Compact matrix equations where the spacetime matrix operator
\r\n\tThere are a variety of approaches to reversing biodiversity loss, ranging from economic, to ecological and ethical. The utilitarian approach to conservation, bolstered by the concept of ecosystem services, can be utilized to improve the conservation case by supplementing the burgeoning biodiversity rhetoric. To address this issue, a pluralistic approach to biodiversity is required for conservation and sustainability.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-339-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-338-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-340-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"ab014f8ed1669757335225786833e9a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Dr. Jahangeer Bhat and Dr. Sumit Chakravarty",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11460.jpg",keywords:"Ecosystem Services, Intrinsic Value, Global Trends in Biodiversity Loss, Convention on Biological Diversity, Utilitarian Value, Biodiversity Conservation, Perception, In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation, Nature Conservation, Sustainable Development Goals, Drivers of Degradation, Prioritizing Biodiversity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, prior to becoming an assistant professor, has worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. The focus of his research and development work is forest conservation. He has authored 75 research papers, 10 book chapters and has edited 5 books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Jahangeer is a Guest Associate Editor in Frontiers in the Environmental Science journal and is the first researcher to report the first time growing of Acacia dealbata Link. (Silver Wattle), an invasive species in the high altitudes of the Himalayas. He has 11 years of research and 8 years of teaching experience with a publication record of more than 60, including research articles, review papers, conference papers, and books of national and international repute.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Chakravarty, Ph. D., has a wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently working as a Professor in Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. 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The focus of his research and development work is forest ecology and conservation.",institutionString:"North Bengal Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"North Bengal Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"329967",title:"Dr.",name:"Jahangeer",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"jahangeer-bhat",fullName:"Jahangeer Bhat",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329967/images/system/329967.png",biography:"Jahangeer A. Bhat, Ph.D., is a former head of the Department of Forestry, College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Fiji National University, Republic of Fiji Islands. Dr. Jahangeer has worked as a counsellor, mentor, and coordinator for forestry academic programmes. He has been instrumental in developing HE and TVET streams of forestry and allied programmes and worked closely in accreditation with the Fiji Higher Education Commission and forestry stakeholders. Before joining Fiji National University, he worked for HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, India, and has 11 years of research and 8 years of teaching experience with a publication record of more than 60, including research articles, review papers, conference papers, and books of national and international repute. Dr. Jahangeer reviews research articles for several scientific journals and has handled research projects in his capacity as Principal Investigator and Co-Principal Investigator. His major interests lie in emerging issues in forestry including conservation of biodiversity, traditional knowledge of plants, and sustainable management of forest resources. His focus of research is vegetation ecology, ethnobotany, and evaluation of ecosystem services, forest plant biodiversity, climate change, and socio-cultural issues in forestry. Dr. Jahangeer is currently working at the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, India.",institutionString:"Central Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Central Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"94999",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumit",middleName:null,surname:"Chakravarty",slug:"sumit-chakravarty",fullName:"Sumit Chakravarty",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94999/images/system/94999.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sumit Chakravarty, Ph.D., has wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently a professor at Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He holds an MSc in Forestry and a Ph.D. in Agronomy from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. He has trained many students in these fields. 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The partial derivative symbols are defined by the following:
The imaginary quantity
Eight compact matrix equations are listed in Table 1, each containing the spacetime matrix operator
Compact matrix equation | Compact matrix equation description |
---|---|
Maxwell spacetime matrix equation for free space | |
Maxwell matrix equation with charges and currents | |
Charge continuity and electromagnetic wave equations | |
Lorentz conditions and electromagnetic potentials | |
Electromagnetic potential wave equations | |
Dirac spacetime matrix equation for free space | |
Klein-Gordon spacetime matrix equation for free space | |
Generalized spacetime matrix equation for free space |
Compact matrix equations where the spacetime matrix operator
The spacetime matrix operator
The four eight-by-eight matrices
Each matrix
These matrices satisfy the anti-commutation relation
Each matrix
In addition
The symbol
Some authors use the
The Maxwell field equations play a fundamental role in both classical electrodynamics and physical optics. The propagations of electromagnetic waves through free space (see [4], pp. 514–522), nonconducting media (see [3], pp. 295–309), thin-film optical filters [5], and solid-state crystalline materials [6] are just a few examples where the Maxwell field equations play an important role.
An earlier eight-by-eight matrix representation of the Maxwell field equations was first introduced by the authors back in 1993 [7]. An improved updated version using the spacetime matrix operator
The compact matrix form of Eq. (9) is given by
The wave function
The Maxwell spacetime matrix equation (9) when expanded is equivalent to two divergences and two curl equations, namely,
We recognize these four equations as the traditional Maxwell field equations (Gaussian units) for free space in the absence of charges, currents, and ordinary matter terms (see [8], pp. 362–368).
For electromagnetic waves, time-harmonic plane-wave solutions of the form
will next be substituted back into the previous four vector equations. This yields the following set of equations:
The quantities
These properties represent transverse electromagnetic waves. We also obtain the important results
and
The quantities
The Maxwell spacetime matrix equation, with the addition of charge and current terms [1], is given by
The compact matrix form of the Maxwell spacetime matrix equation is given by
Eq. (19), when expanded, is equivalent to two divergences and two curl equations. The resulting four vector equations are referred to as the microscopic Maxwell field equations (see [8], pp. 283–290). They are given by
The various scalar and vector quantities appearing in the microscopic Maxwell vector equations are the electric field vector
Charge continuity equations for electric (see [8], p. 15) and magnetic charges as well as the electromagnetic wave equations involving electric and magnetic charges and currents may be easily obtained by simply multiplying both sides of the Maxwell spacetime matrix equation in compact form (20) by the spacetime matrix operator
Expanding this single matrix equation yields the charge continuity and electromagnetic wave equations:
By using the spacetime matrix operator
The compact matrix form of Eq. (26) is given by
The ket vector
The new scalar and vector quantities appearing in the above equations are the electric vector potential
It is well-known that the electromagnetic vector and scalar potentials satisfy wave equations (see [9], pp. 179–181). This can be easily shown by multiplying both sides of Eq. (27) by the spacetime matrix operator
Next replace the term
Expanding this single matrix equation yields eight partial differential equations which can be easily combined to form the following four potential wave equations:
The single compact matrix (Eq. (31)) is therefore equivalent to these four potential wave equations.
The nonrelativistic Schrödinger wave equation (see [10], pp. 143–146) plays a fundamental role in quantum mechanical phenomena where the spin property of nonrelativistic particles may be ignored. This equation is usually first met in modern physics textbooks. However, when a particle with half-integer spin and/or moving at relativistic speeds is involved, the relativistic Dirac equation [11] comes into play.
Using the spacetime matrix operator
The compact matrix form of Eq. (34) is given by
The wave function
Here
The Dirac spacetime matrix equation (34) when expanded is equivalent to eight partial differential equations. These eight equations can be rewritten as two divergence and two curl equations [1], namely,
We refer to these equations as the Dirac spacetime vector equations for free space. It is noted that these equations resemble the four Maxwell field equations for free space in the absence of charge, current, and ordinary matter terms.
The simplest solutions of these vector equations are time-harmonic plane-wave solutions of the form
The quantities
The quantities
From the previous equations we find the three vectors
These properties represent transverse waves. In addition, we also obtain the important result:
The magnitudes of the vectors
The
The Klein-Gordon equation (see [12], pp. 118–129) is yet another quantum mechanical relativistic equation which is the field equation of the quanta associated with spin-less (spin-0) particles. An example of a spin-less particle is the recently discovered Higgs boson.
A version of the Klein-Gordon equation can be easily derived by simply starting with the compact matrix form of the Dirac spacetime matrix equation for free space, namely, Eq. (35). Multiply both sides by the spacetime matrix operator
Next replace the term
We refer to this equation as the Klein-Gordon spacetime matrix equation for free space. Using the fourth property of the spacetime matrix operator
Therefore, the vectors
In this section, we will introduce for the first time a new matrix equation where again the spacetime operator
The number of unanswered questions and mysteries regarding the universe from the smallest to the largest, in the fields of physics and astronomy, is unimaginable. There are many references, too numerous to list here, which address this topic. However, an excellent comprehensive list of unsolved problems in physics appears in [13] for various broad areas of physics. These areas include general physics, quantum physics, cosmology, general relativity, quantum gravity, high-energy physics, particle physics, astronomy, astrophysics, nuclear physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, optical physics, classical mechanics, condensed matter physics, plasma physics, and biophysics. The following is a partial list of some of the most important questions and mysteries being addressed today by physicists and astronomers around the globe:
How did the universe begin and what is the ultimate fate of the universe?
Is the universe infinite or just very big?
Why is there more matter than antimatter in the universe?
What came before the big bang?
Why are the galaxies distributed in clumps and filaments?
Are there additional dimensions?
Is spacetime fundamentally continuous or discrete?
How can we create a quantum theory of gravity?
What is dark energy and dark matter?
Do dark gravity, dark charge, and dark antimatter exist?
What happens inside a black hole and do naked singularities exist?
Why does time seem to flow only in one direction?
Is time travel really possible?
Is string theory or M-theory a viable theory of everything?
What kind of physics underlies the standard model?
Are there really just three generations of leptons and quarks?
Do gravitons exist?
Are protons unstable?
Do magnetic monopoles exist?
What are the masses of neutrinos?
Do the quarks or leptons have any substructure?
Do tachyons exist and can information travel faster than light?
Why do the particles have the precise masses they do?
Do fundamental physical constants vary over time?
Why are the strengths of the fundamental forces what they are?
Do parallel universes exist and is there a multiverse?
Was our spatially 3-D universe formed out of a vacuum by a 2-D hologram?
Was the hologram formed by a flow of information? If so, what form?
Does pair production formed, spontaneously, out of a vacuum?
Are they likewise formed out of a flow of information?
Do life processes, such as ion flows through cell membranes, form likewise as flows of information?
As we can see, even with all of the discoveries made over the past several hundred years, there is so much we do not understand and so much yet to be discovered about our universe and possibly beyond.
So far we have described the first seven compact matrix equations listed in Table 1 where the spacetime matrix operator
We define the generalized spacetime matrix equation for free space by the following equation:
The compact matrix form of Eq. (49) is given by
This is the eighth compact matrix equation in Table 1. Note the similarity between the generalized spacetime matrix equation for free space and the Dirac spacetime matrix equation for free space (34) when
In Eq. (49), we no longer restrict elements (4,1) and (8,1) to be equal to zero. The wave function
Our primary goal now is to determine the properties of time-harmonic plane-wave solutions satisfying the generalized spacetime matrix (Eq. (49)) for free space. The approach we will take is to cast Eq. (49) into an eigenvalue equation and use the methods of linear algebra to determine the set of orthonormal eigenvectors and corresponding eigenvalues satisfying this eigenvalue equation. (For an excellent book on linear algebra and the solution of eigenvalue equations; see [14], pp. 189–190.) For now let
We first multiply Eq. (49) by the factor
The compact matrix form of this equation is given by
This equation has the same identical form as the nonrelativistic Schrödinger equation (see [12], pp. 118–129). However, the Hamiltonian matrix operator
For time-harmonic plane-wave solutions, the ket vector
Again the quantities
We will refer to Eq. (54) as the eigenvalue spacetime matrix equation. The compact matrix form of Eq. (54) is represented by
The eight-by-eight matrix
The quantity
Without loss of generality, let us consider matter-wave propagation along the +
Eq. (54) reduces to the following simplified form:
where
The matrix in Eq. (58) is an eight-by-eight square matrix. A compact matrix version of Eq. (58) may be expressed as follows:
At this point we are now in a position to determine eight eigenvectors
From the special theory of relativity (see [10], pp. 21–25), the following relations may also be of use:
As before,
The symbol
+ | + | + | + | |||||
0 | + | 0 | + | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
+ | 0 | + | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 0 | + | 0 | |
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 0 | + | |
0 | + | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
0 | 0 | + | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | ||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 0 |
Eigenvalues and orthonormal eigenvectors associated with the generalized spacetime matrix equation for wave propagation in the +z direction when
The constants
Inspection of the contents of Table 2 reveals the following important results:
For wave propagation in the +
On the other hand, for wave propagation in the +
The authors, in their most recent publication [1], indicated solutions of their Dirac spacetime matrix equation for free space could be mapped into solutions satisfying the traditional Dirac matrix equation. We wish to explore this in greater detail. The traditional Dirac equation, in the absence of electromagnetic potential terms, is given by
This equation corresponds to the special case employing the Dirac representation (see [12], pp. 694–706) for details. The compact matrix form of Eq. (65) is given by
The Dirac matrix operator
Substituting this time-harmonic plane-wave solution back into the traditional Dirac equation (65) ultimately leads to the corresponding eigenvalue equation:
For the special case of wave propagation in the +
Again using the matrix software MATLAB, the four orthonormal eigenvectors and corresponding eigenvalues satisfying Eq. (69) are listed in the Table 3.
Eigenvalues and orthonormal eigenvectors associated with the traditional Dirac equation for wave propagation in the +z direction when
The quantities
Note, the quantities
For the special case of a matter wave traveling through free space in the +
The compact matrix form of Eq. (71) is given by
When we substitute each the eight eigenvectors
The four transverse eigenvectors in Table 2 map into the four eigenvectors in Table 3:
The four non-transverse eigenvectors in Table 2 map into the same four eigenvectors in Table 3:
Therefore, whether we use the four transverse eigenvector solutions or the four non-transverse eigenvector solutions satisfying the generalized spacetime matrix (Eq. (49)), the same four eigenvector solutions satisfying the traditional Dirac equation (65) are obtained using Eq. (71). It is noted the four transverse eigenvector solutions could have been obtained from the four Dirac vector equations (37) and (38).
For the special case of wave propagation in the +
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Eigenvalues and orthonormal eigenvectors associated with the generalized spacetime matrix equation for wave propagation in the +z direction when
The constants
Inspection of the contents of Table 4 reveals the following important results:
For wave propagation in the +
On the other hand, for wave propagation in the +
The eigenvectors and eigenvalues associated with the generalized spacetime matrix equation, for the special case of a time-harmonic plane-wave propagating in free space in the +
For the case when
For the case when
Therefore, for the case when
For the case when
For the case when
The generalized spacetime matrix equation for
In the de Broglie-Bohm picture of quantum mechanics, Hardy [16] and Bell [17] suggest empty waves represented by wave functions propagating in spacetime, but not carrying energy or momentum, can exist. This same concept was called ghost waves or ghost fields by Albert Einstein (see [18]). The controversy as to whether matter waves correspond to real waves or ghost waves has been and is still a subject of debate and controversy.
In Section 5.1, we mentioned that the number of unanswered questions and mysteries regarding the universe from the smallest to the largest, in the fields of physics and astronomy, is unimaginable. Allowing the elements
For relativistic quantum mechanics—matter waves:
What class of particles do the transverse eigenvectors represent?
Do the transverse eigenvectors represent real or ghost waves?
What class of particles do the non-transverse eigenvectors represent?
Do non-transverse eigenvectors represent real or ghost waves?
Are the transverse and non-transverse eigenvectors equivalent in some way?
For classical electrodynamics—electromagnetic waves:
What can be said about those waves propagating with speed -
Do these represent a new type of electromagnetic wave?
What can be said about those waves having a longitudinal component?
What can be said about those waves having a fourth component?
Could these be associated with undiscovered electromagnetic waves?
And two last questions:
Why do the
Does the spacetime matrix operator
The four classical electromagnetic microscopic Maxwell field equations have been rewritten as a single matrix equation, referred to as the Maxwell spacetime matrix equation, using the spacetime matrix operator
The square eight-by-eight matrix operator
The traditional relativistic Dirac equation for free space has been expressed as a new matrix equation, referred to as the Dirac spacetime matrix equation for free space, using the same spacetime matrix operator
Solutions of the new Dirac spacetime matrix equation can be easily transformed into solutions satisfying the traditional relativistic Dirac equation using the linear transformation matrix
The Dirac spacetime matrix equation is equivalent to four new relativistic quantum mechanical vector equations. We referred to these equations as the Dirac spacetime vector equations. In the absence of electromagnetic potentials, these vector equations resemble the four classical electromagnetic microscopic Maxwell field vector equations in the absence of charge and current densities.
Multiplication of the Dirac spacetime matrix equation by the spacetime matrix operator
Four transverse orthonormal eigenvectors as well as the four non-transverse orthonormal eigenvectors satisfying the Dirac spacetime matrix equation map, via the linear transformation matrix
A new generalized spacetime matrix equation employing the operator
We are most appreciative of the help by Ms. Trin Riojas of the Optical Sciences Center in coordinating computer station inputs/outputs between authors and publishers. The past informal discussions with Dr. Arvind S. Marathay of the Optical Sciences Center are also greatly appreciated. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Olive oil is one of a great interest in the vegetable oils world market. It is produced from the fruit of olive (
Publication trends of olive oil composition (based on data retrieved from Scopus database).
Olive oil is made from fresh olives, which are extracted by mechanical processes [3]. Olive oil extraction technologies are summarized in Figure 2. There are two main olive oil extraction processes: traditional oil mills, and a relatively new extraction process known also by continuous mills and characterized by two or three phases [4, 5] Figure 2. All the above processes aim at separating the liquid oil phase from the other constituents of the fruit [6]. Likewise, olives should be processed as rapidly as possible after harvesting to reduce oxidation and preserve their quality [7].
Scheme of discontinuous and continuous extraction systems. OMWW = olive mill wastewater.
Concerning the traditional press method, olive fruits liberated from leaves are washed, crushed using mill stones, and malaxed into a paste containing solid matter (core debris, epidermis, cell walls, etc.) and fluids (oil and vegetation water contained in the cells of olives). This is then spread on spherical mats [6]. Pressure with a hydraulic piston press is exerted then to obtain, firstly, a solid fraction (known as pomace) and, secondly, the mixture of oil and water is filled into a container and, eventually, the oil and water are then separated by gravity and collected through decantation [5]. The pressing process is the oldest method of obtaining olive oil [8]. Owing to lower production efficiency and high labor costs, during the last decade, the discontinuous pressing systems have widely been substituted by continuous systems, along with the development of centrifuge technology [4, 9]. After the steps of washing, crushing, and mixing, the mechanical extraction of the oil occurs mainly by a continuous process based on centrifugation using a decanter. The decanter centrifuge is equipped with a rotary bowl as well as a screw conveyor, which allows the processing of great quantities of olives in a short time [7]. Continuous separation systems can be divided into two-phase and three-phase systems, based on the decanter type used and the level of the phase of separation [9]. In the three-phase process, an additional amount of hot water is added to wash the oil, and then the three-phase decanter (insoluble solids, oil phase, and an aqueous phase), are separated following their density [7, 10]. Firstly, the solid wastes (insoluble solids), are separated from the remaining two phases in the decanter, and the liquid phases (oil phase as well as aqueous phase), are then subjected to vertical centrifugation to separate the olive oil from the olive mill wastewater [7].
Owing to the significant issue of wastewater produced, this three-phase system is preferred over the two-phase system since it is more eco-friendly [11]. This latest uses only a semi-liquid slurry (vegetation water along with insoluble solids) phase and the oil phase, a semi-liquid slurry, which is also known as two-phase olive mill waste [7]. This process has a reduced environmental impact owing to the reduced requirement of water as well as the amount of waste produced [7].
Olive oil glyceridic fraction consists of triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols and free fatty acids (FFA). Among them, 80% of them are unsaturated fatty acids. It is particularly rich in essential monounsaturated fatty acids (55–83% of oleic acid) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (2.5–21% of linoleic acid) [12]. The remaining fatty acids, apart from C16: 1, display an average value ranging from 0.3 to 3.5% (Table 1 and Figure 3). Nevertheless, linolenic acid is a minority and its concentration is lower than 1% [12]. A low level of linolenic acid can be used to detect adulteration via some vegetable oils such as rapeseed and soybean oils [13]. Small quantities of saturated fatty acids also compose the triglycerides of olive oil: stearic acid (about 0.5–5%) and palmitic acid (about 7.5–20%). The remaining fatty acids (C17: 0, C17: 1, C20: 0, C20: 1, and C22: 0) are found to be of lower magnitudes. Since their concentrations are below 0.5% (Table 1). The unsaponified matter (about 1–2%) contains sterols, triterpene alcohols, tocopherol (mainly α-tocopherol), tocotrienol polyphenols, and squalene. The oil also contains a non-negligible proportion of volatile compounds. The total phytosterols content of VOO ranges between 100 and 200 mg/100 g. Also, 100 mg/100 g represents the inferior limit set by the international olive council [12]. Apparent beta-sitosterol, (beta-sitosterol + delta-5-avenasterol + delta-5-23-stigmastadienol + clerosterol + sitostanol + delta 5–24-stigmastadienol) are the main compounds in the sterol fraction with a value more than 93% while β-sitosterol has the greatest relative percentage [14, 15] (Figure 4). VOO content also includes up to 4.5 g/100 g of total phytosterols [12]. The erythrodiol (5α-olean-12-ene-3β, 28-diol, homo-olestranol) in free and esterified forms and are the major triterpene di-alcohols found in olive oil [14], and their percentage reached up to 4.5% of the total content of sterols [12]. Moreover, four isoforms of tocopherols (α, β, γ, and δ-tocopherol) (Figure 5) and four tocotrienols (α, β, γ and δ- Tocotrienol) are present in olive oil. α-tocopherol is the main tocopherol found in olive oil, constituting more than 90% of the total tocopherol fraction [14]. Cunha et al. [16] reported that the proportions of tocopherols and tocotrienols ranged from 100 to 270 mg/kg in Portuguese olive oils [16]. Gharby et al. [47] found that the values of tocopherols varied from 150 to 250 mg/kg in three varieties (‘Arbequina’, ‘Moroccan Picholine’, and ‘Picual’) of olive oil [17]. Moreover, another study, based on the comparison of the tocopherol contents of olive oils from 4 different varieties harvested at different ripening periods found that the α-tocopherol (major tocopherol) in oils obtained from olives composed of 130.54–180.43 mg/kg [18]. In general, tocopherol and tocotrienol levels in oil fluctuate with several factors such as harvest year, climatic conditions, storage time, extraction method, soil properties and spacing between olive trees [19]. Tocopherols possess a strong antioxidant power [20]. Together with tocopherols and tocotrienols, olive oil contains other antioxidant molecules such as polyphenolic compounds.
Fatty acid [g/100 g] | Norm [12] | Physicochemical parameters | |
---|---|---|---|
Myristic acid [C14: 0] | ≤ 0.2 | Density [20°C] | 0.906–0.919 |
Palmitic acid [C16: 0] | 11.5–15 | Refraction index [20°C] | 1.463–1.472 |
Stearic acid [C18: 0] | 4.3–7.2 | Saponification value [mg of KOH/g] | 184–196 |
Arachidic acid [C20: 0] | ≤ 0.5 | Iodine value [g (I2)/100 g] | 75 to 94 |
Behenic acid [C22: 0] | ≤ 0.2 | Phytosterol [g/100 g] | (IOC 2021) |
15.8–23.1 | Cholesterol | ≤ 0.5 | |
Palmitoleic acid [C16: 1] | ≤ 0,2 | Brassicasterol | ≤ 0.1 |
Oleic acid [C18: 1] | 43,0–49,1 | Campesterol | ≤ 4 |
Eicosenoic acid [C20: 1] | ≤ 0.5 | Stigmasterol | < Campesterol |
43–49.8 | Delta-7-stigmastenol | ≤ 0.5 | |
Linoleic acid [C18: 2] | 29.3–36,0 | Apparent beta-sitosterol | > 93 |
Linolenic acid [C18: 3] | ≤ 0.3 | Total sterol [mg/100 g] | ≤ 220 |
29–36.3 | Erythrodiol & Uvaol (% total sterols) | ≤ 4.5 |
Physicochemical parameters, fatty acids, phytosterols, and tocopherols composition of olive oil.
SFA-Saturated Fatty acids, MUFA-Monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA-Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Apparent beta-sitosterol: beta-sitosterol +delta-5-avenasterol +delta-5-23-stigmastadienol +clerosterol + sitostanol +delta 5–24-stigmastadienol.
Chromatogram of fatty acids.
Chromatogram of sterols.
Tocopherols chemical structure.
Many research works have demonstrated that the content of tocopherols in VOO is lower than that of argan oil [21, 22, 23].
The phenolic compounds are endowed to have a large scale of biological functions including stability to auto-oxidation, beneficial effects on human health [24]. About their well-known activities, olive oil polyphenols have been proven to possess an effective role in maintaining the organoleptic properties and the stability of olive oils [25].
Such bioactive compounds are extensively studied for their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties [26, 27, 28, 29].
Franco et al. reported that phenolic compounds have a considerable increase during olive fruit growth. However, they are reduced when the fruits reach the maturation stage [30]. Khalatbary documented that the total phenolic content (TPC) in olive oils varies from 190 to 500 mg/kg [31]. In addition, in extra virgin olive oil, TPC commonly varies from 250 to 925 mg/kg [32]. Other factors including climatic conditions, variety, storage time, extraction conditions, soil properties, and analysis of polyphenolic compounds can lead to important variations in TPC [33]. Likewise, several classes of polyphenols are found in olive oils. These are presented as a separate class, to better understand the antioxidant phenolic chemistry of olive oil [33]. Finicelli et al. classify olive oil polyphenols following their chemical structure as follows [34]:
Phenolic alcohols with a hydroxyl group are linked to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The main constituents of this class are oleocanthal, hydroxytyrosol, and tyrosol (Figure 6) [26].
Secoiridoids are phenolic compounds present in high amounts in olive oil in comparison to other plant species. The bitterness of extra virgin olive oil is a result of the content of secoiridoids [35].
Lignans are chemically characterized by the aggregation of aromatic aldehydes. The pulp of the olives as well as the woody part of the seed contains lignans. These molecules are liberated into the oil during the process of extraction without biochemical changes [36].
Flavonoids are chemically structured with two benzene rings attached via three linear carbon chains. The first flavonoids identified in VOO were flavones; their free forms, apigenin, and luteolin. They are the more abundant compounds [36].
Hydroxyisocromans are the only two molecules characterized in commercial VOO. These compounds are produced via the HydroxyTyrosol reaction with benzaldehyde and vanillin [37].
Phenolic acids are divided into two main classes: hydroxycinnamic acid along hydroxybenzoic acid [26].
Some phenolic alcohols present in olive oil.
The volatile fraction of VOOs has been reported to have about 280 different compounds [38]. The majority of volatile compounds are quickly developed during olive milling as a result of the disturbance of olive cells [39]. Although, Nardella et al. reported that most of the volatile compounds typical of olive oils are generated during malaxation due to the activation of particular pathways, in which the lipoxygenase (LOX) enzyme plays an essential role in producing a large quantity of C6 aldehydes, esters, and alcohols. These constitute almost all of the positive sensory marks in olive oils [40]. Such changes are initiated when olive tissues are affected, thereby enhancing the liberation of endogenous enzymes like hydroperoxide lyase and lipoxygenase [40].
Besides, several analytical techniques have been used to determine volatiles composition in olive oil. The main important are: GC (gas chromatography), HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography), HPLC/MS (high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy), IRMS (isotope ratio mass spectroscopy), ICP (inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy), NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), SPME-GC/MS (solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, SNIF/NMR (specific natural isotopic fractionation nuclear magnetic resonance), SCIRA (stable carbon isotope ratio analysis), PTR/MS (proton transfer mass spectrometry) [41]. Fregapane et al. reported that the composition of volatiles may be affected significantly according to many factors such as cropping season, olive variety, harvest time, technological parameters, and agronomic conditions among other factors [42]. Ghanbari et al. reported that several chemical factors such as hydrophobicity, volatility, position, and functional groups type are reported to be directly linked to the odor degree of a given volatile component more than its content [38]. Theodosi et al. investigated correlations between the composition of volatiles of olive oil and altitude variation. The findings demonstrate that the total volatile compounds of ‘Koroneiki’ olive oil samples and altitude levels are negatively associated. The most important volatile compounds are alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and hydrocarbons [43].
Parameters routinely used to evaluate physicochemical properties of olive oil include density, iodine value, refractive index, saponification value along with unsaponifiable matter. For vegetable oils including olive oil, both density and refraction index depend on the temperature [44]. Table 1 shows the ranges of the main physicochemical parameters of olive oil. The refractive index at 20°C varies in the range 1.463–1.472. At this same temperature, its density relative to water is between 0.906 and 0.919 [12]. The iodine value is a measure of the total number of double bonds found in an oil sample [1]. Olive oil displays an iodine value between 75 and 94 mg/100 g [17] (Table 1). This value is lower than that of argan oil (91–110 g I2/100 g), and cactus seed oil (131.5 ± 0.5 g (I2)/100 g) but higher than that of coconut oil (6.3–10.6 g (I2)/100 g) [13]. High iodine value is associated with the greater number of double bonds and reduced oxidative stability [45]. The saponification value is a measure of the average chain lengths of fatty acids. An oil sample with shorter fatty acids has a high saponification value. Moreover, according to CODEX STAN 33, the saponification value of olive oil varies between 184 and 196 mg (KOH)/g.
Olive oil is subject to enormous analytical and sensory controls to assess its overall quality. These analyses evaluate the freshness of the oil regarding hydrolytic and oxidative alterations to ensure the conformity of products to their labels. For example, extra VOO by simple routine analyses (free fatty acids, peroxide value, specific extinction (E270 along with E232) and/or purity blending with other oils and contaminants. These criteria require detailed analyses (triglycerides contents, fatty acids, sterols, tocopherols, etc. …). Organoleptic characteristics (taste, odor, color, etc. …) also have to be taken into account.
As for other vegetable oils, the olive oil oxidation leads to natural phenomena alteration [46, 47]. This can be controlled since fruit harvest until oil storage. Because of oxidation, physicochemical parameters such as acidity, peroxide value and extinction specific at wavelength 270 (λ270 or λ270) have been selected as the backbone of olive oil quality determination by the International Olive Council [12]. Also, acidity of olive oil is classified into four grades: extra-virgin (Acidity < 0.8 g/100 g), fine-virgin (0.8 < Acidity < 2 g/100 g), ordinary virgin (2 < acidity < 3.3 g/100 g), and lampante olive oil (Acidity > 3.3) (Table 2) [12].
Category olive oil | Acidity (g/100 g) | Peroxide index mEq O2/Kg | Extinction specific at K232 | Extinction specific at K270 |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. Extra virgin olive oil | ≤ 0.8 | ≤ 20 | ≤ 2.50 | ≤ 0.22 |
2. Fine Virgin olive oil | ≤ 2.0 | ≤ 20 | ≤ 2.60 | ≤ 0.25 |
3. Ordinary Virgin olive oil | ≤ 3.3 | ≤ 20 | no limit | ≤ 0.30 |
4. Lampante olive oil | > 3.3 | no limit | no limit | no limit |
Limits established for acidity, peroxide index and extinction specific (K232 and K270) for each olive oil category.
The variability of the extra VOO, acid value according to various parameters has been studied [47]. Oil oxidative state is examined from peroxide value and specific extinction coefficients (K232 or K270). These indicate the presence of primary and secondary oxidation products [1, 48]. The peroxide value of extra VOO oil must be below 20 mEq O2/kg and specific extinction K232 < 2.5. The other two main indices used to evaluate the secondary oxidation products are the following: p-anisidine value and specific extinction K270 [1, 49]. The International Olive Council (IOC) has set 0.22 and 0.25 as a limit value for both the extra VOO and VOO, respectively [12].
Furthermore, along with oxidation and acidity concerns, the quantification of major compounds such as fatty acids (Figure 3), and minor compounds, like sterols (Figure 4), polyphenols, tocopherols, minerals elements, and other bioactive molecules, are also of great importance for the purity and for detection of olive oil adulteration, which is a complex problem. Owing to its high cost and demand, fraudsters blend VOO with cheaper edible oils (most often with sunflower and soybean oils) and sometimes with low-quality olive oil. Today, the problem exceeds the borders of the main producer countries and it tackles the international level market. In addition to known risks of commercializing a mixture of vegetable oils. There is another type of adulteration resulting from the mixing of relatively low and high-quality olive oil, and the outcome is a product, which is sold as “high quality extra VOO”. The control of adulteration, and authentication is of a crucial importance for the olive oil quality control. Codex Alimentarius (fats and oils), International Olive Council, and European Union Commission are dealing with the monitoring along with the regulation of VOO [50]. These international organizations have described the official control methods and have specified olive oil quality limits. Generally, all analytical techniques (chromatography, spectrophotometry, voltametric, differential scanning calorimetry), as well as several analytical methods, have been used to detect the adulteration of olive oil. Gas chromatography (GC), which analyzes oil fatty acids profile, can be used to detect virgin oil purity by distinguishing it from other vegetable oils such as sunflower, soybean, walnut, rapeseed, and canola oils [51]. Moreover, HPLC-technique can be used, to calculate, the difference between the theoretical and experimental equivalent carbon number (ΔECN42th). Likewise, the determination of phytosterols composition (namely campesterol Δ7-stigmasterol) using gas chromatography can be used to detect olive oil adulteration with low levels of cotton, corn, sunflower, soybean, and rapeseed oils [51]. In addition, Vietina et al. reported that the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique was demonstrated to be an efficient technique to detect VOO adulteration with cheaper vegetable oils by comparing their DNA melting profiles [52]. MS has also been used to detect the fraudulent presence of vegetable oils. Also, a lot of different techniques involving MS have been significantly developed, such as LC–MS, GC–MS, and MALDI-TOF/MS, which are of highly accurate identification [51]. Indeed, many other studies have also outlined the application of fluorescence spectroscopy, UV–Vis spectroscopy, [50] Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy [53] mid-infrared (MID) or near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) [54] and Raman spectroscopy [55] for authentication and detection of adulteration of vegetables oil present in VOO [50]. Otherwise, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) has also been used to detect argan oil purity by discriminating it from sunflower, high oleic sunflower as well as refined hazelnut oil [50]. Apetrei and Apetrei have investigated the use of the voltametric method based on modified EO carbon paste-based sensors to determine the adulteration of VOO with soybean and sunflower oils [56].
On the other hand, identification of contaminants is one of the multiple checks that must be performed on oils. Vegetable oils have limited values for aromatic hydrocarbons polycyclics (PAHs), heavy metals, mycotoxins, phthalates, and pesticides. Although, the physicochemical characterization of olive oil is an essential step, it is not sufficient and organoleptic characteristics along with the above-mentioned supplementary analyses are required for a full picture of olive oil quality [1].
To satisfy consumers, organoleptic characteristics (color, taste, smell, etc.) must be taken into account. This is particularly important for olive oil. The organoleptic analysis is an essential step for successful food marketing. It is an integral part of evaluating olive oil. IOC has established a procedure to evaluate the organoleptic characteristics of VOO according to COI/T.20/Doc. [12] No 15/Rev. 102,018. It has classified such characteristics into positive and negative attributes as highlighted in Tables 2 and 3.
Fusty/muddy sediment | The characteristic flavor of oil obtained from olives stocked in such a way that they have developed an enhanced stage of anaerobic fermentation, |
Musty-humid-earthy | Flavor characteristic of oils from fruits in which a lot of fungi and yeasts have been developed or from olives picked up with mud or earth and not been previously cleaned. |
Winey- vinegary | The flavor characteristic of some oils reminiscent of vinegar or wine. |
Acid-sour | The flavor is primarily caused by the formation of ethyl acetate, ethanol, and acetic acid. |
Rancid | Flavor of oils that have been submitted to an intense oxidation process |
Frostbitten olives (wet wood) | Flavor characteristic of oils obtained from olives that have been damaged by frost on the tree. |
Fruity | Characteristic of the oil that varies according to the variety and is obtained from fresh olives, ripe or not. |
Bitter | Primary taste characteristic of oil extracted from green olives or olives that are becoming colored. |
Pungent | Characteristic of oils obtained at the beginning of the crop year, mostly from olives that are not ripe yet. |
1. Extra virgin oil | Md = 0 | Mf > 0 |
2. Virgin olive oil | Md ≤ 3.5 | Mf > 0 |
3. Lampante oil | Md > 3.5 | __ |
Organoleptic attributes of olive oil.
Oxidation of lipids including oils is a major concern to food industries [57, 58]. While, vegetable oils are endowed with a wide variety of endogenous antioxidants (pigments, vitamins, tocols, phenols, etc.), the use of exogenous antioxidants is widely practiced to enhance oxidative stability. In this regard, synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), as well propyl gallate are commercially used to extend oils’ shelf life by delaying or even hindering lipids degradation. These molecules are considered as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) preservatives with a concentration limit of 0.02% in oils and fats [59]. In contrast, some reports associated these molecules with health risks because of carcinogenesis, leading to a restriction of the use of the GRAS list and a reduction of their utilization in different countries [59]. For this reason, natural antioxidants are a good alternative to replace the synthetic ones in preserving vegetable oils including olive oil [59, 60, 61]. An overview of factors involved in the balance of antioxidants and pro-oxidants as well as synthetic and natural antioxidants are summarized in Figure 7.
An overview of factors involved in olive oil oxidative stability as well as natural and synthetic antioxidants. BHA, butylated hydroxyanisole; BHT, butylated hydrolxytoluene; TBHQ, tertiary butylhydroquinone; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids, and PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Natural extracts sourced from various plant parts (peel, fruit, leaf, flower, and root) from different aromatic and medicinal herbs, agri-food residues and by-products were investigated for their antioxidant power as well as their use for the enrichment of olive oil with an emphasis on improving oxidative stability. Such natural extracts were proved to have a wide range of bioactive compounds were identified. These are mainly carotenoids and phenols [62, 63]. Promising results were obtained regarding the improvement of oxidative stability and shelf life of olive oil. Regarding the antioxidant activity of synthetic and natural additives, several mechanisms are involved. They act as free radical scavengers, inactivators of peroxides as well as other reactive oxygen species (ROS), singlet oxygen quenchers, metal ion chelators, quenchers of secondary oxidation products, and inhibitors of pro-oxidative enzymes, among other compounds [64]. Following these authors, antioxidants can be classified, based on their mode of action, into primary antioxidants. These break the oxidation chain reaction through scavenging free radical intermediates, however secondary antioxidants delay or even prevent oxidation through suppression of oxidation initiator, accelerators or regeneration of primary antioxidants.
Olive oil is an important food in the Mediterranean diet. Its importance and nutritional value arise from chemical composition. Its richness in essential fatty acids is behind their health-promoting properties. A set of other minor compounds such as polyphenols and tocopherols act as antioxidants which are directly associated with oxidative stability and shelf life of olive oil on one hand as well as human health on the other hand. Along with these endogenous antioxidants, olive oil quality can be enhanced through natural antioxidants extracted from herbs and agri-food residues.
This work has no acknowledgments.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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This chapter focuses on the methods involved in algal-synthesized nanoparticles and its applications.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Felix LewisOscar, Sasikumar Vismaya, Manivel Arunkumar,\nNooruddin Thajuddin, Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran and Chari\nNithya",authors:[{id:"183668",title:"Dr.",name:"Nithya",middleName:null,surname:"Chari",slug:"nithya-chari",fullName:"Nithya Chari"}]},{id:"51074",doi:"10.5772/62916",title:"Algae as an Indicator of Water Quality",slug:"algae-as-an-indicator-of-water-quality",totalDownloads:5034,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"The formation of plankton/algae under natural conditions is related to tolerance class (ecological optimum) due to abiotic limiting factors of ecosystem, as well as the biotic interactions among algae. In the ecological niche, the appearance of organisms is affected by anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic environmental factors. Algae composition and temporal variation in abundances are important in determining the trophic level of lakes. Algal communities are sensitive to changes in their habitat, and thus, total biomass of algae and many algae species are used as indicators of water quality. Algae communities give more knowledge on variations in water quality than nutrient or chlorophyll-a values. Water quality is a canonical group of physical, chemical, and biological properties of the given water. Consequently, eutrophication of freshwater is regarded as a water quality which results in the degeneration of the aquatic ecosystem and affects water utilisation. Cyanobacteria has been accepted as a major indicator of eutrophication in freshwater as their blooms are common in waters affected by nutrient concentration. The purpose of this chapter is to assess physical and chemical variables and the role of algal abundance to determine the water quality in the freshwater ecosystems.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Didem Gökçe",authors:[{id:"178260",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Didem",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce",slug:"didem-gokce",fullName:"Didem Gokce"}]},{id:"50534",doi:"10.5772/63069",title:"Considerations for Photobioreactor Design and Operation for Mass Cultivation of Microalgae",slug:"considerations-for-photobioreactor-design-and-operation-for-mass-cultivation-of-microalgae",totalDownloads:5994,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Microalgae have great biotechnological potential for production of substances through photosynthesis. Light capture process and electron transportation imply energy losses due to reflection, fluorescence emission, and energy dissipation as heat, giving a maximum theoretical value of 8‐9% for microalgae energy capture efficiency and conversion to biomass. For development of full potential of microalgae the knowledge of the light capture process is required. High yields can only be obtained linking photobioreactor design with biological process taking place inside. In massive microalgae cultures, light gradients are generated and this depends on the biomass concentration, cellular types, cells sizes, and pigment content, and also on geometry, hydrodynamic, and light conditions inside the photobioreactor. In the present chapter we explain the relationship between light energy capture process and photobioreactor design and operation conditions, like turbulence, gas exchange, and nutrient requirements. Finally, the productivity and costs are discussed, and the parameters that determine the economic viability of any microalgae culture.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Juan Cristóbal García Cañedo and Gema Lorena López Lizárraga",authors:[{id:"185868",title:"Dr.",name:"Gema Lorena",middleName:null,surname:"López-Lizárraga",slug:"gema-lorena-lopez-lizarraga",fullName:"Gema Lorena López-Lizárraga"},{id:"293413",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Cristóbal",middleName:null,surname:"García Cañedo",slug:"juan-cristobal-garcia-canedo",fullName:"Juan Cristóbal García Cañedo"}]},{id:"69201",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89324",title:"Drying and Quality of Microalgal Powders for Human Alimentation",slug:"drying-and-quality-of-microalgal-powders-for-human-alimentation",totalDownloads:1263,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The demand for natural foods with high protein content and functional properties is constantly growing in the last years. In this context, microalgae as Spirulina (Arthrospira spp.), Chlorella spp., Haematococcus pluvialis, Dunaliella salina, and others, assume a key role to diversify the offer of nutritious and functional ingredients and supplements. Microalgae are commercialized, mostly, as dried powders to facilitate their use as food ingredients and to allow easy transportation and long-term stability. Microalgal powder quality and storage stability depend mainly on drying method, packaging, and storage conditions. Most of the studies that approach the subject of microalgal drying evaluate the efficiency of the process and suitability for this raw material. However, studies that assess the effect of traditional and innovative drying methods on quality of microalgal powder for human consumption are rare in literature. In this chapter, the state of the art of drying processing technology for microalgae was reviewed, discussing the effect of dehydration on quality and stability of microalgal powders with potential use in human alimentation.",book:{id:"9354",slug:"microalgae-from-physiology-to-application",title:"Microalgae",fullTitle:"Microalgae - From Physiology to Application"},signatures:"Fábio de Farias Neves, Mariana Demarco and Giustino Tribuzi",authors:null},{id:"50671",doi:"10.5772/63272",title:"Challenges and Opportunities in the Present Era of Marine Algal Applications",slug:"challenges-and-opportunities-in-the-present-era-of-marine-algal-applications",totalDownloads:2747,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Marine algae are of high importance in their natural habitats and even more now in the world of green technology. The sprouting interest of the scientific community and industries in these organisms is driven by the fast-growing world of modern biotechnology. Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and their integration collectively termed here as ‘marine algal-omics’ have broadened the research horizon in view of enhancing human’s life by addressing environmental problems and encouraging novelty in the field of pharmaceuticals among so many more. Their use in the human society dates back to 500 B. C. in China and later across the globe; they are still being used for similar purposes and more today. There is a hiking interest in marine algae and their derivatives—from phycoremediation, food supplements, pharmaceuticals to dyes. Marine algae are currently considered as an emerging panacea for the society. They are being studied in a multitude of arenas. The multi-use of marine algae is enticing and promises to be a boon for industrial applications. Yet, most marine algae face challenges that might variably constrain their commercialisation. This chapter gives an overview of marine algae including all the ‘omics’ technologies involved in studying marine algae and it explores their multitude applications. It also draws the various successful industries budded around them and presents some of the challenges and opportunities along with future directions.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Keshini Beetul, Arvind Gopeechund, Deepeeka Kaullysing, Sushma\nMattan-Moorgawa, Daneshwar Puchooa and Ranjeet Bhagooli",authors:[{id:"178209",title:"Ms.",name:"Keshini",middleName:null,surname:"Beetul",slug:"keshini-beetul",fullName:"Keshini Beetul"},{id:"184390",title:"Mr.",name:"Arvind",middleName:null,surname:"Gopeechund",slug:"arvind-gopeechund",fullName:"Arvind Gopeechund"},{id:"184391",title:"Ms.",name:"Deepeeka",middleName:null,surname:"Kaullysing",slug:"deepeeka-kaullysing",fullName:"Deepeeka Kaullysing"},{id:"184392",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sushma",middleName:null,surname:"Mattan-Moorgawa",slug:"sushma-mattan-moorgawa",fullName:"Sushma Mattan-Moorgawa"},{id:"184393",title:"Prof.",name:"Daneshwar",middleName:null,surname:"Puchooa",slug:"daneshwar-puchooa",fullName:"Daneshwar Puchooa"},{id:"184394",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjeet",middleName:null,surname:"Bhagooli",slug:"ranjeet-bhagooli",fullName:"Ranjeet Bhagooli"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64156",title:"Cyanobacteria Growth Kinetics",slug:"cyanobacteria-growth-kinetics",totalDownloads:1799,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Harmful cyanobacterial blooms are a global problem for freshwater ecosystems used for drinking water supply and recreational purposes. Cyanobacteria also produce a wide variety of toxic secondary metabolites, called cyanotoxins. High water temperatures have been known to lead to cyanobacterial bloom development in temperate and semiarid regions. Increased temperatures as a result of climate change could therefore favor the growth of cyanobacteria, thus augmenting the risks associated with the blooms. Though temperature is the main factor affecting the growth kinetics of bacteria, the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus also plays a significant role. This chapter studies the growth kinetics of toxin-producing Microcystis aeruginosa and evaluates potential risks to the population in scenarios of climate change and the presence of nutrients. The most suitable control methods for mitigation are also evaluated.",book:{id:"6889",slug:"algae",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae"},signatures:"Leda Giannuzzi",authors:[{id:"252117",title:"Dr.",name:"Leda",middleName:null,surname:"Giannuzzi",slug:"leda-giannuzzi",fullName:"Leda Giannuzzi"}]},{id:"65952",title:"CO2 Capture for Industries by Algae",slug:"co-sub-2-sub-capture-for-industries-by-algae",totalDownloads:2102,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The increased usage of fossil fuels has led to increase in the concentration of CO2, which is a greenhouse gas responsible for global warming. Algae-based CO2 conversion is a cost-effective option for reducing carbon footprint. In addition, algae-based CO2 mitigation strategy has the potential to obtain valuable products at the end of the process. In the present study, freshwater algal species were isolated and identified for CO2 capture, such as Hydrodictyon, Spirogyra, Oscillatoria, Oedogonium, and Chlorella. The algal strains were screened based on different parameters like fast growth rate, high rate of photosynthesis, strong tolerance to the trace constituents of other gases (gaseous hydrocarbons, NOx, SOx, etc.), high temperature tolerance, and possibility to produce high value products, etc. The study involves integrated methods for utilizing 90–99% CO2 from a natural gas processing industry (GAIL India, Ltd.) as well as 13–15% of CO2 from flue gas of thermal power plants (Chandrapura and Santaldih Thermal Power Station) as carbon nutrient source along with the additional nutritional supplements. A 400-ml and 25-l flat panel photo-bioreactor (PSI Photo-bioreactors) was used for CO2 capture. After CO2 capture, the algal biomass was used to extract value-added products such as amino acid rich feed, algal oil, algal pellets, etc.",book:{id:"6889",slug:"algae",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae"},signatures:"Vetrivel Anguselvi, Reginald Ebhin Masto, Ashis Mukherjee and Pradeep Kumar Singh",authors:[{id:"255851",title:"Dr.",name:"Vetrivel",middleName:null,surname:"Anguselvi",slug:"vetrivel-anguselvi",fullName:"Vetrivel Anguselvi"},{id:"269996",title:"Dr.",name:"R E",middleName:null,surname:"Masto",slug:"r-e-masto",fullName:"R E Masto"},{id:"269997",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashis",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"ashis-mukherjee",fullName:"Ashis Mukherjee"},{id:"270059",title:"Dr.",name:"P K",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"p-k-singh",fullName:"P K Singh"}]},{id:"51074",title:"Algae as an Indicator of Water Quality",slug:"algae-as-an-indicator-of-water-quality",totalDownloads:5034,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"The formation of plankton/algae under natural conditions is related to tolerance class (ecological optimum) due to abiotic limiting factors of ecosystem, as well as the biotic interactions among algae. In the ecological niche, the appearance of organisms is affected by anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic environmental factors. Algae composition and temporal variation in abundances are important in determining the trophic level of lakes. Algal communities are sensitive to changes in their habitat, and thus, total biomass of algae and many algae species are used as indicators of water quality. Algae communities give more knowledge on variations in water quality than nutrient or chlorophyll-a values. Water quality is a canonical group of physical, chemical, and biological properties of the given water. Consequently, eutrophication of freshwater is regarded as a water quality which results in the degeneration of the aquatic ecosystem and affects water utilisation. Cyanobacteria has been accepted as a major indicator of eutrophication in freshwater as their blooms are common in waters affected by nutrient concentration. The purpose of this chapter is to assess physical and chemical variables and the role of algal abundance to determine the water quality in the freshwater ecosystems.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Didem Gökçe",authors:[{id:"178260",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Didem",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce",slug:"didem-gokce",fullName:"Didem Gokce"}]},{id:"64455",title:"Cyanobacteria for PHB Bioplastics Production: A Review",slug:"cyanobacteria-for-phb-bioplastics-production-a-review",totalDownloads:2186,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, can be used as host to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which are promising bioplastic raw materials. The most important material thereof is polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), which can replace the commodity polymer polypropylene (PP) in many applications, yielding a bio-based, biodegradable alternative solution. The advantage from using cyanobacteria to make PHB over the standard fermentation processes, with sugar or other organic (waste) materials as feedstock, is that the sustainability is better (compare first-generation biofuels with the feed vs. fuel debate), with CO2 being the only carbon source and sunlight being the sole energy source. In this review article, the state of the art of cyanobacterial PHB production and its outlook is discussed. Thirty-seven percent of dry cell weight of PHB could be obtained in 2018, which is getting close to up to 78% of PHB dry cell weight in heterotrophic microorganisms in fermentation reactors. A good potential for cyanobacterial PHB is seen throughout the literature.",book:{id:"6889",slug:"algae",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae"},signatures:"Erich Markl, Hannes Grünbichler and Maximilian Lackner",authors:[{id:"251081",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximilian",middleName:null,surname:"Lackner",slug:"maximilian-lackner",fullName:"Maximilian Lackner"},{id:"255232",title:"Prof.",name:"Erich",middleName:null,surname:"Markl",slug:"erich-markl",fullName:"Erich Markl"},{id:"277237",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannes",middleName:null,surname:"Grünbichler",slug:"hannes-grunbichler",fullName:"Hannes Grünbichler"}]},{id:"50544",title:"Algal Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Biotechnological Potentials",slug:"algal-nanoparticles-synthesis-and-biotechnological-potentials",totalDownloads:5784,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:67,abstract:"A nanoparticle can be defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties. Nanoparticles are sized between 1 and 100 nm in diameter. Nanoparticles can act against the microbes in multiple ways, and the microbes are less likely to develop resistance against nanoparticles because it requires multiple gene mutations. The large surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles, their ability to easily interact with other particles, and several other features make them attractive tools in various fields. Nanoparticles are widely used various fields such as electronics, cosmetics, biomedical, and biotechnology. Nanoparticles can be synthesized by physical methods such as attrition, pyrolysis, and using some wet chemical methods. The physical and chemical methods have various drawbacks such as high cost of production, require high energy input and generation of toxic by-products. To overcome this, several biological methods are employed in the synthesis of nanoparticles. The biological methods are generally cost effective, nontoxic, and ecofriendly. This chapter focuses on the methods involved in algal-synthesized nanoparticles and its applications.",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology",title:"Algae",fullTitle:"Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology"},signatures:"Felix LewisOscar, Sasikumar Vismaya, Manivel Arunkumar,\nNooruddin Thajuddin, Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran and Chari\nNithya",authors:[{id:"183668",title:"Dr.",name:"Nithya",middleName:null,surname:"Chari",slug:"nithya-chari",fullName:"Nithya Chari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"424",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. 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