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Beltran",authors:[null]},{id:"217",title:"Frequency Domain Face Recognition",slug:"frequency_domain_face_recognition",signatures:"Marios Savvides, Ramamurthy Bhagavatula, Yung-hui Li and Ramzi Abiantun",authors:[null]},{id:"218",title:"From Canonical Face to Synthesis - an Illumination Invariant Face Recognition Approach",slug:"from_canonical_face_to_synthesis_-_an_illumination_invariant_face_recognition_approach",signatures:"Tele Tan",authors:[null]},{id:"219",title:"A Feature-Level Fusion of Appearance and Passive Depth Information for Face Recognition",slug:"a_feature-level_fusion_of_appearance_and__passive_depth_information_for_face_recognition_",signatures:"Jian-Gang Wang, Kar Ann Toh, Eric Sung and Wei-Yun Yau",authors:[null]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3120",title:"New Trends and Developments in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"beef3079663a77be4c578d4454065e7d",slug:"new-trends-and-developments-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Jucheng Yang, Shan Juan Xie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36689",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",surname:"Yang",slug:"jucheng-yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3735",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"face-recognition",bookSignature:"Milos Oravec",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3735.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"8419",title:"Prof.",name:"Miloš",surname:"Oravec",slug:"milos-oravec",fullName:"Miloš Oravec"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4815",title:"Recent Advances in Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838c13ad1fed6fd99dcd7e77ae796b7e",slug:"recent_advances_in_face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac, Mislav Grgic and Marian Stewart Bartlett",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4815.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"82397",title:"Gut Microbiota Potential in Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105616",slug:"gut-microbiota-potential-in-type-2-diabetes",body:'Insulin is predominantly the most important endogenous protein responsible for the physiological regulation of metabolism [1]. Exogenous insulin is the only substantial treatment option for patients suffering from insulin deficiency since the initial discovery of insulin by Sir Frederick G Banting and its purification by James B. Collip in 1921 [2, 3]. The pancreatic gland is responsible for the regulated secretion of insulin to maintain glucose homeostasis under different physiological conditions [4, 5]. Islets of Langerhans present in the pancreas contain cells that secret specific hormones which help in maintaining glucose levels during feeding and fasting [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Islets of Langerhans are defined as closed areas containing multiple cell types with enormous vascular and nervous innervation [5]. Islets of Langerhans are designated as the endocrine portion of the pancreas. The exocrine part of the pancreas surrounds islets of Langerhans. Different cell types present in the islets secrete different types of hormones. Islets contain four different types of endocrine cells: alpha (α) cells (glucagon), beta (β) cells (insulin), delta (δ) cells (somatostatin) and PP cells (pancreatic polypeptide) [5]. Alpha cells are responsible for the secretion of glucagon hormone to enhance blood glucose levels under fasting conditions while β cells are responsible for insulin secretion which initiates postprandial glucose metabolism and thus controls the rising blood glucose levels [10, 11]. Apart from glucose metabolism, insulin is also involved in lipid and protein metabolism [12, 13, 14]. Blood glucose level acts as the main trigger for the release of insulin from β cells, a phenomenon known as glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) [15, 16, 17]. Glucose at normal physiological levels not only induces insulin gene transcription by recruiting transcription factors (PDX-1, MafA and NeuroD) but also improves the insulin mRNA stability thus acting as a major physiologic regulator of insulin [18, 19, 20]. Glucose enters the β cells via glucose-specific channels present on the cell membrane commonly known as glucose transporters (GLUT) [4, 17]. Numerous types of glucose transporters are present in different tissue of the body [21]. But specifically, GLUT2 is most abundant and functional in the pancreas (β cells) and liver (hepatocytes) whereas GLUT4 is present on skeletal and cardiac muscles and adipocytes [21, 22].
Insulin is the primary hormone responsible for initiating carbohydrate metabolism through phosphorylation of glucose and subsequent formation of glucose-6-phosphate inside the cells [23, 24]. Insulin activates the hexokinase enzymes in non-hepatic tissues and glucokinase (GCK) in β cells and hepatocytes to initiate glucose phosphorylation [25, 26, 27, 28]. The insulin hormone acts by binding to the cell surface insulin receptors which are vastly distributed in different tissues of the body [29]. The binding of insulin to its receptors activates adaptor proteins known as insulin receptor substrates (e.g. IRS1, IRS2) [30]. IRS protein converts the tyrosine phosphorylation signal into the lipid kinase by activating phosphoinositide2-kinase enzyme (PI3K). Activated PI3K further recruits ATP molecules which activates AKT (serine and threonine kinase) [31]. The Discovery of insulin’s primary role in activating AKT proved a landmark in explaining the conversion of tyrosine phosphorylation into serine/threonine phosphorylation signal. AKT activation also explains the insulin induced regulation of key steps in insulin signaling including (a) glucose uptake by glucose transporter (GLUT4), (b) glycogen synthesis by glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) inhibition, (c) synthesis of protein and fats via activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), (d) gene expression regulation at the transcriptional levels by forkhead family box O (FOXO) transcription factor proteins. Insulin enhances GLUT4 activity in muscle and adipose tissue thus increasing the rate of glucose transport, glycolysis and subsequent glycogen synthesis in these tissues [32]. Insulin also prevents hepatic glucose synthesis by inhibiting hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis [33, 34, 35].
Apart from glucose metabolism, insulin influences lipid and protein metabolism through multiple means. Insulin lowers the plasma fatty acid levels by decreasing adipocyte lipolysis and enhancing the hepatic formation of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. Insulin increases the protein synthesis in skeletal muscles and the liver by enhancing the amino acid transport inside the cells and reducing protein degradation and urea formation [13, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. These metabolic effects of insulin on carbohydrates, lipids and proteins highlight the importance of insulin signaling in maintaining a nutritional consistency at the cellular level and ensuring a balanced physiological interplay between multiple tissues under diverse physiological conditions.
Alpha and β cells work together to maintain glucose homeostasis under feeding and fasting conditions through the periodic release of insulin and glucagon respectively [4, 25, 48]. Feeding results in increased plasma glucose levels. Rising plasma glucose levels demand immediate systemic activation of glucose metabolism by insulin. A delayed or deficient activation of glucose metabolism will result in abnormally high plasma and cellular glucose levels, a medical condition known as hyperglycemia. Glucose at higher-than-normal concentrations induces glucotoxic effects inside the cells. Rising postprandial glucose levels will trigger β cells to synthesize and secrete insulin. The postprandial rise in insulin levels activates glucokinase and hexokinase activity resulting in glucose phosphorylation in hepatocytes and muscle cells. Conversion of glucose into glucose-6-phosphate will result in the decline of plasma glucose levels over time. Physiologically because of GSIS the postprandial rise in the insulin secretion from β cells declines over time as the blood glucose level decline [15]. Thus, the rising plasma glucose levels provide positive feedback to enhance insulin secretion and the declining plasma glucose levels act as a negative feedback loop to lower insulin levels. Insulin negatively impacts glucagon secretion [49, 50, 51, 52]. Plasma glucose levels decline under fasting conditions. As glucose is the primary cellular source to generate ATP, a minimum threshold of plasma glucose levels must be maintained to avoid hypoglycemia.
Hypoglycemia is a serious medical condition characterized by very low plasma glucose levels. Fasting induced a decline in plasma glucose levels and subsequent diminished insulin levels initiate glucagon synthesis and secretion from alpha cells. To avoid hypoglycemia during fasting, glucagon enhances plasma glucose levels by activating hepatic gluconeogenesis/glucogenolysis thus forming glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate sources [10, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. Glucagon secretion from alpha cells and insulin secretion from β cells are also regulated by incretin hormones secreted from the intestines [58]. Incretin hormones are gut peptides secreted from the L and K cells of the small intestine and include glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) [59, 60]. GIP and GLP-1 functional receptors are present on both alpha and β cells. In normal physiological conditions, the GIP induces glucagon secretion from alpha cells during fasting or hypoglycemic state whereas GLP-1 induces insulin secretion from β cells and inhibits glucagon secretion from alpha cells [59, 61].
Diabetes mellitus is primarily a metabolic dysfunction resulting in a significant reduction in the cellular ability to metabolize glucose because of either the lack of insulin or insulin inactivity (insulin resistance) [62, 63]. Diabetes mellitus is expected to affect 700 million worldwide by 2040 [64]. The compromised ability of the cells to metabolize glucose results in increased cellular and plasma levels of glucose, a condition known as hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia induces tissue damage mainly through the increased influx of glucose through the polyol pathway and increased formation of advanced glycation end products (AGE
Diabetes mellitus has been categorized in two primary forms: Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM). T1DM has been characterized by a mutation in the insulin gene or immune cell-mediated destruction of β cell resulting in either the synthesis of abnormal insulin protein that fails to activate insulin receptors or a complete lack of endogenous insulin secretion [63]. T1DM patients are usually diagnosed early in their life. The only possible medical treatment referred to these patients is the multiple daily doses of synthetic insulin. T2DM on the other hand is much more complicated and requires a thorough diagnostic approach [62, 68, 69, 70]. T2DM is considered one of the most common metabolic disorders globally. Major risk factors for T2DM include a sedentary lifestyle, lack of exercise, excessive use of a high-carb and high-fat diet, overweight and obesity [71]. Poor lifestyle and dietary habits have been attributed to the global incidence of type 2 diabetes in the last 2 decades. Obesity, visceral fat deposition and increased body mass index (BMI) play a central role in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetic patients [62]. Quality, quantity and type of food have been debated to be the primary cause of this global incident. A healthy diet with the appropriate amount of nutrients and fiber and a certain level of physical activity has been advised globally to counter the incidence of T2DM in young adults.
The development of T2DM is mainly caused by the significant decline in insulin secretion from β cells or the inability of insulin-responsive tissues (muscles, fat and liver) to respond to insulin, mainly because of defective insulin signaling resulting in hyperinsulinemia and subsequent insulin resistance [72, 73, 74, 75]. Failure of the insulin hormone to activate insulin receptors at the cellular level has been attributed to be the major cause of hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance [76, 77]. Insulin binding to insulin receptors at the plasma membrane activates a signaling cascade that initiates glucose metabolism inside the cells. Insulin-bound insulin receptors or activated insulin receptors go through internalization at the plasma membrane, a phenomenon known as insulin receptor endocytosis [1, 78]. Following the activation, the endocytosis of the insulin receptor is the primary physiological mechanism through which the duration and intensity of insulin signaling are controlled. Hyperinsulinemia accelerates insulin receptor endocytosis and affects the presence of adequate functional insulin receptors at the plasma membrane resulting in insulin resistance [79]. Apart from accelerated insulin receptor endocytosis, insulin-stimulated insulin receptor kinase activity is also decreased in diabetic patients [80]. Compromised insulin signaling fails to activate glucose metabolic enzymes like glucokinase and hexokinase resulting in hyperglycemia. High plasma glucose levels initiate glucose-stimulated insulin secretory (GSIS) response from β cells resulting in the rise of plasma insulin levels. The rising insulin levels should be normalized over time because of the renal insulin clearance mechanism. But compromised renal insulin clearance rate in diabetic subjects results in abnormally high plasma levels of insulin (hyperinsulinemia) [81, 82].
Hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia in theory cannot trigger alpha cells to secrete glucagon. But it has been observed that T2DM patients with insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia also have abnormally high plasma levels of glucagon [83]. Hinting toward the disturbance in the alpha and β cell interplay through the inability of the insulin to block glucagon gene transcription [84]. T2DM is also characterized by a decrease in GLP-1 secretion from L cells of the small intestine [85, 86]. Indicating a pathophysiological role of the gut in the development and progression of type 2 diabetes [87, 88]. GLP-1 receptor agonists which induce an increase in insulin secretion from β cells and inhibit glucagon secretion are the major treatment option for T2DM patients to combat hyperglycemic conditions [89, 90, 91].
The gut microbiome was first defined scientifically in 2001 as “an ecological community of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms that collectively share our body space” [92]. Approximately 100 trillion microbes are found in the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and strongly influence the health status of individuals either directly or indirectly [93, 94, 95, 96, 97]. The primary reason for the pathophysiological effect of the gut microbiome on human physiology has been attributed to the disruption of the stable communities of gut microbes through medication, diet and lifestyle. A normal, healthy gut microbiome profile is termed eubiosis and abnormal gut microbiome composition is called dysbiosis [98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106]. Eubiosis typically refers to an ideal bacterial population comprising 95% of Bacteroidetes and 5% Firmicutes producing abundant microbial metabolites like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) and impacting lipid metabolism. SCFAs like butyrate, acetate and propionate are produced by the anaerobic fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates (dietary fiber
Substantial data from human studies support the possibility that dysbiosis triggers obesity, inflammation, insulin resistance and T2DM [108, 109, 110, 111]. Association of dysbiosis is also attributed to the pathogenesis of intestinal tissue. Intestinal disorders attributed to dysbiosis include inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome (IBD) and coeliac disease [102, 111, 112]. Whereas metabolic syndrome, obesity, and cardiovascular complications are attributed as extra-intestinal effects of dysbiosis. Dysbiosis has also been attributed not only to the initiation of the T2DM in humans (a condition known as prediabetes) but also during the progression and subsequent secondary complications of T2DM with several lines of evidence suggesting that manipulation of the gut microbiome helps to minimize or alleviate the T2DM conditions [98, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121].
The role of gut microbiota in health and disease and specifically the pathogenesis of T2DM has been experimentally investigated mainly by using rodent models as a limited amount of experimental data can be generated through human studies. Keeping in mind that the rodents and human physiology are not exactly similar and certain physiological differences exist. The non-human primates seem to be a much more appropriate animal model to study different aspects of primate physiology including the gut microbiome and its interaction with metabolic dysregulation [122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127]. Nonetheless, the current understanding of the role of the gut microbiome in the context of metabolic syndrome or pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus has primarily originated from the data on rodent and human studies [94, 97, 116, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133]. Interestingly efforts have been made in the past to characterize the gut microbiome in normal and diabetic individuals as well as some therapeutic approaches have been adopted [95, 98, 113, 116, 117, 120, 121, 134].
The attempts to characterize the normal human gut microbiome revealed four primary phyla which are responsible for the physiological role of gut in metabolic modulation [128, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141]. These four specific phyla/families of microbes present in the gut include Bacteroidetes (Bacteroidota), Firmicutes (Bacillota), Proteobacteria (Pseudomonadota) and actinobacteria (Actinomycetota) [95, 142]. The specific proportion for each of these phyla in normal physiological and homeostatic conditions indicates that the largest group of microbes is the Firmicutes which make up to 64% of the total gut microbiota. Followed by the Bacteroidetes, which make up the second-largest group, contributing up to 23% of the total gut microbiota. Proteobacteria and actinobacteria contribute the rest with 8% and 3% respectively. These specific percentage contributions of each phylum are extremely important physiologically. Increased prevalence of pro-inflammatory conditions such as obesity, T2DM, arthritis and even cancer have been attributed to the disruption of these specific percentage contributions of each phylum [132, 143]. Human and animal data have highlighted the unique compositional changes in the microbiota profiles at the phylum level in T2DM conditions [113, 128]. T2DM patients exhibit increased membrane transport of sugars, BCAA transportation, methane metabolism and sulfate reduction [128]. These patients also have reduced butyrate biosynthesis and cofactors/vitamins metabolism.
Although a certain level of discrepancy does exist in terms of phyla composition data between different T2DM patients which has been attributed to the specific geographical location, culture-specific diet and medication use [144]. Numerous independent research groups have reported widely contrasting microbiota findings in the context of phyla composition in T2DM patients [113, 114, 117, 119, 128, 145, 146]. It seems highly unlikely that a single microbe species can play a significant or dominant role in determining the risk of T2DM. The conflicting data from several independent groups also have some interesting similarities. Specifically, it was a common observation among T2DM patients that butyrate-producing microbes were particularly depleted [117, 128]. As human microbiome is comprised mainly of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes with a specific ratio (B/F > 1) and obesity has been shown to impact this ratio and result in the increased prevalence of Firmicutes to that of Bacteroidetes [109, 147, 148, 149]. Implicating that a disrupted B/F ratio can contribute to obesity in humans. Similarly increased concentration of Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria with a significant decline in Firmicutes has been reported in T2DM patients [113] T2DM also demonstrates an increase in pathogenic microbial species like
Insulin resistance has also been attributed to disrupted Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes (B/F) ratio. An altered B/F ratio impacts intestinal permeability and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from proteobacteria are translocated from inside the gut. LPS translocation activates immune response through interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) and IkB kinase (IKK). LPS-induced activation of JNK and IKK results in the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS) which fails to activate downstream effector molecules like PI3K and AKT thus rendering the insulin signaling cascade ineffective [150, 151]. IKK also activates the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB). NF-kB, a transcription factor, induces the expression of several genes involved in inflammatory and apoptotic responses [152, 153, 154, 155]. The inflammatory state also called metabolic endotoxemia is accompanied by insulin resistance and obesity.
Gut microbiota has been shown to impact the pancreas directly. Gut microbiota has been proposed to modulate glucose homeostasis through multiple mechanisms [115, 116, 118, 156, 157]. Experimental data support four specific mechanisms through which the gut microbiome influences glucose homeostasis; (1) the β cell modulating effects of metabolites that are formed due to gut anaerobic microbial fermentation [157, 158, 159], (2) induction of cytokine activity in the islets of Langerhans via inflammatory cascades [160, 161, 162, 163, 164], (3) direct islets signaling affecting insulin and glucagon secretion through incretins modulation [87, 165], (4) alteration in the gut permeability, thus permitting the influx of toxins through intestinal mucosal barrier [166]. Mechanisms 1 and 3 are mainly considered for increased T2DM susceptibility and whereas mechanisms 2 and 4 are particularly implicated in the development of T1DM in early life. As T1DM is characterized by a significant reduction in the number of functional β cells. Cytokine and toxin-induced β cell apoptosis or dedifferentiation are considered major risk factors for T1DM.
Abnormal gut microbiome composition alters the intestinal barrier which favors absorption and increased circulating levels of LPS and BCAA. LPS induces low-grade inflammation and insulin resistance while BCAA is associated with an increased risk of T2DM development. An altered intestinal barrier also reduces the absorption of beneficial SCFAs and secondary bile acids. Metabolically SCFAs are mainly produced as an energy source for the gut epithelium. Butyrate is used by colonic epithelial cells for energy, acetate is used as a fatty acid precursor like cholesterol and propionate is a precursor for the process of hepatic gluconeogenesis [167, 168, 169]. Animal data have shown the beneficial impact of acetate supplementation on insulin resistance and glucose tolerance in animals fed with a high-fat diet [170]. Acetate at high intravenous (
Functional modulation of β cells through secondary metabolites is highly important in maintaining homeostatic glucose levels. SCFA has been highlighted as an important signaling molecule as the recent findings of the presence of functional SCFA cell surface receptors on different tissues including gut and peripheral tissues [172, 173, 174, 175]. Gut microbial modulation of the host’s metabolism modulated by SCFA production has been demonstrated by the activation of G-protein coupled cell surface receptors (
Prebiotics are food ingredients that are non-digestible but fermentable oligosaccharides. The primary role of prebiotics in food is to stimulate the fermenting activity of gut microbes and eventually trigger the growth of beneficial gut microbes [182, 183, 184, 185]. Probiotics on the other hand are special foods that contain a certain amount of alive non-pathogenic bacteria which help to improve gut health and confer eubiosis [186, 187]. Bifidobacteria, lactobacilli streptococci and
Impact of the use of probiotics and prebiotics on the gut microbiome in terms of its functionality and improving the glycemic control through manipulation of multiple factors like improved incretin secretions, increase in the production of SCFAs, improved bile acid metabolism and the decrease in the LPs induced low grade inflammatory response.
Diabetes mellitus has emerged as the major metabolic disorder in the last two decades. A sedentary urban lifestyle, increased consumption of processed and fried foods and diets high in fat and protein have been indicated as the main reason for unhealthy weight gain causing obesity and disrupting the normal physiological pathways responsible for metabolic homeostasis. The role of the gut microbiome in ensuring a healthy metabolic and immune system is paramount. The remarkable research efforts made in the last two decades highlight gut microbial imbalance or dysbiosis as a common finding in diabetic patients. The direct and indirect regulatory influence of the gut microbial activity on the islet’s functionality has been experimentally characterized in rodent models. The experimental findings highlight the importance of a healthy gut microbial community and the use of the appropriate amount of dietary fiber to support fermentation and production of beneficial SCFAs which not only impact the intestinal permeability but also influence β cell activity directly as well as indirectly. The use of pre or probiotics along with a healthy diet comprising enough dietary fiber is a prerequisite for communities and individuals suffering from obesity and diabetes.
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Finally, suggestions for future research and intervention guidelines with childhood interpersonal trauma survivors are discussed.",book:{id:"5272",slug:"a-multidimensional-approach-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-from-theory-to-practice",title:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder",fullTitle:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Caroline Dugal, Noémie Bigras, Natacha Godbout and Claude\nBélanger",authors:[{id:"57536",title:"Prof.",name:"Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Belanger",slug:"claude-belanger",fullName:"Claude Belanger"},{id:"185951",title:"Ms.",name:"Caroline",middleName:null,surname:"Dugal",slug:"caroline-dugal",fullName:"Caroline Dugal"},{id:"185952",title:"Prof.",name:"Natacha",middleName:null,surname:"Godbout",slug:"natacha-godbout",fullName:"Natacha Godbout"},{id:"185953",title:"Ms.",name:"Noémie",middleName:null,surname:"Bigras",slug:"noemie-bigras",fullName:"Noémie Bigras"}]},{id:"51580",doi:"10.5772/64290",title:"“Growing from an Invisible Wound” A Humanistic-Existential Approach to PTSD",slug:"-growing-from-an-invisible-wound-a-humanistic-existential-approach-to-ptsd",totalDownloads:2885,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"From a humanistic and existential perspective, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be understood as a normal response to a threatening existential event. The humanistic-existential approach to understanding and treating PTSD also places particular emphasis on the meaning of the traumatic experience and on the awareness of the existential part of the self. Such an understanding conveys to a different approach to trauma assessment and potential for healing in the clinical encounter. In this chapter, we wish to provide a humanistic-existential understanding of trauma. To do so, we review the key humanistic-existential concepts for trauma conceptualization, assessment, and intervention. Afterwards, we present two different short case studies to illustrate and understand the humanistic-existential psychotherapeutic process and its diversity. In conclusion, we discuss the contribution and limits of a humanistic-existential approach to trauma conceptualization, assessment, and healing.",book:{id:"5272",slug:"a-multidimensional-approach-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-from-theory-to-practice",title:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder",fullTitle:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Mélanie Vachon, Prudence C. Bessette and Christine Goyette",authors:[{id:"184884",title:"Dr.",name:"Melanie",middleName:null,surname:"Vachon",slug:"melanie-vachon",fullName:"Melanie Vachon"},{id:"188110",title:"Dr.",name:"Prudence C.",middleName:null,surname:"Bessette",slug:"prudence-c.-bessette",fullName:"Prudence C. Bessette"},{id:"188111",title:"BSc.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Goyette",slug:"christine-goyette",fullName:"Christine Goyette"}]},{id:"51883",doi:"10.5772/64842",title:"Countertransference in Trauma Clinic: A Transitional Breach in the Therapists’ Identity",slug:"countertransference-in-trauma-clinic-a-transitional-breach-in-the-therapists-identity",totalDownloads:1716,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"In line with the theoretical elaboration of countertransference in the trauma clinic, this article addresses the therapist’s relationship to the strangeness of the trauma, as well as his/her interaction with the cultural difference of the other, who is in this case, the traumatized patient. Thirty-one therapists were interviewed about their subjective experiences, using the methodology of interpretative phenomenological analysis. This article shows interesting subtleties in countertransference reactions to trauma narratives and sheds light on processes indicative of trauma transmission. Therapists interviewed could express experiencing moments of strangeness and inner disquiet; resonance in the defense mechanisms deployed by therapists and by patients at certain moments of the therapy; resorting to disregarding cultural interpretations/generalizations to make sense of an utterly painful situation and put a protective distance with the patients’ culture of origin.",book:{id:"5272",slug:"a-multidimensional-approach-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-from-theory-to-practice",title:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder",fullTitle:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Mayssa’ El Husseini, Sara Skandrani, Layla Tarazi Sahab, Elizabetta\nDozio and Marie Rose Moro",authors:[{id:"184097",title:"Dr.",name:"Layla",middleName:"Tarazi",surname:"Sahab",slug:"layla-sahab",fullName:"Layla Sahab"},{id:"184098",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayssa’",middleName:null,surname:"El Husseini",slug:"mayssa'-el-husseini",fullName:"Mayssa’ El Husseini"}]},{id:"51478",doi:"10.5772/64224",title:"The Impact of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies for Nightmares and Prazosin on the Reduction of Post-Traumatic Nightmares, Sleep, and PTSD Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta- Analysis of Randomized and Non‐Randomized Studies",slug:"the-impact-of-cognitive-behavioral-therapies-for-nightmares-and-prazosin-on-the-reduction-of-post-tr",totalDownloads:1901,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Post-traumatic nightmares (PTNMs) can be treatment resistant to conventional treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). New cognitive and behavioral treatments (CBTs) for nightmares (NM) and pharmacological treatments, such as Prazosin, have been developed to directly reduce PTNMs. Objectives: The first objective was to evaluate the impact of CBTs for NM and Prazosin on the reduction of PTNMs in an adult population. A second aim was to explore the impact of these treatments in general PTSD symptoms and sleep. Method: A systematic search of English and French clinical studies on any CBTs and Prazosin treatments for PTNMs published from 1980 to 2012 was conducted in PsycINFO, MedLine, PILOTS,and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Results: The final sample was composed of 26 studies. The combined effect size (ES) for Prazosin was g = 1.30, 95% CI [0.61, 2.00], and for CBTs, it was g = 0.55, 95% CI [0.38, 0.72]. Conclusions: Prazosin had a large impact on PTNM reduction, while CBTs had a moderate impact. Specific NM treatments (Prazosin or CBTs) contribute to PTNM reduction and reduce PTSD and sleep symptoms. These findings are significant to the literature on PTSD and future studies should consider them. Several recommendations are proposed.",book:{id:"5272",slug:"a-multidimensional-approach-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-from-theory-to-practice",title:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder",fullTitle:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Katia Levrier, Carolyn Leathead, Delphine-Émilie Bourdon, Sophie\nLacerte, André Marchand and Geneviève Belleville",authors:[{id:"175626",title:"Prof.",name:"André",middleName:null,surname:"Marchand",slug:"andre-marchand",fullName:"André Marchand"},{id:"184054",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Levrier",slug:"katia-levrier",fullName:"Katia Levrier"},{id:"184055",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolyn",middleName:null,surname:"Leathead",slug:"carolyn-leathead",fullName:"Carolyn Leathead"},{id:"184056",title:"BSc.",name:"Sophie",middleName:null,surname:"Lacerte",slug:"sophie-lacerte",fullName:"Sophie Lacerte"},{id:"184057",title:"Dr.",name:"Geneviève",middleName:null,surname:"Belleville",slug:"genevieve-belleville",fullName:"Geneviève Belleville"},{id:"184058",title:"BSc.",name:"Delphine-Emilie",middleName:null,surname:"Bourdon",slug:"delphine-emilie-bourdon",fullName:"Delphine-Emilie Bourdon"}]},{id:"51992",doi:"10.5772/64900",title:"Acute Stress Disorder Diagnosis, Clusters, and Symptoms as Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Gender Differences in Victims of Violent Crimes",slug:"acute-stress-disorder-diagnosis-clusters-and-symptoms-as-predictors-of-posttraumatic-stress-disorder",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Violent crimes represent a societal problem, and victims, namely women, often develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Previous studies have identified acute stress disorder (ASD) as a predictor of PTSD, as well as dissociation. However, there are some inconsistencies regarding which cluster or symptom has better predictive power, and the impact of gender is still unknown in victims of violent crimes. The aim of this study was to determine the predictive power of full and partial ASD diagnosis, clusters, and symptoms according to gender. To do so, 39 women and 36 men were evaluated using validated semi-structured clinical interviews within 30 days post crime for ASD and 2 months later for PTSD. Results showed that 52% of individuals had full ASD and 20% has partial ASD, 40% had full PTSD and 17% had partial PTSD. Both full and partial ASD diagnoses, as well as all clusters, and most symptoms, were good predictors of PTSD. No gender differences were observed concerning the predictive power of ASD clusters and symptoms. The decreased emphasis on dissociative reactions in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM 5) to establish an ASD diagnosis appears relevant to better identify women and men at risk of PTSD after a violent crime, and to deliver appropriate early preventive interventions.",book:{id:"5272",slug:"a-multidimensional-approach-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-from-theory-to-practice",title:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder",fullTitle:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Stéphane Guay, Myra Gravel-Crevier, Richard Boyer and André\nMarchand",authors:[{id:"194415",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephane",middleName:null,surname:"Guay",slug:"stephane-guay",fullName:"Stephane Guay"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51986",title:"Childhood Interpersonal Trauma and its Repercussions in Adulthood: An Analysis of Psychological and Interpersonal Sequelae",slug:"childhood-interpersonal-trauma-and-its-repercussions-in-adulthood-an-analysis-of-psychological-and-i",totalDownloads:4001,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Despite decades of prevention campaigns and research, childhood interpersonal trauma (i.e., psychological, physical and sexual abuse, psychological and physical neglect, witnessing interparental violence) remains an endemic problem with longstanding and deleterious negative effects on adult psycho-relational functioning. This chapter aims to present a comprehensive literature review of the repercussions associated with exposure to childhood interpersonal trauma. First, the nature and various forms of childhood interpersonal trauma are described. Subsequently, a review of the studies documenting disruptions in psychological and interpersonal functioning and the mechanisms explaining the development of each of these repercussions is unraveled. These repercussions include posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, depression, personality disorders, affect dysregulation, substance use disorders, eating disorders, suicidal behaviors, alterations in attention and consciousness, disruptions in attributions, attachment, sexuality and violence in intimate relationships. Finally, suggestions for future research and intervention guidelines with childhood interpersonal trauma survivors are discussed.",book:{id:"5272",slug:"a-multidimensional-approach-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-from-theory-to-practice",title:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder",fullTitle:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Caroline Dugal, Noémie Bigras, Natacha Godbout and Claude\nBélanger",authors:[{id:"57536",title:"Prof.",name:"Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Belanger",slug:"claude-belanger",fullName:"Claude Belanger"},{id:"185951",title:"Ms.",name:"Caroline",middleName:null,surname:"Dugal",slug:"caroline-dugal",fullName:"Caroline Dugal"},{id:"185952",title:"Prof.",name:"Natacha",middleName:null,surname:"Godbout",slug:"natacha-godbout",fullName:"Natacha Godbout"},{id:"185953",title:"Ms.",name:"Noémie",middleName:null,surname:"Bigras",slug:"noemie-bigras",fullName:"Noémie Bigras"}]},{id:"51580",title:"“Growing from an Invisible Wound” A Humanistic-Existential Approach to PTSD",slug:"-growing-from-an-invisible-wound-a-humanistic-existential-approach-to-ptsd",totalDownloads:2885,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"From a humanistic and existential perspective, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be understood as a normal response to a threatening existential event. The humanistic-existential approach to understanding and treating PTSD also places particular emphasis on the meaning of the traumatic experience and on the awareness of the existential part of the self. Such an understanding conveys to a different approach to trauma assessment and potential for healing in the clinical encounter. In this chapter, we wish to provide a humanistic-existential understanding of trauma. To do so, we review the key humanistic-existential concepts for trauma conceptualization, assessment, and intervention. Afterwards, we present two different short case studies to illustrate and understand the humanistic-existential psychotherapeutic process and its diversity. In conclusion, we discuss the contribution and limits of a humanistic-existential approach to trauma conceptualization, assessment, and healing.",book:{id:"5272",slug:"a-multidimensional-approach-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-from-theory-to-practice",title:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder",fullTitle:"A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Mélanie Vachon, Prudence C. Bessette and Christine Goyette",authors:[{id:"184884",title:"Dr.",name:"Melanie",middleName:null,surname:"Vachon",slug:"melanie-vachon",fullName:"Melanie Vachon"},{id:"188110",title:"Dr.",name:"Prudence C.",middleName:null,surname:"Bessette",slug:"prudence-c.-bessette",fullName:"Prudence C. Bessette"},{id:"188111",title:"BSc.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Goyette",slug:"christine-goyette",fullName:"Christine Goyette"}]},{id:"71699",title:"Students Anxiety Experiences in Higher Education Institutions",slug:"students-anxiety-experiences-in-higher-education-institutions",totalDownloads:1071,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Students studying at higher education institutions face many challenges. Students who attempt to overcome these challenges may alter their behaviors. This may negatively affect their psychological state and cause them to feel anxiety. Anxiety is most prominent among college students. Many students face anxiety when they think they cannot achieve their academic or non-academic purposes; however, sometimes anxiety can encourage students to think more critically about how to achieve their goals. Students cope with anxiety in different ways, but some may struggle. This probably causes many symptoms that affect their mental health. Therefore, they should alleviate the anxiety to keep their mental health and persist in the institution.",book:{id:"9530",slug:"anxiety-disorders-the-new-achievements",title:"Anxiety Disorders",fullTitle:"Anxiety Disorders - The New Achievements"},signatures:"Nabila Y. AlKandari",authors:[{id:"316508",title:"Prof.",name:"Nabila Y.",middleName:null,surname:"AlKandari",slug:"nabila-y.-alkandari",fullName:"Nabila Y. AlKandari"}]},{id:"71930",title:"Technologically Processed Highly Diluted Antibodies to S100 Protein in the Treatment of Neurotic Disorders: The Review",slug:"technologically-processed-highly-diluted-antibodies-to-s100-protein-in-the-treatment-of-neurotic-dis",totalDownloads:565,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Neurotic disorders (NDs) are among the most common mental diseases leading to a decrease in the quality of life, lack of socialization, and increased mortality. The diagnosis and treatment of all types of NDs are challenging. In the light of the ongoing search for an effective and safe therapeutic strategy influencing certain aspects of ND pathogenesis, technologically processed highly diluted antibodies to S100 protein (TP Abs to S100) seem to be a promising treatment option for patients with NDs. TP Abs to S100 possess stress-protective, anxiolytic, antidepressant, antiamnestic, and neuroprotective activities. In the current review, we describe the mechanisms of action and pharmacological effects of TP Abs to S100 demonstrated in nonclinical (preclinical) and clinical studies. Based on the data, we tried to evaluate the future prospects of the TP Abs to S100 as the drug of choice for ND treatment.",book:{id:"9530",slug:"anxiety-disorders-the-new-achievements",title:"Anxiety Disorders",fullTitle:"Anxiety Disorders - The New Achievements"},signatures:"Kristina Konstantinovna Khacheva, Gulnara Rinatovna Khakimova, Alexey Borisovich Glazunov and Victoria Vyacheslavovna Fateeva",authors:[{id:"298539",title:"Dr.",name:"Victoria",middleName:null,surname:"Fateeva",slug:"victoria-fateeva",fullName:"Victoria Fateeva"},{id:"301989",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristina",middleName:"Konstantinovna",surname:"Khacheva",slug:"kristina-khacheva",fullName:"Kristina Khacheva"},{id:"301990",title:"Dr.",name:"Khakimova Gulnara",middleName:null,surname:"Rinatovna",slug:"khakimova-gulnara-rinatovna",fullName:"Khakimova Gulnara Rinatovna"},{id:"319685",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexey",middleName:null,surname:"Glazunov",slug:"alexey-glazunov",fullName:"Alexey Glazunov"}]},{id:"71645",title:"Mental Distress among Medical Students",slug:"mental-distress-among-medical-students",totalDownloads:488,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Depression, anxiety, and stress affect the mental health of an individual. Previous studies have shown high rates of depression, anxiety, and stress among medical students throughout the world. Medical students are future doctors, but mental distress among them has negative effects on their output, which ultimately affects patient care and quality of life. This chapter will discuss various reasons of mental distress among medical students and proposed solutions for the well-being of medical undergraduates like providing proper student support service and more opportunities for extracurricular activities.",book:{id:"9530",slug:"anxiety-disorders-the-new-achievements",title:"Anxiety Disorders",fullTitle:"Anxiety Disorders - The New Achievements"},signatures:"Syeda Rubaba Azim",authors:[{id:"316533",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubaba",middleName:null,surname:"Azim",slug:"rubaba-azim",fullName:"Rubaba Azim"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1062",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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