\r\n\tDigital images can be easily distorted by noise during the acquisition, processing, and transmission. Noise level is an important parameter to consider in image processing algorithms, including denoising, compression, feature extraction, motion estimation, optical flow, segmentation, super-resolution, and image quality assessment. Their performance depends on the accuracy of the noise level estimate.
\r\n\r\n\tImage denoising is an important stage to improve the accuracy of many image processing techniques, such as image segmentation and recognition. Image segmentation is another important stage in computer vision applications. Many methodologies utilize both stages in a unique algorithm to solve the problem of the segmentation of noisy images to provide better classification and recognition compared to algorithms that independently use these two stages.
\r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to collect original research chapters that develop or apply new theories and/or hardware or software to process the acquired noisy images to solve the problem of Segmentation of noisy images in the field of medical imaging, remote sensing, engineering, and other research applications.
Recent advances in In-Car Entertainment System will play an important role on automotive industry. It was assumed that in the year 2015, every new car, especially built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection. As cars become connected to the Internet, the demand for Internet-based entertainment and applications and services increases [1].
Polymer optical fibers (POFs) are in a great demand for the data transmission and processing of optical communications compatible with the Internet, which is one of the fastest growing industries in automotive field. POFs become replacement for copper cable technology for future IVI system.
In this chapter reports experimental demonstration of a POFs based solutions in wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) network and some effects due to the placement of color filters as a demultiplexer for the In-Car Entertainment System. A
Media Oriented Systems Transport (MOST) is one of the advance IVI system provider company which also utilized a POF-LED technology to transmit numerous signals represent a different data transmission via time division multiplexing (TDM) network (refer Fig. 1).
Recent technology on ring topology IVI system with single line of optical fiber cable facing main problem with no backup line when failure occurred.
In our research, we offered a wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) communication network over POF due to the rapid increase of traffic demands [2, 3]. WDM is the network that allows the transmission of multimedia data in IVI system over multiple wavelength (color) and thus greatly increases the POF\'s bandwidth. Beside, this network proposes a backup path in order to mitigate a serious breakdown in TDM-based network in IVI system.
Refer to Fig. 2, the proposed WDM-POF system, three unit of transmitters with different color of LED will carry single information simultaneously. For example in IVI network, red LED with 650nm wavelength modulated with video signal while blue (λ1), green (λ2), and yellow (λ3) lights carry ethernet, audio and RF signal, respectively. The light has to be combined by the multiplexer (MUX) at the sending side. And to separate the wavelength channels at the receiver side, a wavelength demultiplexer (DEMUX) has to be used.
Simple schematic of a 4-channels WDM system.
Demultiplexing, perform the reverse process with the same WDM techniques, in which the data stream with multiple wavelengths decomposed into multiple single wavelength data streams. POF coupler has similar function, operates to combine a number of optical data pulses as a single coupled signal. Hence, the development of MUX based on POF coupler is possible. A low-cost solution for POF-WDM system application will be presented.
A novel fused POF couplers has been fabricated by a fusion technique, as an effective transmission media to split and couple numerous different wavelengths which represents different signals. These novel coupler, however, suffer from several disadvantages. The high cost of the available couplers was raised as a challenge to the development of WDM systems in short-haul networks [5-8]. In addition, from the stand point of device design, the diameter of the fused tapered region, where stress is concentrated, is too small in conventional couplers. The structure causes a high incidence of fiber fracture, which results in poor reliability [9-12].
Thus a cost-effective 3×3 POF couplers based on a fused tapered structure to address these drawbacks of conventional couplers is demonstrated. The coupler is fabricated by a new and simple fabrication method, using a Bunsen burner and a metal tube. In this study, two types of fused couplers method focused of weakly fused (WF) and highly fused (HF). The WF coupler is, however, not considered to be a low-loss device, as the excess loss of the coupler was high, 12 to 22 dB.
The HF coupler is then developed to be the successor of the WF coupler. The excess loss of the HF coupler is very low, 0.3 to 5 dB. The device is developed as an optical switch which optical power can be switched completely from one fiber to another fiber at a temperature increase of T=55°C [13]. The switching characteristic can be achieved by varying the refractive index of the cladding at the coupling region of the coupler by temperature.
One of the aim of this chapter is to examine and optimize the feasibility of both methods of 3×3 POF couplers as thermal optical switches to be integrate in WDM-POF-based network for IVI system. The investigation is also to determine whether the thermal treatment is required to improve the quality and shift the device specification. Hence, a study of thermal effect on both polymer-based WF and HF couplers by varying the temperature of a hot plate from 20 °C to 125 °C is studied. The fused tapered fiber in the coupling region is exposed to the hot plate surface and optical power is launched into the input fiber of the coupler. In this temperature-dependence experiment, we investigate a relationship between temperature and several parameters such as coupling ratio, insertion loss and excess loss of the couplers.
In this chapter, red LED (650nm) has been utilized to transmit Ethernet data while green LED (520nm) can transmit a video image generated from CCTV network or DVD player, and blue LED with 470nm wavelength represents an audio transmission system for home networking. Refer to Fig. 3, special polymer color filters has been located between the coupler and receiver-end to ensure the entire WDM system can select a single signal as desired [4].
Each of those color filter lets pass exactly one wavelength and reflects all the others. By using several of those filters, the different wavelengths can be sorted out in a very low-cost way.
The performance of the novel coupler either with or without attachment of color filter can be evaluated in terms of insertion loss (IL). Some experiments in order the optimized the performance of WDM-POF based system for IVI system need to be conduct to minimized the value of the insertion loss (IL) in the network. The insertion loss (IL) is the amount of power loss that arises in the fiber optic line from input to the output of the fabricated coupler, expressed below,
Some wavelengths interfere with their reflected parts constructively, whereas others interfere destructively. Those wavelengths that interfere constructively can pass the filter, whereas the others get reflected. Besides the material parameters, the incident angle plays a major role, as each layer gets relatively thicker when tilting the filter. Color filters are manufactured for a long time and therefore high quality filters are readily available. They usually have sizes of several square millimeters. Color filters therefore are a valid choice to build DEMUX.
Adapting the fused tapering technique for conventional multimode fiber, we successfully established fabrication process for 1×3 POF twisted and fused couplers to be used as a MUX and DEMUX in IVI system. The 1×3 low cost coupler is an optical device, which ended by 3 number of POF output ports, while the other side ended by one POF port.
Similar to common coupler, it is also possible to work bidirectional, whereby it works from the 3 ports into 1 port (for coupling signal purpose), or vice versa (for splitting signals purpose). Optical 3×3 coupler has been symmetrically cut into two part to generate a pair of 1×3 couplers by the jointing of three polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) POF [14]. Other specification for the design, the input POF is designed and fabricated to be twisted and fused shape as the fabrication process and 1×3 POF coupler is illustrated in Fig. 4.
Thermal resistance at the coupling region of POF coupler in which all fibers are fused together.
Standard multimode SI-POF is used with its core diameter of 980 µm and cladding thickness of 10 µm. To obtain the results, DEMUX is realized using a special color filter attached using epoxy resin to the end of the connectors. The components are chosen because they are low cost and are easily found in the market.
Almost similar to POF material itself, the color filters are comprised of two types of plastic. More than 65% of the line is made from co-extruded polycarbonate plastic. The remainder of the line is deep dyed polyester [15, 16]. Filters create color by subtracting certain wavelengths of color. Thus, a red filter absorbs blue and green, allowing only the red wavelengths to pass. The process is subtractive not additive, so the light source must emit a full spectrum.
The swatch book provides detailed information on the spectral energy curve of each filter. The curve describes the wavelengths of color transmitted through each filter. For example, Supergel 342 transmits approximately 40% of the violet and blue energy of the spectrum and 75% of the orange and red energy. It absorbs all energy in the yellow and green range [15, 16].
After putting the resin onto the filter to be attached to the socket, the component then is hold together tightly for about two minutes to assure that no gap or air bubbles all over and also to assure the strong bond. This part has to be done gently since the epoxy resin has to be avoided covering the fiber’s surface as much as possible so that any power losses can be minimized when the measurement is taken. However, since the edge of the socket is quite thin and sharp, the spread of the epoxy resin to the fiber surface cannot be 100% avoided.
After the fabrication is done, readings and measurements are taken for insertion loss for each of the fiber using a power meter. In this experiment, a lot of samples were fabricated to get the optimal results and to see which of the color filters that shows the most transmission and gives least losses. The length of the POFs is fixed at 3 meters long.
In this study, for fused plastic optical fiber, the optical loss is categorized as extrinsic loss due to the physical change of POF, LED projection to POF and the core-to-core connection and [17, 18]. It is obtained that the physical change of POF caused by fabrication process, where by diameter of POFs increasingly decrease to approach 1 mm and the POFs finally has twisted and fused shape. In characterization process, optical loss may present through the direct LED projection to POF surface. Besides, optical loss may also present through the connection between the fused tapered POF and POF cable [17].
Comparison for the optical line either using the color filter or not, has been analyzed. The insertion loss of as much as 21 samples for the output terminal over POF has been utilized in 3-channels IVI system through red filter (internet data) have been visualized in Fig. 5. From the results gathered, it is seen that when all the components are set up and red LED (650nm) was injected, the insertion loss measured by the power meter shows small increase of losses when the film is attached to the socket.
Effect on resin for demultiplexer filters approximately 1 dB insertion loss occurred on the measurement between before and after connector glued by resin.
This is also true when blue and green LEDs are injected. For the characterization of same film using different sources, we take a red film A (filter labeled
The effect of plastic-based filter attachment at the receiver-end did not indicate a significant deviation in power efficiency since both PMMA and Co-extruded Polycarbonate for fiber core and plastic filter’s material have the same refractive index which approaching 1.59 [16].
Study on the saturation level of each color filters – red, green and blue – has been carried out. As much as eleven best samples chosen with different level of color saturation labeled from 1 to 11 which sample number 1 indicate the darkest (more saturated) color filter while number 11 with the lightest color (less saturated). Each of different color filter has been injected by LED in a range of blue to red light (470~650nm) and the result can be obtained in Fig. 6.
From the result in Fig. 6(a), it is observed that sample 1 to 7 shows highest losses and decrease of efficiency. Since sample 1 to 7 being among the darkest film color meaning that only small or narrow transmission percentage of red LED or transmitter is allowed to get through. This phenomena also found in Fig 6(b), for the first six sample has quite high losses especially when it was injected by LED in blue to green range (470-580nm). However, red filter in Fig 6(c) did not indicate a significant deviation of loss by variying the saturation of the filter.
Compare with others, red filters block most of the green and blue LED transmission since it is clear that only red wavelength (λ=600~650nm) will be allowed to get through the film. The film filters out any other wavelength transmission that is not within the range. This concept is used as the primary idea for designing the demultiplexer.
It has been proven that, when blue filter was injected by all three optical source (blue, green and red color) all the data were more fluctuated right after the light hit the filter through the fiber. Same goes to green filter, all light sources will fluctuated the efficiency of the data transmission. This fluctuation generated as an effect from the SED percentage of each filters and also came from the intensity of each light source. The higher intensity of the light source transmitted the more oscillated graph plotted and the less significant of SED percentage deviation the less effect on fluctuation.
For the temperature-dependence experiment, two samples of 3×3 fused couplers with multimode SI PMMA POF are tested: WF and HF couplers. For the WF coupler, the fabrication method includes three processes: fiber bundle configuration, fabrication of spiral fiber and fiber tapering. Firstly, a fiber bundle consists of
The HF coupler fabrication method includes four processes, as a new process was introduced to enhance the coupling characteristic of the fused tapered fiber by removing twisting effects on the fused fiber. A twisting effect implies that each fiber is not melted sufficiently to combine with each other. Firstly, a fiber bundle consisting of
Comparison on before (left side) and after (right side) effect on injection of different saturation of color filter. Three basic colors have been investigated for (a) blue, (b) green and (c) red filter, before (left side) and after (right side) injected with LED in visible light range (450~650 nm).
The fiber bundle is pulled and twisted from both sides repeatedly and continuously over a long fusion time,
The experimental setup has been setup, which consisted of a digital hot plate, an AF-OM110A power meter and an LED fiber source with a 650 nm wavelength. Refer to Fig. 4, each fibers on the left side of the coupler are defined as Port A, B, or C, whereas on the other side, each fiber ports are termed as Port D, E, or F. In the experimental setup, for each coupler, the hot plate is exposed directly to the centre region (the fused and tapered fiber) and the temperature of the hot plate is varied from 30 °C to 125 °C to investigate the light propagation behavior and power loss for each fiber port. The LED source is launched into a single input fiber, while each output fibers was connected into an optical power meter using a suitable adapter to measure the output power. In the meantime, another optical power meter is also placed at the end of each input fibers to measure the returned power for both fiber ports. By using the optical power acquired from the measurement, several parameters were calculated for both couplers, such as the excess loss and the coupling ratio.
When the heating temperature is increased to
The heating temperature of the hot plate
While heat energy is supplied from a hot plate to the coupling region at the fused coupler and an LED fiber source with wavelength of 650 nm is injected into an input fiber, thermal resistance would be induced at the centre of the fused coupler to oppose light propagation from a single input fiber into multiple output fibers. The symbols
Firstly, when the temperature is increased to
The optical power was measured for one directions, the LED fiber source was injected into Port A, while the optical power meter was positioned at the ends of the output fibers (Ports D, E, and F). The room temperature
As shown in Fig 7(a) and 7(b), in each fiber port, output power decreases as temperature rises. Both types of fused polymer couplers will be damaged when the heating temperature increased to
The relationship between temperature variation (30 °C to 125 °C) and optical power for (a) the HF coupler and (b) the WF coupler.
In the case of the WF coupler, as shown in Fig 7(b), the optical power reduction in the cross-coupled fibers (Ports E and F) was not significant, as the power intensities for both cross coupled ports were too small, less than 0.5 μW at 30°C. It was found that the throughput port D decreased with similar behavior as that seen in the WF coupler, with the power falling to zero suddenly when the temperature of the hot plate increased to
However, for temperature variations from 30°C to 85°C, the downward slope for the WF coupler (−dP/dT) was greater than for the HF coupler. It is believed that the geometrical taper design (in the coupling region) influenced the −dP/dT slope. As the twisting effect was featured in the fused tapered fiber in the centre of the WF coupler, it is believed that the large fiber imperfection in the fused fiber region changes the total optical transmission characteristic of the polymer fiber. Therefore, the twisting effect is considered to be a minor factor in determining the power loss in the WF coupler.
Another effect to take into account is the heating time delay that occurred during power measurement for each fiber port. The delay caused the temperature of the polymer material to increase and thus resulted in optical loss. At
In addition to the measurement presented above, the returned power
Fig 8 shows the temperature dependence of the coupling ratio for both couplers in their throughput and cross-coupled fiber ports for both directions of lightguide propagation. The coupling ratio in the throughput port is defined as
As both the WF and the HF multimode PPMA POF fiber couplers are wavelength independent, their coupling ratios are not periodic functions. For an ideal wavelength-independent 3×3 coupler, it is assumed that the fused fiber in the coupling region has a strong coupling; the output power ratio in the throughput fiber and the cross-coupled fibers at room temperature,
Coupling ratio variations with temperature increase for (a) HF and (b) WF coupler.
For the WF coupler, as shown in Fig 8, the ratio error
As mentioned before, the refractive index of the fused tapered fiber decreases with temperature. The thermal change of the refractive index in the core and the cladding in the coupling region will result in the variation of the relative phase velocity of the interaction light modes, and the coupling ratio of the fused coupler will be thus influenced by rising temperature [22].
As shown in Fig 8, the variation of the coupling ratio for both couplers is a linear function. The experimental result shows that, for both couplers, the ratio of the transmitted power increases with rising temperature from 30 °C to 125 °C, while the ratio of the coupled power decreases in the meantime.
Fig 8(a) indicates that, for the HF coupler, the average ratio of the coupled power reduces from 35 % to 23 %, whereas the ratio of the output power in the throughput fiber increases linearly from 68 % to 74 %. Fig 8(b) shows that, in contrast to the HF coupler, the WF coupler’s power ratio in the cross-coupled fiber decreases linearly from 18% to 16%. Moreover, the ratio of the transmitted power increases from 82% to 86%. As the Δ
In this study, at room temperature (
In normal conditions without temperature influence, the power splitting performance of the HF coupler is more significant than that of the WF coupler, as the fused fibers in HF coupler suffer from relatively few imperfections. In spite of the different levels of power loss for the two couplers, the fiber imperfections that are characteristic of the fused fiber regions can be considered a design constant, as the excess losses of both couplers decrease with similar Δ
On the other hand, the efficiencies of both couplers lie at the same point when the temperature has been increased to
In the experiment, 95 °C is thus defined as the PMMA POF damage threshold. In the case of polymer material, the
The combination of WDM with POF will broaden the horizon of low cost optical customer premises networks [26]. A technique has been used for fabricating the optical coupler based on POFs technology using multimode SI-POF type with 1 mm core size. Fabrication and characterization stages have been carried out to develop the coupler [14]. A technique also has been used to develop a demultiplexer for short-haul communication based on plastic optical fibers. This experiment shows the transmission of multiple signals with different wavelengths carried through one fiber. The concept of multiplexer and demultiplexer are the basic of this system. The system only utilizes three colors for the transmitters and also the filters for the demultiplexer which are blue, green and red (λ=430, 570 and 650nm). Light source from the red, green and blue transmitters are combined by using multiplexer. In order to separate the combined signals, special separators – called demultiplexers (DEMUX) – are utilized. These DEMUX are realized by employing the principle of the Color filters.
Filters play an important role in giving a higher insertion loss from the WDM-POF system, but the quality of a number of output port is not badly destructed due to the color band gap from the filter itself, speed rate of the Internet still stable and the resolution of the video image is quite good. Some parameters, such as optical output power and power losses on the devices were observed, and not to mention about the effect of filter placement and the efficiency of the handmade 1 ×
Red LED with a 650 nm wavelength has been injected to different Color filters for the purpose of characterization test in order to analyze the level of power efficiency of the demultiplexer. Analysis shows that efficiency maintains for filter of the same wavelength as the transmitter while other range of wavelengths will mostly be filtered out or blocked. This main idea is fully utilized for the designing of demultiplexer for WDM-POF-based IVI-Systems applications. Final analysis shows that efficiency of the filter can reach up to 70%. Improvement of performance can be made through practice. Although the setup IVI system exhibits very high attenuation of the transmission, this concept of handmade optical coupler and demultiplexer has been tested for sending data for video, audio and Ethernet and the output shows successful performance.
In the temperature-dependence experiment, it was proven that thermal resistance exists in the fused tapered fiber at the centre of the coupler. The thermal resistance of the fused fiber is dependent on the heat capacity stored in the coupling region. As the heat capacity of the fused tapered fiber reaches its level of saturation, the internally induced thermal resistance is sufficient to block light propagation from the input fibers. Thus, some portion of the total input power is reflected along the opposite path to the two other input fibers. The resultant light guide propagation is called thermal switching.
Hence, the obtained result reveals that WDM-POF has great potential to be employed as economical wavelength divisions multiplexer because it is able to couple different wavelengths with main advantages that are low optical loss and low cost. An intensive study suggested in order improving the homogeneity of this prototype. In fact, fusion technique afflicted with some disadvantages has no consistency of producing coupler as it was almost not possible to fabricate POF coupler with good performance consistently. This WDM-POF technology can be improved gradually through experience and practice. This device is highly recommended for WDM-POF system as it is not as costly as other commercial POF coupler. Furthermore, the fabrication and installation process is simple, easy and suitable to be used for WDM-POF based IVI-system application.
This research has been conducted in Computer & Network Security Laboratory, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). This project is supported by Ministry of Science, technology and Environment, Government of Malaysia, 01-01-02-SF0493 and Prototype Research Grant Scheme PRGS/1/11/TK/UKM/03/1. All of the handmade fabrication method of POF coupler, 1×N handmade™-POF coupler and also the low cost WDM-POF network solution were protected by patent numbered PI2010700001.
Multilingualism alludes to both a person’s capacity to utilize a few dialects and the coexistence of distinctive language communities in one geological area [1]. Besides, Edwards and Aronin [2, 3] contend that multilingualism is the phenomena of the present age; however, it has existed throughout the whole of human history. As society moves ahead, the expansion of multilingualism is attributed to the social, linguistic, and cultural changes derived from globalization, geographical, and social mobility, economic and political transformations, and the development of technology [2, 3]. Hammarberg [4] states that multilingualism is the normal condition of language ability and that humans are multilingual by nature [4].
In the book
According to Blommaert [6], we are all multilingual to a certain degree since we use different “linguistic varieties, genres, registers, accents,” and it does not matter if our linguistic recourses belong only to one “conventionally defined language” or several of them. He further points out language ideologies in his conception about multilingualism. He connects these ideologies with the ideas people have about the way of using languages they possess, the way they define a language and multilingualism, their beliefs about how language is used and how it works. Aronin and Singleton [7] share with Blommaert’s [6] similar ideas about multilingualism. They describe it as a new social phenomenon in itself, not just adding numbers of languages to individuals and societies. They view multilingualism as a “new linguistic dispensation,” which means “language ideologies and policies, language education in all its dimensions, and the patterns of language use of communities and individuals. It also encompasses the systemic development and evolving status of the full spectrum of extant and emergent language varieties” [7].
According Franceschini [8], today the term multilingualism “denotes various forms of social, institutional and individual usage as well as individual and group competence, plus various contexts of contact and involvement with more than one language.” Franceschini states that the study of multilingual phenomena takes into account the practice of using more than one language, including regional languages, minority languages, migration languages, and language varieties such as dialects, to varying degrees of proficiency among individuals and societies [8]. Thus, the term “multilingualism” is being used increasingly and it refers to societies, nations, individuals, who use more than one language in everyday life, in variety of situations to varying degrees. Multilinguals then are the one who have two or three languages in their repertoire.
“Bilingualism and multilingualism are normal, unremarkable necessities of everyday life for the majority of the world’s population” [9]. However, different sociolinguists use the terms “bilingualism” and “multilingualism” in different ways. For example, Romaine [10] uses these terms interchangeably to refer to the routine use of two or more languages in multilingual speech communities. In this chapter, I use the term “multilingualism” to refer to the routine use of two or more languages in a community. Sociolinguists know that multilingualism is not the aberration or minority phenomenon many speakers suppose it to be. It is, rather, a normal and unremarkable necessity for the majority of the world’s population. Although it is so difficult to provide the exact statistical data on the multilingual speakers and distribution of multilingualism in the world, the focus of this chapter is to succinctly describe the sociolinguistic aspects of language choice and use of multilingual speakers in various domains. Besides, some of the relevant issues are related to language choice and use in multilingual speech communities, in different parts of the world. Furthermore, factors and recent developments for the spread of multilingualism in various parts of the world are also reviewed and included in this chapter.
Spolsky [11] affirms that, during the last 40 years or so, sociolinguistics has been acknowledged as an independent scientific study that accounts for the relationship between language and society. The field of sociolinguistics, Llamas [12] maintain, in the early twenty-first century has become a mature, definitive, and vigorous discipline. Hudson [13] on his part propounds sociolinguistics as the study of language in relation to society. Yet again, according to Coupland and Jaworski [14], sociolinguistics is defined as “the study of language in its social contexts and the study of social life through linguistics.” Further, Fishman [15] uses the term sociolinguistics to embrace both the sociology of language and sociolinguistic. Multilingualism is one of the basic concepts dealt in sociolinguistics.
In sociolinguistics, no matter how it is defined, as partially already mentioned, “Language is not simply a means of communicating information. It is also a very important means of establishing and maintain relationships with other people” [16, 17]. In other words, “the fundamental sociolinguistic question is posed by the need to understand why anyone says anything” [18]. Clearly, in the field of sociolinguistics, language is the key point that links speakers to other people and to society in general. As a matter of fact, the use of language is probably what separates humans from other species and what explains the peculiar ways of living together we can call society or community [19]. That is to say, whether it is used as a basis or as the main topic, language is the essential and central instrument that brings human beings together by creating societies and communities. In [20] terms, “language is the principal means whereby we conduct our social lives. It expresses cultural reality through all its verbal and non-verbal aspects, language embodies cultural reality.” In other words, language might be consider the fundamental instrument within the society in terms of communication, but also one of the main tools that convey and constitute elements of culture and values. This point, on which there seems to be no conflicting opinions, allows all sociolinguistic research to be carried out.
How many languages are there in the world? Questions such as these are central to the study of multilingualism, which can be defined as the use of more than two languages by individuals, and/or within societies and countries. This definition of multilingualism subsumes the definition of bilingualism, which can be defined as the use of two languages by individuals [21]. The term can be applied to people who have competences in a number of languages or to places where many languages are used. The ability to use more than one language) as the attribute of an individual who has a “plurilingual repertoire” of language competences [1]. Plurilingualism is the opposite of monolingualism because it refers to the variety of languages that many people use; it includes the linguistic diversity referred to as “mother tongue” or “first language,” as well as a variety of additional languages or varieties.
Multilingualism can be defined as follows:
The act of using or promoting the use of many languages by an individual speaker or a group of speakers in general. In the world’s population, multilingual speakers predominate monolingual speakers.
Polyglottism is yet another term for it. Polyglots are people who are multilingual. This has evolved into a societal phenomenon governed by globalization and cultural openness requirements.
In a general way, a multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, whether actively through speaking, writing or signing, or passively through listening, reading or perceiving.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, that is, first language (L1) or mother tongue. This is something that can be acquired without a formal education. Even if a person is proficient in two or more languages, his or her “communicative competence” or “ability” may be unequal.
In society, linguistic diversity has been viewed in three ways: as a problem, a right, and a resource [22]. Ethnic linguistic minority is considered as a problem that must be solved by assimilation into the majority language from the first perspective. Supporters of this viewpoint believe that minorities should fully embrace the behavior and language of the majority group. The second viewpoint views minority language maintenance as a right, while the third viewpoint argues that a minority language is a resource that can enrich the experiences and perceptions of all community members, regardless of their first language, [23]. This third view of multilingualism and linguistic diversity has been advocated in a number of studies [24, 25], where three main benefits of multilingualism have been identified: improved international relations and trade; cultural enrichment; and social inclusion [25]. Multilingualism is also seen as a key factor through which different ethnolinguistic groups in society can successfully coexist. Auer and Wei [24] commented as: “Far from being a problem, multilingualism is part of the solution for our future. Social stability, economic development, tolerance and cooperation between groups are possible only when multilingualism is respected” [24]. Thus, this shows that multilingualism is a necessary part of the solution to problems surrounding language and inequality in a given polity.
In this section, I examine at some of the different meanings of multilingualism offered by the different authors. I also go through the definitions of the some of the concepts that have been related to multilingualism, albeit with some preconceptions.
Multilingualism is a fundamental phenomenon that involves language competences and communicative practices in most communities around the globe, according to Heller and Edwards [2, 26]. Multilingualism is an important linguistic dispensation in respect of people’s communication patterns, according to Aronin and Singleton [27, 28]. They claim that multilingualism is the worldwide norm, notably in Africa and Asia, and that it manifests itself at the individual and societal levels. Although language uniformity has long been valued in Europe, there is a growing tendency toward embracing linguistic diversity [8].
The term multilingualism refers to the knowledge and use of a wide range of languages and language varieties with various statuses on the one hand, such as official, national, majority, minority, non-standard varieties, mixed languages, and domains of use on the other, such as home, school, and work places [8, 29]. It also entails all levels of language knowledge and skills. Research on multilingualism has greatly influenced studies in the fields of Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Psycholinguistics and Sociolinguistics. Jessner [29] states that one of the reasons for the challenge in creating widely recognized definitions of multilingualism is that monolingualism’s principles do not match the unique arrangements that occur when individuals or groups know and use many languages. This is also evident of different conceptions for different terms and concepts crucial to multilingual studies, such as the meaning of “language,” which is the primary object of study in various domains.
Since “multilingualism” emerged as a theme in linguistic research, different attempts have been made toward defining it. According to Kemp [30], the different definitions stem from the complexity of language practices in different communities on the one hand, and differing ideologies and goals of researchers in studying multilingualism and multilingual societies on the other hand. The understanding of multilingualism starts from the understanding of its basic ingredient, “language,” which in the classical sense is defined as an abstract tool of communication with territorial and cultural boundaries [5, 31, 32]. Its bounded nature inspired the creation of language names like English attached to specific geographical territories [6]. In this sense, language is a quantifiable entity. The fact that the people or communities could have many such institutions inspired the counting convention. The practice of counting languages led to the coining of terminology such as “bilingualism,” “trilingualism,” “plurilingualism,” and, of course, “multilingualism” [4, 5, 30]. In light of the aforesaid, Edwards [2] defines “multilingualism” in terms of individual knowledge and use of language (individual multilingualism). He recognizes that the ability of an individual to speak different languages is varied does not exist at the same level for all languages. This discussion forms the base for a binary approach in research, which distinguishes the complexity of multilingualism as opposed to monolingualism, and which subsumes “multilingualism” under “bilingualism” by authors of [33, 34, 35].
At earlier, descriptions of multilingualism emphasized on languages as abstract objects, with multilingualism being associated with having a number of independent monolingual systems. Before the industrial revolution, it was uncommon to find people who spoke more than two languages in Europe. As a result, the term multilingualism was first applied to civilizations where multiple languages coexisted, rather than to individuals. Canagarajah [36] for example refers to “national multilingualism” which he defined it as the use of many languages in a country. This concept illustrates how the presence of multiple languages can be a barrier to easy communication because people are not thought to have the ability to quickly learn new languages for trans-local contact. For many years, this perception of multilingualism resulted in its denunciation in communities and among people [37]. On the similar vein, Blommaert [6], mentions that it has since been revisited in light of the ongoing and increasing migration and globalization, which promotes the constant transfer of languages and cultures from one place to another, needing individuals to construct communicative practices that are compliant with the diversity in order to either provide or access services. The peculiar trends of communication observed in certain parts of the world such as South Asia, particularly India [2] and Africa [37] have presented linguists with a complex scenario that prompts more critical attention than just numerical consideration of languages [38]. This, as Blommaert and Heller [6, 39] mention, highlights the situated nature of language practices that makes people acquire and use bits of language that suit particular contexts.
Franceschini [8] elaborates that the concept of multilingualism is to be caught on as the capacity of social orders, teach, bunches, and people to lock in on a customary premise in space and time with more than one dialect in regular life. This means that multilingualism is a product of the fundamental human ability to communicate in a number of languages. Operational distinctions may then be drawn between social, institutional, discursive, and individual multilingualism. This is in line with Groasjean’s [33] assessment that “bilingualism” involves open interaction and contact especially involving different cultures. Franceschini [8] further addresses the unfixed nature of communities and practices by acknowledging language use in space and time, and the aspect of contact. She emphasizes the value of communities of practice (institutions and groups) which breed the environment for societal and individual practices that utilize and produce language for different purposes. Groasjean [33] on the other hand asserts that “bilingualism is not a phenomenon of language; it is a characteristic of its use.” In an attempt to give a profound description of multilingualism, Cruz-Ferreira [34] emphasizes [32, 33] assertion by viewing “multilingualism” as an aspect of individuals and not of languages. Makoni and Pennycook [32] contend that multilingualism has nothing to do with languages, because languages are not multilingual, rather people are capable. This is not to say that there is not a language element to the concept of multilingualism. It all more strongly mirrors Stewart’s [31] argument that language is a local practice formed by individuals’ repeated activities in their many communicative interactions in various social contexts. In other words, individuals’ social practices (what people do) with languages cause multilingualism [34, 40]. Thus, Makoni and Pennycook [32] suggest that in order to understand and ably describe “multilingualism,” there is a need to study speakers’ language practices.
Sociolinguists list down different competencies of multilingual speakers. In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some other states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the states, when all speakers are multilingual linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved.
Resources in a multilingual repertoire are obtained with a variation of competences for use in specific contexts [41] and for specific purposes. Henceforth, language choice is an important aspect to discuss in a study of multilingualism [42, 43]. Gumperz and Duranti [42, 44] moreover keep up that multilingual speakers in multilingual settings continually make choices as to which etymological asset to convey in a given setting and with a given group of bystanders. Gumperz [42] accepts that dialect choice depends on the realization of the communicative capacities of the questioners such that comprehensible is of center intrigued. Myers-Scotton [45] on the other hand asserts that language choice is motivated by performance of identity and negotiation of agency especially during social interactions. With this view, Myers-Scotton [45] is inclined to language choice as a function of identity negotiation whereby every time the communication situation changes and people assume different subject positions, Kramsch [46] chooses a code that reflects their personae. Meyer and Apfelbaum [47] argue that “cognitive, social and historical aspects may play an important role in multilingual communication such as level of linguistic competence of participants and the degree of linguistic regulation of interaction spaces.”
Scholars have identified a number of factors which they believe influence language choice and language use in ethnic minority settings. These are as follows: domain, interlocutors, and topic. These factors are discussed in the following sections:
Interlocutors—Interlocutors have a significant impact on language choice. While researching the linguistic behavior of ethnic minority communities in the London suburbs, Harris [52] identified three patterns: one with parents, which usually involved a mixed language of mainstream and minority languages; one with siblings, which mainly involved using the mainstream language; and one with grandparents, which mainly involved using the minority language. Other researchers Lawson and Yagmur [53, 54] reported similar results, suggesting that language use may be connected to the speakers’ age. Gender differences are thought to influence language usage patterns [52, 55].
The concept of domain analysis developed by Fishman remains useful for both description and explanation of the distribution and use of language in domains and is based on [49] famous question of “Who speaks what language to whom, and when.” There is a correlation between language choice and a wide range of social factors, such as the number and geographical distribution of the language’s speakers. Domain analysis, therefore, is the framework on which the survey questionnaires for this study are based. Domain analysis approached the study of language use by relating self-reported language behaviors and attitudes of the respondents to sociological indices in the groups under study. The language domain should be considered an abstraction of an interactional situation in which a cluster of sociocultural, sociolinguistic, and linguistic factors is at work.
The family, the playground, and the street, the school, the church, work, literature, the mass media, the courts, and other administrative agencies are examples of domains described in the literature. The precise description and classification of domains necessitates a thorough understanding of a society’s sociocultural dynamics, norms, and values at a specific point in time. This is because the quantity and intensity of language behavior domains can vary from context to context [49].
Domain, an important determinant of language choice, refers to the context of language use, for instance, that of family, friendship, neighborhood, education, and transaction. With reference to domain distribution of language use, Wallwork [60] says that in some domains there may be contact with other people with whom there is a potential choice of two or even three languages. The decision may be focused on the function of the two speakers in relation to each other, or the topic of the conversation who both view domain in the same ways [61].
The impacts of domain on language choice have been investigated in a number of research. Greenfield [62] states that in the multilingual Puerto Rican population of New York, the low language, Spanish, is preferred in intimate domains such as family and friendship, while the high language, English, is preferred for job and education. Parasher [63] demonstrates that in India, people use their mother tongue and another language in the family domain, although English dominates high domains like education, government, and employment, as well as some low domains like friendship and neighborhood. Similar findings were reported by Hohenthal [64], who found that languages are employed differently depending on the domain. The concept of domain and domain analysis, however, has been criticized. Some of the studies reported partial effect of domain on language choice whereas others reported even no effect at all. Pascasio and Hidalgo [65] examined how role-relationships, domains, and speech situations affect language use among bilinguals in Philippines. The speech situations, however, do not seem to have much effect on language used. Gal [66] however, strongly disagreed with the influence of domain on language choice. The other situational factors such as audience, setting, occasion, and purpose have been found to influence the choice of language in other communities but these factors were found irrelevant to the Oberwart case in Austria.
Topic, role relation, and geography, according to Fishman [49], are elements that influence the concept of domain. In multilingual situations, he claims that topic can be a language regulator. When discussing specific topics, someone might, for example, adjust their language to that of the interlocutor. Role relation, according to Marjohan [67], is that the languages you use are decided by the interlocutors with whom you communicate. For instance, a father may converse with his mother, a child may converse with his mother, and a mother may converse with her child. He also says that locality influences the languages you use because of where the discussions take place. According to Marjohan and Tanner [67, 68], there are factors of choice to be setting in locale. The factors are content or topic, social distance and motivational factors. In social distance, there are two dimensions: vertical and horizontal dimensions. The vertical dimensions mean that the languages use are determined by the relative position of someone that is compared with others. Marjohan [67] States that you have to respect someone who is above you in terms of status, age or marital status. The horizontal dimensions refer to the relative closeness of someone with others. You tend to use a low code if you speak to someone who is close to you in terms of degree of friendship, sex, ethnic background, religious background or educational background. Someone has motivational factors when he or she is interested to speak with the interlocutors or interested about the topics even manipulative.
A number of studies have identified proficiency as a limiting factor in language choice. David [69] There have been reports that a shift can be attributed to a lack of proficiency in the ethnic language (language shift, switch, mix and maintenance are the ways through which language choice manifests). David also understands that code switching reflects a speaker’s level of expertise and comfort with a certain language. She also acknowledges that whether English or Malay is utilized as the lingua franca is determined by whether the speakers are fluent in both languages. Wallwork [60] has a similar view when he states that it is vital to consider an individual’s language skill in connection to the settings in which language is used. In a Puerto Rican bilingual education program in New Haven, Connecticut, Hakuta [70] looked into the links between language choice, proficiency, and attitude. She claimed that language transition in American Hispanic communities is frequently characterized by a combination of processes involving proficiency, choice, and attitude.
Ethnicity is widely acknowledged as a major limitation that determines people’s linguistic choices. The impact of ethnicity on language choice has been documented in several research. Gal’s [66] is one of the research that firmly suggests that language choice is determined by identity. In the Oberwart instance in Austria, Gal discovered that only the participants’ identities can account for their language choice and use. In their study in Valencia, Spain, Sankoff [71] discovered a similarly high link between ethnicity and language choice. According to the findings, ethnic identity is the most closely linked to language choice motivation. Another study Burhanudeen [72], conducted in Malaysia, where the current study is being conducted, finds that the ethnicity of the participants influences the Malays’ language choice.
Gender is also found to influence language choice. According to Lu [73], disparities in age, education, gender, and residency area result in various attitudes toward native language maintenance and legitimacy, and these attitudes encourage people to choose alternative languages. Chan [74], on the other hand, finds no gender differences in Minnanren’s language use (quoted in [75]). Domain, proficiency, ethnicity, and gender are all factors that influence language choice among Malaysian friends and neighbors, according to this study.
Given the scope of the term and the relevance of the various characteristics of attitudes, Garrett [76] contends that defining the idea of attitude is difficult. Attitudes, on the other hand, are divided into three categories: cognitive, affective, and behavioral [76]. The first is concerned with the impact of attitudes on an individual’s perceptions of the world and specific situations; the second is concerned with emotions in response to the attitude item, and the third is concerned with attitudes interfering with conduct [76]. There is a general consensus in the literature that learning and using a language are easier for people who have a positive attitude toward the language and its speakers [76, 77], because language attitudes can better determine others’ reactions to the language choice and thus influence this choice [76].
Scholars have argued pedagogical, theoretical, and empirical foundations for such multilingual language use policies in multiethnic countries. Increasing citizens’ language skills will be equally important in achieving European policy goals, particularly against a background of increasing global competition and the challenge of better exploiting Europe’s potential for sustainable growth and more and better jobs. For example, The European Union Commission’s long-term objective is to increase individual multilingualism until every citizen has practical skills in at least two languages in addition to his or her mother tongue. This framework should establish clear objectives for language choice and use of multilingual speakers at the various domains and be accompanied by a sustained effort to raise awareness of the importance of linguistic diversity and multilingualism.
Two patterns deserve comment in relation to the changing character of multilingualism in the world today. This is true for the spread of the major world languages such as English, Spanish, French, and Chinese especially in the major cities and urban centers in the world. This is because as those major languages spread in urban centers as well as other localities, people tend to prefer and use them (languages) in various domains instead of the other minority or less populous languages. The second condition in the new development of multilingualism in the world is the increasing linguistic and cultural diversity, and mobility in different parts of the world particularly in Europe and America where linguistic homogeneity was the major characters of these parts of the globe [6]. Of course, in these parts of the world (Europe, USA), mobility and waves of immigration are the main leading factors for the spread of multilingualism and multiculturalism across the world.
Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Multilingualism is the act of using polyglottism, or using multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. The simultaneous coexistence of a large number of languages in a country has also important cultural, economical, sanitary, and political effects on the life of its inhabitants, who will be crucially affected by the decisions taken by the government on language policy.
As already explained or stated in the introduction of the chapter, multilingualism is the common norm and way of life in many parts of the world. Nevertheless, for so long time, the concept of monolingualism has been also a dominant norm and way of life in various parts of world particularly in the Western countries. As has been stated in the chapter, the nature of multilingualism in different countries in the world is reviewed and presented. Besides, practical aspects of the multilingualism and language choice and use practices from empirical data were also reviewed and discussed for further understanding. Nevertheless, the coexistence of multiple languages in linguistically diversified settings by itself is not inherently the source of conflicts, miscommunication, or misunderstandings as a result of language choice and use of multilingual speakers. The real problem perhaps might be the inequalities existing between individuals and groups or communities who happen to speak and use different languages in various domains.
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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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