---|---|---|
1 time burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 698 775 | 24.8 |
2 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 321 099 | 11.4 |
3 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 93 965 | 3.3 |
4 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 16 105 | 0.6 |
5 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 2 882 | 0.1 |
6 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 327 | 0.012 |
7 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 224 | 0.008 |
No burned area between 1990 and 2017 | 1 686 559 | 59.8 |
Fire frequency between 1990 and 2017, area and percentage of case study.
The solutions developed to attain a healthier landscape involve the creation of a multifunctional landscape, with native or archaeophytes species, agriculture, and pastureland. The planned landscape will allow to create businesses, generate employment (landscape recovery companies, native species nurseries, forest management companies, reactivation of native wood business), and unique products (non-wood products, such as flour from oak acorns, chestnut, walnut, honey and mushroom production) capable of attracting nature tourism as well.
This landscape will then provide better ecosystem services, such as water quality, soil conservation, and biodiversity improvement, among others. Together, it will develop a fire resilient landscape, which is the landscape’s capacity to absorb the disturbance caused by rural fires without losing its function, structure, and identity and ultimately weakening fire frequency and intensity or magnitude [53].
The vision for a healthier landscape of the Centre Region was developed by the application of FIRELAN [53], which is an ecologically based model that integrates different principles related to landscape fire resilience and ecological sustainability into a land-use plan, using the river basin as a landscape unit. The FIRELAN pretends to provide a multifunctional landscape (Figure 4) with benefits to the environment, but also developing economies and rural communities.
Ecological and cultural system and land use potential from FIRELAN model.
The different components of the FIRELAN network for the Centre Region are mapped in Figure 5. The FIRELAN network is the main landscape structure with physical, biological, and cultural elements (Table 3). For each component there is a set of adequate land uses that should be promoted. Those land uses are identified in Figure 6 and in Table 4. In the interstices of the FIRELAN network, also called Complementary Areas, the land use possibilities are wider.
FIRELAN network components in the Centre region of Portugal.
Firelan network component | Data Source | ||
---|---|---|---|
Physical System | Areas | Soils with high and very high ecological value | [54, 55, 56] |
Steep slopes (>25%) | [56, 57] | ||
Coastal area | [56, 58] | ||
Wetlands | [53] | ||
Water bodies | [53] | ||
Linear | Ridge line | [56, 57] | |
Hilltops | [56, 57] | ||
Headwater systems | [56, 59] | ||
Streams and Valley bottoms | [56, 57] | ||
Biological System | Areas | Existent vegetation with conservation interest | [52, 56, 60] |
Cultural System | Areas | Settlements | [52] |
Existent agriculture | [52] | ||
Linear | Settlement protection buffer | — | |
Roads | OpenStreetMap© | ||
Roads protection buffer | — | ||
Power infrastructures buffer | [61] |
Components of FIRELAN and sources for the Centre region of Portugal.
Potential land uses in the Centre region of Portugal.
Firelan network components | Potential land uses | Area (ha) | % |
---|---|---|---|
High ecological value soils | Agriculture | 131627 | 4.67 |
High ecological value soils in headwater systems | Agriculture (edges of mixed woods - native/archaeophytes and cupressus trees) | 52733 | 1.87 |
Power infrastructures protection buffer | Agriculture (small fruit forest), meadow or small native shrubs | 5545 | 0.20 |
High ecological value soils in steep slopes | Agriculture or permanent meadow arranged in terraces | 14408 | 0.51 |
Valley bottoms | Agriculture or riparian species | 24395 | 0.87 |
Coastal areas (cliffs, dunes and sand beach) | Coastal native species | 35653 | 1.26 |
Coastal areas (inter-dune depression) | Inter-dune depression native species | 14178 | 0.50 |
Coastal areas (coastal sand plains) | Coastal native species or agriculture | 5147 | 0.18 |
Settlements protection buffer | Meadow, Agriculture, Native species/archaeophytes broadleaved trees | 105883 | 3.76 |
Roads protection buffer | Meadow, Native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees | 27454 | 0.97 |
Headwater systems | Mixed woods (native/archaeophytes and cupressus trees) | 314469 | 11.15 |
Hilltops | Mixed woods (native/archaeophytes and cupressus trees) or permanent meadow | 42221 | 1.50 |
Ridgelines | Native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or permanent meadow | 86392 | 3.06 |
Steep slopes | Native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or shrubs | 248223 | 8.80 |
Existent agriculture | Existent agriculture | 646346 | 22.92 |
Existent vegetation with conservation interest | Existent vegetation with conservation interest | 381180 | 13.52 |
Streams and riparian area | Streams and riparian area | 22309 | 0.79 |
Water bodies | Water bodies | 26709 | 0.95 |
Rocks | Rocks | 3310 | 0.12 |
Road infrastructure | Road infrastructure | 50764 | 1.80 |
Settlements | Settlements | 132965 | 4.72 |
Areas with moderate to low ecological value | Areas with moderate to low ecological value | 447731 | 15.88 |
Potential land uses for the Centre region of Portugal, area and percentage.
The potential land uses plan (Figure 6, Table 4) highlights that:
Native and archaeophytes species (including agroforestry systems), which represent 11% of the study area, can expand into further 31%.
The agriculture can be increased in about 12% of the case study area, in addition to existing agriculture (23%).
Existent vegetation with conservation interest is present in 14% of the Centre region.
Complementary areas (areas with moderate to low ecological value) represent 16% of the study area.
Comparing potential land use and current land use map allows defining a Landscape Transformation Plan with conservation and restoration actions. According to the developed plan (Figure 7, Table 5): 35% of the Centre region should have restoration actions, and 57% should be maintained and conserved. Also, according to the results:
The eucalyptus can be kept in 5% of the case study area, only in complementary areas, and with environmental measures.
The maritime pine can be kept in 6% of the case study area, only in complementary areas, and with environmental measures.
About 0,8% of the case study area should have recovery of the riparian vegetation.
Landscape transformation plan for the Centre region of Portugal.
Landscape Transformation Actions | Area (ha) | % | Area (ha) | % | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Restoration | Areas to be converted into agriculture | 157670 | 5.59 | 980608 | 34.78 |
Areas to be converted into Agriculture (small fruit forest), meadow or small native shrubs under power infrastructures | 4332 | 0.15 | |||
Areas to be converted into agriculture or permanent meadow arranged in terraces | 13938 | 0.49 | |||
Areas to be converted into agriculture or riparian species | 18149 | 0.64 | |||
Areas to be converted into coastal native species | 7840 | 0.28 | |||
Areas to be converted into coastal native species or agriculture | 2786 | 0.10 | |||
Areas to be converted into inter-dune depression native species | 14125 | 0.50 | |||
Areas to be converted into meadow, agriculture, native species/archaeophytes broadleaved trees (settlements) | 96844 | 3.43 | |||
Areas to be converted into meadow, native species/archaeophytes broadleaved trees (roads buffer) | 24944 | 0.88 | |||
Areas to be converted into mixed woods | 314469 | 11.15 | |||
Areas to be converted into mixed woods or permanent meadow | 35461 | 1.26 | |||
Areas to be converted into native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or permanent meadow | 80508 | 2.86 | |||
Areas to be converted into native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or shrubs | 185648 | 6.58 | |||
Areas to be converted into riparian vegetation | 22309 | 0.79 | |||
Areas with invasive species that most be converted into other land uses | 1584 | 0.06 | |||
Conservation | Areas to be maintained and conserved | 1212952 | 43.02 | 1625284 | 57.64 |
Areas with eucalyptus that can be kept with environmental measures | 142909 | 5.07 | |||
Areas with maritime pine that can be kept with environmental measures | 161113 | 5.71 | |||
Areas with other coniferous that can be kept with environmental measures | 3283 | 0.12 | |||
Areas with stone pine that can be kept with environmental measures | 2951 | 0.10 | |||
Maintain or convert depending on the present shrub vegetation | 102077 | 3.62 | |||
— | Road infrastructure | 50764 | 1.80 | — | — |
— | Rocks | 3310 | 0.12 | — | — |
— | Settlements | 132965 | 4.72 | — | — |
— | Water bodies | 26709 | 0.95 | — | — |
Transformation action, area and percentage of Centre region case study.
The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the Ecosystem Restoration decade between 2021 to 2030, aiming to halt the degradation of ecosystems and restore them to achieve healthier landscapes. Landscape Architecture is an interdisciplinary discipline helpful in attaining those goals through planning and design restoration in different contexts and scales, from rural to urban, from inland to coastal. The ecological-based planning methodologies contribute to better landscapes by starting from the knowledge and spatialization of natural processes. As part of an ecological-based planning methodology, working with green infrastructure allows the ecological integrity of the landscape, increasing the number or quality of services provided by the ecosystems and defining restoration actions and locations.
The Centre Region of Portugal has a severe problem of inappropriate land use. Since the end of the 19th century, the oaks and chestnut trees were replaced by maritime pine and eucalyptus. The number of fires and their severity increased, the land is continually degrading, and biodiversity loss increases. Applying an ecologically based landscape plan to prioritize restoration actions at the landscape scale is necessary to reverse this situation. The FIRELAN model was applied to the Centre Region to establish a vision for a healthier landscape. According to the results, 35% of the Centre Region should have restoration actions.
Subsequently, the eucalyptus area must drop from 17% of the Centre Region area to 5%, and the maritime pine from 22–6%. The results also show that agriculture could increase from 23–35% of the Centre Region. In the restoration actions, the native species should be used in more than 24% of the case study, especially in the headwaters systems and streams where mixed woods and riparian galleries should be developed.
The landscape transformation plan contributes to the definition of adequate policies to tackle ecosystem restoration through landscape and land use planning.
This work was supported and financed by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the project SCAPEFIRE PCIF/MOS/0046/2017. This work was also under the research unit Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food Research Centre (LEAF) UID/AGR/04129/2020.
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DDH itself aims to combine the best properties of electric and hydraulic technologies and will lead to increased productivity, minimized energy consumption and higher robust performance in both stationary and mobile machines operating in various environments. In the proposed setup, the speed and position control of a double-acting cylinder is implemented directly with an electric motor drive in a closed-loop system without conventional control valves and an oil tank. The selection of the location of the hydraulic accumulator and connection of the external leakage lines will also be part of this study. Simulations and experimental research to study the details of the hydromechanical and electrical realization of the DDH are performed.",book:{id:"5079",slug:"new-applications-of-electric-drives",title:"New Applications of Electric Drives",fullTitle:"New Applications of Electric Drives"},signatures:"Tatiana A. Minav, Jani E. Heikkinen and Matti Pietola",authors:[{id:"176561",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Minav",slug:"tatiana-minav",fullName:"Tatiana Minav"},{id:"176562",title:"Dr.",name:"Jani",middleName:null,surname:"Heikkinen",slug:"jani-heikkinen",fullName:"Jani Heikkinen"},{id:"176563",title:"Prof.",name:"Matti",middleName:null,surname:"Pietola",slug:"matti-pietola",fullName:"Matti Pietola"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49511",title:"Variable Frequency Drive Applications in HVAC Systems",slug:"variable-frequency-drive-applications-in-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:6616,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Building heating ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems are designed to operate at the peak load, which only occurs in a very short period of time throughout the year. One of the most effective ways to improve building energy efficiency is to utilize the variable frequency drives (VFDs). They are widely used in the HVAC field, including fans, pumps, compressors, etc. In a VFD-equipped system, the VFD adjusts the speed of one or more motors based on the system load requirements and operation schedule, resulting in a dramatic cut in energy consumption.",book:{id:"5079",slug:"new-applications-of-electric-drives",title:"New Applications of Electric Drives",fullTitle:"New Applications of Electric Drives"},signatures:"Yunhua Li",authors:[{id:"176411",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunhua",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"yunhua-li",fullName:"Yunhua Li"}]},{id:"49352",title:"Fault Diagnosis of Switched Reluctance Motors in Electrified Vehicle Applications",slug:"fault-diagnosis-of-switched-reluctance-motors-in-electrified-vehicle-applications",totalDownloads:2897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) can reduce greenhouse gas emissions while switched reluctance motors (SRMs) are one promising motor technology for EVs. This chapter illustrates the fault diagnosis and fault tolerance operation of SRM-based EVs/HEVs, where high reliability is a vital factor involving human lives. Based on the traditional asymmetric half-bridge topology for SRM drives, the characteristics of switching devices upon open-circuit and short-circuit are analyzed, and the corresponding fault diagnosis methods are developed. In order to achieve fault tolerance operation, the central point of SRM stator winding is tapped to form a modular half-bridge configuration to provide fault diagnosis and fault tolerance functions. The fault diagnosis functions are set idle in normal conditions. Simulation results in Matlab/Simulink and experimental results on a 150-W four-phase 8/6 SRM are used to validate the fault identification, and on a 750-W, three-phase 12/8 SRM are used to validate the fault tolerance operation of the proposed strategy, which may have significant implications for EV/HEV applications.",book:{id:"5079",slug:"new-applications-of-electric-drives",title:"New Applications of Electric Drives",fullTitle:"New Applications of Electric Drives"},signatures:"Yihua Hu, Chun Gan, Wenping Cao and Stephen Finney",authors:[{id:"174154",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenping",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"wenping-cao",fullName:"Wenping Cao"}]},{id:"49509",title:"Electric-driven Zonal Hydraulics in Non-Road Mobile Machinery",slug:"electric-driven-zonal-hydraulics-in-non-road-mobile-machinery",totalDownloads:2491,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The goal of this research is to apply direct-driven hydraulics (DDH) to the concept of zonal (i.e., locally and operation-focused) hydraulics, which is an essential step in the hybridization and automation of machines. DDH itself aims to combine the best properties of electric and hydraulic technologies and will lead to increased productivity, minimized energy consumption and higher robust performance in both stationary and mobile machines operating in various environments. In the proposed setup, the speed and position control of a double-acting cylinder is implemented directly with an electric motor drive in a closed-loop system without conventional control valves and an oil tank. The selection of the location of the hydraulic accumulator and connection of the external leakage lines will also be part of this study. Simulations and experimental research to study the details of the hydromechanical and electrical realization of the DDH are performed.",book:{id:"5079",slug:"new-applications-of-electric-drives",title:"New Applications of Electric Drives",fullTitle:"New Applications of Electric Drives"},signatures:"Tatiana A. Minav, Jani E. Heikkinen and Matti Pietola",authors:[{id:"176561",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Minav",slug:"tatiana-minav",fullName:"Tatiana Minav"},{id:"176562",title:"Dr.",name:"Jani",middleName:null,surname:"Heikkinen",slug:"jani-heikkinen",fullName:"Jani Heikkinen"},{id:"176563",title:"Prof.",name:"Matti",middleName:null,surname:"Pietola",slug:"matti-pietola",fullName:"Matti Pietola"}]},{id:"49318",title:"Electric Drives in Alternative Fuel Vehicles — Some New Definitions and Methodologies",slug:"electric-drives-in-alternative-fuel-vehicles-some-new-definitions-and-methodologies",totalDownloads:2786,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter focuses on some new definitions and methodologies of electric drives that are facing new challenges raised by alternative fuel vehicles. It starts with the objectives, fundamentals, and current research issues of alternative fuel vehicles based electric drives, before moving on to new definitions of unified modeling of the entire electric drive system and design of the proposed DC active power filter aimed at energy storage system chaotic current elimination. Next, novel motor control strategies taking into account alternative fuel vehicle operations are presented for improvement of sensorless drive and flux weakening control performance. 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