\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9386",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Direct Numerical Simulations - An Introduction and Applications",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"To understand and model the turbulent behavior of flowing fluids is one of the most fascinating, intriguing, annoying, and most important problems of engineering and physics. Admittedly most of the fluid flows are turbulent. In the known universe, turbulence is evident at the macroscopic scale and the microscopic scale in identical proportions. Turbulence is manifested in many places, such as: a plethora of technological devices, atmospheres and ocean currents, astronomical or galactic motions, and biological systems like circulation or respiration. With the continuum as an assumption, the equations that define the physics of fluid flow are the Navier-Stokes equations modeled during the mid-19th Century by Claude-Louis Navier and Sir George Gabriel Stokes. These equations define all flows, even turbulent flows, yet there is no analytical solution to even the simplest turbulent flow possible. However, the numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equation is able to describe the flow variable as a function of space and time. It is called direct numerical simulations (DNS), which is the subject matter of this book.",isbn:"978-1-83880-559-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-558-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-836-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84930",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",publishedDate:"January 14th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6179,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6897/images/system/6897.jpeg",biography:"Dr. P. Srinivasa Rao is presently working as a Professor and Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Vardhaman College Engineering, Hyderabad. Dr. Rao earned his Ph.D. in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and IC Engine Combustion. He worked as a scientist in the Computational Fluid Dynamics division of the Scientific Engineering and Computing Group (SECG) at the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune. Dr. Rao has over 60 publications in refereed international journals and conferences and is an inventor of 4 patents. He acted as a facilitator for the learning process and organized 16 workshops/FDPs/SDPs, 3 international conferences, and 2 national conferences beneficial to faculty, researchers and industry and delivered 32 plenaries, keynote speeches, and invited talks. Dr. Rao has taught over 32 courses on CFD, turbulence modeling, and combustion. He has advised 4 doctoral research fellows and has been a research visitor for 39 graduate students. He has been the editor of international scientific journals and a reviewer for more than twenty journals from Asia, Europe, and the USA of repute like SAE. Dr. Rao’s research has involved applications of the CFD to the problems of mechanical and aerospace systems, computational physics, and turbulence modeling including biology and medicine.",institutionString:"Vardhaman College of Engineering",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"935",title:"Fluid Dynamics",slug:"materials-science-fluid-mechanics-fluid-dynamics"}],chapters:[{id:"70147",title:"Turbulent Flow Simulations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90251",slug:"turbulent-flow-simulations",totalDownloads:379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter consists of four sections; Introduction, Boundary and initial conditions, Setting of nonuniformly spaced grid, and Simulation approach. The fields of the fluctuating velocity describe the turbulent flows. Such fluctuations blend the transported quantities, like species concentration, energy, and momentum and make the transported quantity fluctuations in addition. Because such fluctuations have a small scale and high frequency, so they are very computationally costly for simulation straightforward in the virtual engineering computations. Alternatively, the instantaneous accurate governing equations can be time-averaged, ensemble-averaged, or in different way handled for removing the small scales, causing a modified group of equations, which are computationally less costly for solving.",signatures:"Laith Jaafer Habeeb and Riyadh Sabah Saleh Al-Turaihi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70147",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70147",authors:[{id:"302432",title:"Dr.",name:"Latih",surname:"Habeeb",slug:"latih-habeeb",fullName:"Latih Habeeb"},{id:"307251",title:"Prof.",name:"Riyadh Sabah",surname:"Saleh Al-Turaihi",slug:"riyadh-sabah-saleh-al-turaihi",fullName:"Riyadh Sabah Saleh Al-Turaihi"}],corrections:null},{id:"67877",title:"Propagation of Shock Waves in Two Rooms Communicating through an Opening",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87190",slug:"propagation-of-shock-waves-in-two-rooms-communicating-through-an-opening",totalDownloads:749,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Confined explosions represent a serious safety hazard as significant damage to humans and structures is observed, unlike in free-field explosions. An experimental small-scale study investigated the blast wave in a single-story building. The blast waves were generated by the detonation of a gaseous charge. The building was divided into two rooms by a movable wall which could be positioned at three different locations. The presence of an opening in this movable wall means that two rooms were considered: a transmitter room (TR) and a receptor room (RR). The configuration without the movable wall was also studied. Pressure profiles recorded with pressure gauges at ground level and on the wall presented numerous reflections. The damage effects were severe since the maximum overpressure never fell below 0.2 bar. Although this study is limited to a small scale and gaseous detonation charge, the results can be applied to a large scale and for a TNT charge.",signatures:"Isabelle Sochet, Kevin Gault and Luc Hakenholz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67877",authors:[{id:"297369",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabelle",surname:"Sochet",slug:"isabelle-sochet",fullName:"Isabelle Sochet"},{id:"297371",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Gault",slug:"kevin-gault",fullName:"Kevin Gault"}],corrections:null},{id:"74422",title:"Direct Numerical Simulation of Nano Channel Flows at Low Reynolds Number",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94949",slug:"direct-numerical-simulation-of-nano-channel-flows-at-low-reynolds-number",totalDownloads:386,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The governing equations of viscous fluid flow are generally represented by Navier–Stokes (NS) equations. The output of Navier Stokes equations is in essence velocity vector from which rest of the flow parameters can be calculated. It is essentially a riotous task, sometimes it becomes so unmanageable that fluid flow over simplest topologies under low Reynold’s numbers also needs the most powerful supercomputing facility to solve, if needed to model the fluid and its behavior under the turbulent conditions the best way out is to solve the averaged NS equations. However in the process of averaging Reynolds introduced certain new terms such as Reynolds Stresses. Therefore it is required to close the system of equations by relating the unknown variables with known ones. Hence we have turbulence models. Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) is a method of solving NS equations directly that is by forfeiting the need of turbulence models as the equations are not averaged. However originally direct numerical simulation procedure does not need of additional closure equations, it is essential to have very fine grid elements and should be estimated for exceptionally small time steps to achieve precise solutions. In the present chapter an interesting flow through nano-channel problem has been discussed using the indispensable mathematical technique of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) which is DNS.",signatures:"P. Srinivasa Rao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74422",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74422",authors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],corrections:null},{id:"70573",title:"Bases of Combustion Instability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90017",slug:"bases-of-combustion-instability",totalDownloads:740,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Combustible systems generally consist of two types of chemically interacting components during combustion: an oxidizing agent (oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, their compounds) and fuel (hydrogen, hydrocarbons, nitrogen and hydrogen compounds, aluminum, etc.). The chemical properties of the components, their phase state, and their physical structure are essential when choosing the methods for supplying the components and organizing the processes in the combustion chambers, but they relatively weakly affect the basic laws of combustion processes. In the theory of combustion, the problems of burning homogeneous, premixed, gaseous components are studied in most detail. The concepts and methods of the theory of combustion are used in other areas of science and technology when considering exothermic processes with high heat generation. The separation of the issues of flame stability into diffusion-thermal and hydrodynamic problems, which is often encountered in theoretical works, is conditional and is caused by the desire to reduce the mathematical difficulties that arise when solving the problem in the general formulation. In fact, flame instability is determined by the influence of both transport processes in the flame (diffusion-thermal processes), depending on its structure, and hydrodynamic processes, i.e., the effects of gas flow. The determination of the concentration limits of flame propagation, ignition, and extinction, spontaneous instability of the flame front, the transition of combustion to detonation, and the excitation of oscillations during combustion are practical problems of the theory of combustion. Acoustic combustion instability can be considered as a self-oscillating process in which the feedback providing the energy necessary for maintaining undamped wave motions from a nonperiodic heat source (combustion process) is realized through the action of sound (acoustic) waves on combustion; in this case, the parameters of the wave motions, amplitude, waveform, and frequency, are determined by the internal properties of the system itself. This chapter provides a sequence of parametric estimates of acoustic instability during combustion in cylindrical chambers.",signatures:"V.I. Biryukov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70573",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70573",authors:[{id:"309433",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasily",surname:"Biryukov",slug:"vasily-biryukov",fullName:"Vasily Biryukov"}],corrections:null},{id:"64298",title:"Determination of the Velocity of the Detonation Wave and the Conditions for the Appearance of Spherical Detonation during the Interaction of Hydrogen with Oxygen",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81792",slug:"determination-of-the-velocity-of-the-detonation-wave-and-the-conditions-for-the-appearance-of-spheri",totalDownloads:727,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The well-known formula for the flat detonation wave velocity derived from the Hugoniot system of equations faces difficulties, if being applied to a spherical reactor. A similar formula has been obtained in the framework of the theory of explosion in reacting gas media with the use of a special model describing the transition of an explosive wave in the detonation. The derived formula is very simple, being also more suitable for studying the limiting processes of volume detonation. The conditions for the transition of a shock wave to a detonation wave are studied. Initial detonation conditions required for fast chemical reactions to take place at the front of a spherical explosive wave have been determined. A simple relation describing the critical detonation temperature for various pressures in the hydrogen-oxygen mixture was obtained. Using the known formulas for a shock transition, the critical temperature was coupled with the initial conditions in a static environment, such as the pressure, temperature, and hydrogen content in the mixture.",signatures:"Myron Polatayko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64298",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64298",authors:[{id:"264900",title:"Mr.",name:"Myron",surname:"Polatayko",slug:"myron-polatayko",fullName:"Myron Polatayko"}],corrections:null},{id:"70709",title:"DNS for Turbulent Premixed Combustion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90632",slug:"dns-for-turbulent-premixed-combustion",totalDownloads:580,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Most of practical combustion occurs in turbulent flows which involve strong coupling between turbulence and chemical processes. The heat release from combustion alters the fluid properties such as density and viscosity and in turns affects the turbulence. Direct numerical simulations (DNS) provides a tool for obtaining both temporally and spatially resolved data in three dimension (3D). This chapter presents a brief overview of importance of DNS in turbulent combustion, the role of turbulence and identifies different combustion modes. The mathematical formulation and numerical implementation for DNS are introduced. The second half of this chapter presents DNS results for ignition in both homogeneous and stratified mixtures. It has been found that minimum ignition energy is required to obtain successful ignition in different turbulence regimes. An increase in turbulent velocity fluctuation may leads to a misfire. Additionally the difference between growing flames and those which are quenched by turbulence have been discussed with the help of the reaction–diffusion balance analysis. Furthermore, the turbulence intensity and length scale of the mixture inhomogeneity have important influences on achieving self-sustained combustion following successful ignition events.",signatures:"Dipal Patel and Martin Agelin-Chaab",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70709",authors:[{id:"312504",title:"Dr.",name:"Dipal",surname:"Patel",slug:"dipal-patel",fullName:"Dipal Patel"},{id:"312505",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Agelin-Chaab",slug:"martin-agelin-chaab",fullName:"Martin Agelin-Chaab"}],corrections:null},{id:"70511",title:"A Theoretical Review of Rotating Detonation Engines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90470",slug:"a-theoretical-review-of-rotating-detonation-engines",totalDownloads:1474,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Rotating detonation engines are a novel device for generating thrust from combustion, in a highly efficient, yet mechanically simple form. This chapter presents a detailed literature review of rotating detonation engines. Particular focus is placed on the theoretical aspects and the fundamental operating principles of these engines. The review covers both experimental and computational studies, in order to identify gaps in current understanding. This will allow the identification of future work that is required to further develop rotating detonation engines.",signatures:"Ian J. Shaw, Jordan A.C. Kildare, Michael J. Evans, Alfonso Chinnici, Ciaran A.M. Sparks, Shekh N.H. Rubaiyat, Rey C. Chin and Paul R. Medwell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70511",authors:[{id:"245571",title:"Dr.",name:"S N",surname:"Hossain",slug:"s-n-hossain",fullName:"S N Hossain"},{id:"281858",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Medwell",slug:"paul-medwell",fullName:"Paul Medwell"},{id:"301696",title:"Mr.",name:"Ian",surname:"Shaw",slug:"ian-shaw",fullName:"Ian Shaw"},{id:"301697",title:"Mr.",name:"Jordan",surname:"Kildare",slug:"jordan-kildare",fullName:"Jordan Kildare"},{id:"301698",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Evans",slug:"michael-evans",fullName:"Michael Evans"},{id:"301699",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",surname:"Chinnici",slug:"alfonso-chinnici",fullName:"Alfonso Chinnici"},{id:"301702",title:"Mr.",name:"Ciaran",surname:"Sparks",slug:"ciaran-sparks",fullName:"Ciaran Sparks"},{id:"301703",title:"Dr.",name:"Rey",surname:"Chin",slug:"rey-chin",fullName:"Rey Chin"}],corrections:null},{id:"71969",title:"Effect of Laminar Flow on the Corrosion Activity of AA6061-T6 in Seawater",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91026",slug:"effect-of-laminar-flow-on-the-corrosion-activity-of-aa6061-t6-in-seawater",totalDownloads:571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The electrochemical behaviour and surface changes on AA6061-T6 alloy exposed to Caribbean seawater from the Cozumel Channel for 30 days under laminar flow (0.1 ms−1) were studied, these contrasting then with stationary conditions. Open circuit potential monitoring and electrochemical current fluctuations, considered as electrochemical noise (EN), were employed as two nondestructive methods. The calculated corrosion current, based on Rn, was one order higher in laminar flow. The fluctuations of current were transformed in the frequency domain. Their power spectral density (PSD) plots were obtained in order to gain information concerning the dynamic of the spontaneous release of energy during the corrosion process. The value of the exponent β in PSD graphs suggested that the localised corrosion on AA6061-T6 surface occurs as a persistent stationary process, which dynamic is controlled by oxygen diffusion. The changes in the morphology and elemental composition of the formed layers revealed that the localised attacks occurred in the vicinity of intermetallic particles rich in Fe and Cu, which act as cathodes.",signatures:"Gloria Acosta, Lucien Veleva, Luis Chávez and Juan L. López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71969",authors:[{id:"310345",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucien",surname:"Veleva",slug:"lucien-veleva",fullName:"Lucien Veleva"}],corrections:null},{id:"69647",title:"A Unique Volume Balance Approach for Verifying the Three-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Numerical Models in Surface Waterbody Simulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89691",slug:"a-unique-volume-balance-approach-for-verifying-the-three-dimensional-hydrodynamic-numerical-models-i",totalDownloads:579,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The hydrodynamic numerical modeling is increasingly becoming a widely used tool for simulating the surface waterbodies including rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. A challenging step in any model development is the verification tests, especially at the early stage of development. In this study, a unique approach was developed by implementing the volume balance principle in order to verify the three-dimensional hydrodynamic models for surface waterbody simulation. A developed and verified three-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality model, called W3, was employed by setting a case study model to be verified using the volume balance technique. The model was qualified by calculating the error in the accumulated water volume within the domain every time step. Results showed that the volume balance reached a constant error over the simulation period, indicating a robust model setup.",signatures:"Hussein A.M. Al-Zubaidi and Scott A. Wells",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69647",authors:[{id:"294611",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein",surname:"Al-Zubaidi",slug:"hussein-al-zubaidi",fullName:"Hussein Al-Zubaidi"},{id:"310604",title:"Dr.",name:"Scott A.",surname:"Wells",slug:"scott-a.-wells",fullName:"Scott A. 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A self-respecting smart city cannot ignore serious and far-sighted planning that bases urban landscape design on Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and integrated modeling, which Building Information Modeling (BIM) is able to ensure; this is because only having a clear vision, implemented with a precise planning, of what is going to be built is it possible to avoid the destructive effects that a construction practice without adequate tools can cause. The use of GIS and BIM together therefore allows you to plan, design, build and manage infrastructure resources more efficiently and save time and money.
BIM is widely recognized as a fundamental methodology for relaunching the global economy: this is why in many countries digitalization processes have been started in the AEC sector [2].
BIM starts at the planning and conceptual design stage and continues throughout the lifecycle of the asset. It is important that intelligent information is not lost as the project progresses through the various stages of a BIM Infrastructure Project.
The entire process of developing, executing and managing infrastructure projects can be transformed—initial surveying and data collection, environmental review, public participation, design and documentation, bidding, construction, and operations and maintenance [3, 4]. The model-centric approach enables planners, engineers, and designers to explore and validate innovative design ideas and what-if scenarios with project investors.
To model a smart infrastructure, it is necessary to find a set of variables and parameters essential for the analysis and prediction of the performance of built objects [5].
Data modeling can be performed by procedural, also known as parametric, modeling that provides object-oriented n-dimensional information or generative model information containing objects created through algorithmic processes [6].
Parametric and procedural 3D geometrical models can be represented by graphs in order to define relationships and dependencies between geometric entities and allow its reuse in similar design scenarios or to adapt it to different scenarios [7, 8].
The models created for BIM are not just 3D geometry; they are data-rich objects which are: intelligent - parametric engines help define relationships between objects and keep changes consistent and coordinated; knowledge-based - can be constrained by things like AASHTO codes, design criteria, and company standards; scalable - able to aggregate huge amounts of data from multiple sources; visual - enable better analysis, simulation and communication [9].
In the last few years, researchers have been focusing their attention on assessing the benefits of using digital tools and processes to support effectively the entire life of transportation facilities and road infrastructures, from strategic planning, design and construction [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] to performance management and maintenance [18, 19, 20, 21].
Marzouk and Othman [22] proposes an inclusive framework for integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Geographical Information System (GIS) to plan and forecast the utility infrastructure needs for expanding and emerging cities to highlight the concept of “smartness” during the planning stage.
As highlighted by Sankaran et al. [23], BIM is an efficient method for collecting and updating as-built data for creating a digital archive of information to facilitate management and future project development.
For example, Tang et al. [24] created a platform for the integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) based road design and pavement structural analysis, allowing to establish a conversion between the three dimensional (3D) model and the finite element method software ABAQUS, providing quality data and powerful technical support and minimizing the uncertainty factors in the road design and maintenance processes.
Also, the design process was supported through the implementation of an empirical model for the analysis of permanent deformation of the asphalt pavement, which allows selecting the pavement that best suits the desired service life [25].
There is a need for such an approach to assist decision makers to ensure enterprise’s objectives and targets are maximized with given budget and planned shutdown time [26, 27].
Interoperable BIM model has been adapted to perform complex multi-physical studies and simulations in several technical fields (including noise exposure, wind comfort, artificial and natural lighting, energy consumption, environmental impacts and global comfort) [28].
However, the existing BIM-based decision-support methods have primarily focused on building design and construction. Therefore, they are limited in their ability to provide an appropriate methodology for master planning of large-scale development projects [29].
It is of great significance to promote the application of BIM technology in the life cycle management of projects in the context of smart cities, ensure the consistency and interoperability of BIM deliverables at all engineering stages, and realize the comprehensive management of the construction industry in smart cities [30, 31].
Analysis procedure presented here aims to offer an innovative and practical methodology for integration of road design and pavement analysis, for a better management and optimization of road pavement maintenance.
The work phases are shown in Figure 1 and basically are carried out as follows:
Building the existing ground surfaces; surfaces are used to derive alignments and profiles, and for corridor grading;
Designing horizontal-vertical alignment; alignment are used by corridor as its centerline while profiles use existing ground profiles and design finished grade profile (vertical alignments);
Create the required assemblies; subassemblies are used to build the required assemblies;
Create the 3D corridor;
Information management for a decision support system for the management of maintenance processes.
Methodological approach.
Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is a concept that underlies all calculations in Civil Engineering involving elevation or slope - profiles, cross sections, grading and volume calculations.
The process of DTM involves the creation of a data structure that the software can instantly “touch” to retrieve elevations or slopes, representing either existing or proposed conditions.
DTM mathematically completes all interpolation possible between the data supplied, and stores the result in a digital file for easy retrieval.
Surfaces can certainly be produced from other data types, including point data.
There are certain data types that are universally applicable to any DTM effort in Civil Engineering and Surveying. These data types are constant in any program: Civil 3D, Open Roads Designer, ArcGIS, etc.
The three data types which can be used in constructing a DTM are Point Data, Breakline Data, and Contour Data.
Point Data - Point Data for DTM consist of individual discrete X, Y and Z locations, without connecting features between them. Typically, these will be spot elevations in a contour drawing, or the mass points themselves in a Mass Points and Breaklines drawing. Critically, the Point Data must have an elevation or Z component that can be processed in some fashion in building the elevation model. Spot elevation text at elevation 0 in a drawing can be used and processed by Map into an ASCII file, and ASCII files of XYZ format can be used as well.
Breakline Data - Breaklines are also referred to as Faults, or Features. Breaklines, as used in this context, represent the linear edges of site features along which there is a noticeable change in grade. Successfully applied, a breakline forces a deflection in a contour to show a grade change. Examples are edges of pavement, shoulders, toes or tops of slope, toes or tops of wall, water features, etc. λ Contour Data - The definition of contour Data for Digital Terrain Modeling is very specific, and not necessarily what one would expect.
Contour Data are strings of point data connected by segments in complex objects; the CAD representation is a polyline. Contour Data do not have to be at constant elevation, as one typically thinks of contours. Contour Data are a fast means of selecting and processing point data, utilizing the vertices of the objects. Most Digital Terrain Modeling applications will also process the segments between the vertices as breakline data, and can filter out vertices too close together or add interpolated vertices if required. Contour Data must be at a correct Z elevation to be processed in a Terrain Model. Polylines must be at a correct Z, either constant as a 2D polyline, or varying, as a 3D polyline. GIS data can again be used, and CAD Map can read elevation attributes from GIS Contour Data and apply them to polylines through a Property Alteration Query.
Most Civil Engineering and Surveying applications will utilize some combination of data types in a Terrain Model; having two types present is common and all three is not unusual at all.
Triangular irregular networks (TIN) are a representation of a continuous surface consisting entirely of triangular facets, used mainly as Discrete Global Grid in primary elevation modeling.
TINs can be constructed using three types of vector information: altitude measurements (mass points), surface continuity breaklines, surface continuity break polygons (polygon surfaces).
The points contain the X, Y coordinates and the Z value. All points are used to establish a connection with the two closest points to create triangles. Surface triangulation is based on the Delaunay algorithm, which ensures that no points are within the circle of a triangle.
The Discontinuity Lines represent the characteristics of a linear infrastructure such as curbs, retaining walls, etc. These lines also define the edges of the triangles. Breaklines can be created from linear entities such as line, polyline, arc, circle.
Contours are the characteristics to define bounded 3D surfaces. Surface contours can be created with closed polylines. Defining external contours on a large 3D surface improves the performance of a TIN Surface plane.
Figure 2 shows the triangles that result from Digital Terrain Modeling where the elevation value is retrieved from the digital surface and displays it in the Tooltip, instantly, and anywhere on the surface.
Digital terrain model.
Creating and defining a horizontal alignment is one of the first steps in infrastructure design.
In Figure 3 a workflow to design and edit alignments is shown.
Workflow: To design and edit alignments.
You can draw the alignment geometry as a polyline, and then create the named alignment from that geometry. For greater control, you can create an alignment object or You can also make edits to alignments using grips.
Create alignments in many ways, such as creating them from polylines, from pipe networks, and from LandXML data.
The alignment can be created using fixed, floating, and free elements:
Fixed elements have its position totally defined by specifying a combination of start/end points or center, length, bearing or angle, and radius. However, as the fixed position of a computator is defined by points that are dependent (referenced) on other elements, a fixed computator is actually free to move as the referenced elements move. It is “fixed” in respect of its location to the referenced element;
Floating elements have one unknown, which becomes the “floating” part. The unknown part can be the length, angle, point/centre, or radius. The other parts (one for lines, two for arcs) are fixed in position;
Free elements are totally unconstrained and will be defined by the adjoining elements. Whilst an arc has two unknowns with only the radius, or one point, or length defined.
Once it is determined which element type best suits the design context, it can be selected the appropriate line, curve, transition, or combination based on available design data, such as whether you have a known through point, length, or radius.
When you create an alignment, you can use the criteria-based design feature to ensure that your alignment design meets minimum local standards and consequently easily identify and report standards violations.
The alignment is an interactive line with profiles, both existing ground and planned work.
Using profiles, you can view changes in elevation along a horizontal alignment. In addition to the centerline profile, you can create offset profiles for features such as waterway or ditch banks. On a profile view, you can also superimpose the profile of a different horizontal alignment that is in the same area. And like LandDesktop you can create a temporary profile that can help you view information at locations where there is no alignment (i.e. line, polyline, feature, or along a series of points you select).
The horizontal and the vertical alignments need to match in length exactly or else the corridor will not be created properly.
Figure 4 shows an example of road alignment with its relative ground and vertical profile.
Road alignment and its vertical profile.
Once both alignments are created, the next step is to create a section type, with surface depths, sub-earth depth, kerbing, banking, etc.
Assembly objects contain and manage a collection of subassemblies that are used to form the basic structure of a 3D corridor model.
An assembly is an 3D drawing object that manages a collection of subassembly objects. Together, assemblies and subassemblies function as the basic building blocks of a roadway or other alignment-based design.
Adding one or more subassembly objects, such as travel lanes, curbs, and side slopes, to an assembly baseline creates an assembly object. This forms the design for a corridor section. The subassemblies are provided in a set of catalogs.
It is also possible to create more advanced assemblies referred to as conditional assemblies. A conditional assembly contains one or more conditional subassemblies, which apply subsequent subassemblies when specified conditions at a given station are met.
In Figure 5 is shown a typical section type for fill and in presence of a bridge.
Section types. (a) Fill, (b) bridge.
Specific BIM-based tools as Subassembly Composer/ Generative Components provide an interface for composing and modifying complex subassemblies, without the need for programming. Without the need to be an expert in programming, users can create custom subassemblies to meet their specific needs, making corridors have endless possibilities.
For example, in presence of a retaining wall characterized by a variation of the geometric characteristics in terms of height/weight along the road layout, it is possible to create a flowchart (see Figure 6) set with decision variables that change as the boundary conditions vary.
Modeling retaining walls using subassembly composer. (a) Workflow, (b) result.
In the case in question, the section changes dimensional characteristics as the distance between the road surface and the ground surface changes.
Once your assembly is built you need to apply this to your alignment using the corridor function and hey presto, you will have a corridor and basic road design.
Before create corridors, you must have existing data, such as existing ground surfaces, alignments (centerlines), profiles (vertical alignments), and typical sections (assemblies).
All calculations should be finalized before they are applied to the corridor model. Changes in a corridor baseline alignment are not reflected in calculations. Changing the design criteria does not update the corridor model.
In Figure 7 is shown a generic 3D Corridor model.
Modeling corridor. (a) Plan view, (b) 3D view.
Once a road network is correctly modeled and parameterized following the above procedure, a number of shared parameters describing the main features of pavement materials can be created to match the information contained in an external database.
There are several visual programming tools (VPL) (i.e. Dynamo) that give to users the possibility to visually script and define custom pieces of logic using various textual programming languages.
The shared parameters imported in the current project as materials features, were the road name, the road administration authority, the year in which the material was layed in place during routine maintenance operations and the physical and mechanical features of the wearing course mixtures, namely bitumen content, air voids percentage calculated with bulk specific gravity determined by means of the dimensional procedure, SSD procedure or sealed specimen procedure and Marshall stability.
Then, the material codes were exported to Excel with the programming flow reported in Figure 8, then matched with the materials names in the worksheet and finally imported back into VPL with assigned values.
Materials code creation workflow.
A worksheet was created using the code block “Data.ExportExcel” (5), whose file path, sheet name and position of the exported data were defined respectively with the code blocks (4A), (4B) and (4C). The worksheet contained a list (4D) of materials identifiers (3A) and names (3B) selected from the list of elements (2) of the materials category (1).
The above mentioned operations allowed visualizing and managing the physical and mechanical features of the wearing course model and updating the information once the input worksheet is integrated with different data. The visualization of the imported data is visible in the material parameters interface, as shown in Figure 9.
Example of material parameters after the association of worksheet data to the model.
Then, in the same way, is possible the implementation of a ranking algorithm to evaluate the durability of the wearing course material basing on the material characterization, according to current Regulation [32]. In the specific:
% bitumen (%B) in the range 4.5 ÷ 6.1% to meet both economic and environmental needs;
Stability>900 (daN) to respond to mechanical problems;
% air voids determined by means of the dimensional procedure >3% to improve shear strength;
The difference between air voids determined by means of the sealed specimen and SSD procedure (Δ) is equal or lower than 1% to ensure that there are no anomalies in the database due to technical errors.
In Figure 10 is shown the workflow for identifying the road pavements that satisfy the first condition.
Workflow for identifying pavements with bitumen content in the range 4.5%–6.1% by the weight of the mixture.
In the specific: box 1A answers the question if x (%B) is greater than or equal to y (%B lower-limit equal to 4.5%); box 1B answers the question if x (%B) is less than or equal to y (%B upper limit equal to 6.1%); Box 2 “List.Join” concatenates the two lists into one list; Box 3 “List.AllTrue” determines if all the elements of the list are Boolean values with true value; Box 4 “List.Join” merges all the lists associated to other pavement sections of the road network; box 5 “SelectModelElement” for selecting the pavement sections under analysis; box 6 “ListCreate” for merging all the selected pavements in the previous step in a single list; box 7 “
In the same way, the workflow can be adapted to the remaining Regulation conditions, with the possibility then to create combined filters among the mentioned conditions, for visualizing on the road network map, with different color, the pavements with best, worst or intermediate performance.
For example, in Figure 11, the list containing the overall scores of the road surfaces under analysis (1) was matched with the list of identification codes of the corresponding elements of the model (3) using again the code block “
Workflow for identifying pavements with best/worst performance on the road network.
As a simplified application to show the impact of information update on the model output modification, two different road sections were considered with bituminous mixtures for wearing course characterized in terms of bitumen content, percentage air voids and Marshall stability.
The test results are updated as material parameters in the model and a ranking algorithm is implemented in order to identify the road section with a need for maintenance. As shown in Figure 12, the critical road section that requires routine maintenance before the other is highlighted in red.
Example of identification of the critical section.
After routine maintenance operations, quality controls are performed on the wearing course to assess the compliance of the material with the performance required by the Regulation. As a consequence, the model is updated with new information and the raking algorithm immediately finds out the new critical section (Figure 13).
Example of identification of the critical section after routine maintenance operations.
Computer-aided drafting (CAD) transformed the way professionals created infrastructure designs.
If oriented to the management phase, a BIM model becomes a real simulation, planning and implementation tool for the facility manager, also thanks to the three-dimensional approach related to the parametric objects that populate the environment, representing a valid tool to guarantee control and interoperability of data in an intelligent way.
The implemented methodology allowed creating an integrated model that contains and analyzes data produced by the quality controls of the bituminous materials after laying and compaction.
The applied methodology resulted in a dynamic model that updates its information package and modifies the output of the analysis every time the data worksheet is integrated with new test results.
A tool as such is intended on the one hand to support the prioritization of any existing Pavement Management System that is currently adopted by administrations to plan maintenance operations on the road network and on the other to provide information as an alert system identifying what does not work in maintenance operations.
BIM systems are therefore destined not only to radically change the paradigms of the real estate market but will be able to make a fundamental contribution to the future of the planet, capable of creating IT models from an architectural, urban, environmental and not simply a single infrastructure point of view but of entire inhabited centers: BIM is at the basis of the creation of sustainable cities and Smart Cities. Not only that, with the help of BIM it will be possible to achieve improvements in terms of more sustainable, inclusive and secure cities.
In this way, the proposed framework can also serve as a decision support tool for better planning and management of smart city infrastructure requirements, taking in account as further perspectives other key factors as energy, estimating/cost simulation and mobility analysis.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Cardoso, Eduardo Landulfo",authors:[{id:"39885",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnaldo",middleName:"Alves",surname:"Cardoso",slug:"arnaldo-cardoso",fullName:"Arnaldo Cardoso"},{id:"47252",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Allen",slug:"andrew-allen",fullName:"Andrew Allen"},{id:"143677",title:"Dr.",name:"Fábio",middleName:null,surname:"Lopes",slug:"fabio-lopes",fullName:"Fábio Lopes"},{id:"144558",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerhard",middleName:null,surname:"Held",slug:"gerhard-held",fullName:"Gerhard Held"},{id:"144711",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Landulfo",slug:"eduardo-landulfo",fullName:"Eduardo Landulfo"},{id:"144714",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"ana-maria-gomes",fullName:"Ana Maria Gomes"}]},{id:"52209",title:"The Eta Model: Design, Use, and Added Value",slug:"the-eta-model-design-use-and-added-value",totalDownloads:1929,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The design of the Eta model goes back to early 1970s, when its original dynamical core was designed following the philosophy of Akio Arakawa of emulating important properties of the atmospheric governing equations. The core’s later major features were invented and implemented in the mid-1980s. Once a comprehensive physics package was added, the model became operational as a regional NWP model in the United States in 1993. Its use for regional climate projections followed later, for the South American region and then for a regional reanalysis over the North American region. Summary of the model’s dynamical core is given, followed by that of its physics package. Results of experiments revealing the model’s ability to generate added value even at large scales when run as a regional climate model (RCM) are summarized. The Eta model is applied on various climate scales seamlessly, from subseasonal, seasonal to multidecadal, from coarse 40 km up to high 5 km resolution. Examples of applications to various socioeconomic sectors, such as for hydropower management, crop yield forecasts, environmental and forest conservation, urban areas management, assessment of natural disaster risks, etc., are given. The Eta RCM capability to reproduce extreme climatic values is pointed out.",book:{id:"5221",slug:"topics-in-climate-modeling",title:"Topics in Climate Modeling",fullTitle:"Topics in Climate Modeling"},signatures:"Fedor Mesinger, Katarina Veljovic, Sin Chan Chou, Jorge Gomes and\nAndré Lyra",authors:[{id:"181065",title:"Prof.",name:"Fedor",middleName:null,surname:"Mesinger",slug:"fedor-mesinger",fullName:"Fedor Mesinger"},{id:"186378",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarina",middleName:null,surname:"Veljovic",slug:"katarina-veljovic",fullName:"Katarina Veljovic"},{id:"186379",title:"Dr.",name:"Sin Chan",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"sin-chan-chou",fullName:"Sin Chan Chou"},{id:"186381",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:"Luis",surname:"Gomes",slug:"jorge-gomes",fullName:"Jorge Gomes"},{id:"186382",title:"Dr.",name:"Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Lyra",slug:"andre-lyra",fullName:"Andre Lyra"}]},{id:"38762",title:"Natural vs Anthropogenic Background Aerosol Contribution to the Radiation Budget over Indian Thar Desert",slug:"natural-vs-anthropogenic-background-aerosol-contribution-to-the-radiation-budget-over-indian-thar-de",totalDownloads:2361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2312",slug:"atmospheric-aerosols-regional-characteristics-chemistry-and-physics",title:"Atmospheric Aerosols",fullTitle:"Atmospheric Aerosols - Regional Characteristics - Chemistry and Physics"},signatures:"Sanat Kumar Das",authors:[{id:"148389",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanat",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Das",slug:"sanat-das",fullName:"Sanat Das"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"100",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne 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Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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