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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Merr.) Genotypes Using GC-MS Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78035",slug:"phytochemical-profiling-of-soybean-glycine-max-l-merr-genotypes-using-gc-ms-analysis",body:'\n
Soybean (
Furthermore, tofu, soy milk, soy sauce, miso, etc., have been developed for human consumption, while soya meal (oil extraction by-product) is used as a nutritious animal feed [5]. Moreover, soybean is now regarded as a model legume crop owing to the availability of genome sequence information [6]. Keeping in mind its vast uses, there is huge number of justifications for crop improvement programs throughout the world. Having 53% global production share of all oilseed crops, USA, China, Brazil, Argentina and India gave soybean much attention in the agricultural production systems. Yield and total production of soybean increased over the last two decades due to genetic improvement of this crop [7].
\nIn comparison with conventional legume and animal feed sources, soybean is considered one of the cheapest food resources with medicinal properties due to their highest protein content and no cholesterol due to its contents of Genistein, photochemical and isoflavones [8]. It can help in disease fighting due to its pharmacological properties and its phytochemicals constitutes, including antioxidant, estrogenic, antidiabetic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-obesity, antihypertensive, anticancer, anti-mutagenic, hepatoprotective, anti-osteoporotic, antiviral, bifidogenic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, wound healing, antimicrobial, goitrogenic anti-skin aging, anti-photoaging activity and the effects of anti-nutritional factors [3]. A 111 volatile compounds in fermented soybean curds were reported by Chung [9] and an 83 in commercial plain sufu [10]. Messina [11] reported that the presence of isoflavones in soybean is behind the pharmacological attributes of this crop. Chemical composition included Phenolic acids, flavonoids, isoflavones, saponins, phytosterols and sphingolipids were recorded in soybean [12, 13, 14]. Due to importance of this crop and its products, this study was amid at estimating the most active constitutes of 24 soybean genotypes including total phenolic, flavonoid and protein content and phytochemicals using GC-MS.
\nTwenty-four soybean genotypes were grown in Dirab Agriculture Research Station, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (24_25049.200 N 46_22012.500E) on August, 2014 and were collected from nine countries (Argentina, Australia, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, USA, and Pakistan). The name and geographical origin of these genotypes are presented in the Table 1.
\nEntry no. | \nGenotype name | \nSource/origin | \nEntry no. | \nGenotype name | \nSource/origin | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nAdmaril | \nPakistan | \n13 | \nGiza 111 | \nEgypt | \n
2 | \nRomal-1 | \nPakistan | \n14 | \nClark | \nUSA | \n
3 | \nNARC-2 | \nPakistan | \n15 | \n3803 | \nSyria | \n
4 | \nWilliams 82 | \nUSA | \n15 | \nA-1 | \nAustralia | \n
5 | \nX 32 | \nEgypt | \n17 | \nIjen | \nIndonesia | \n
6 | \nGiza 22 | \nEgypt | \n18 | \nIndo-black | \nIndonesia | \n
7 | \nGiza 21 | \nEgypt | \n29 | \nIndo-I | \nIndonesia | \n
8 | \nX2 L 12 | \nEgypt | \n20 | \nIndo-II | \nIndonesia | \n
9 | \nGiza 83 | \nEgypt | \n21 | \nUSA-1 | \nUSA | \n
10 | \nCrawford | \nUSA | \n22 | \nIndian | \nIndia | \n
11 | \nGiza 35 | \nEgypt | \n23 | \nChinese | \nChina | \n
12 | \nX 30 | \nEgypt | \n24 | \nArgentinian | \nArgentina | \n
Name and source of the 24 soybean genotypes invistigated in the study.
Triplicate sample is used to determine the proximate analysis of soybean genotypes for crude proteins, moisture, total ash, fat and carbohydrate by using the methods described in AOAC, [15]. Protein content was estimated using Kjeldahl method with titration and percent nitrogen was determined using [16] equation.
\nSoybean samples approximately (1 g) were powdered and homogenized in 10 ml 80% methanol. The mixture was shaken at 300 rpm at room temperature for 3 h. Then the extract was centrifuged for 10 min at 3000 rpm and upper aqueous phase were transferred to new Eppndorf tubes. Moreover, the residues were again extracted with 5 ml 80% methanol overnight. The extraction was performed in three replicates, later on extracts combined and stored in dark at 4°C. The Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was used to determine the total phenolic compounds from the extracts using gallic acid calibration curve as standard. The total phenolics were expressed as mg/g gallic acid equivalents (GAE). An extract was aliquot (50 μl) and mixed with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent of 250 μl and 7.5% sodium carbonate of 750 μl. The volume was increased to 5 ml with water and sample was incubated for 2 h. The absorbance was measured at 765 nm against distilled water as blank. The flavonoid determination was measure by aluminum chloride method with the help of Quercetin equivalent as standard. An aliquot of extract (250 μl) was mixed with ddH2O and 5% NaNO2 (15:1, v/v). After 6 min, 150 μl of 10% AlCl3 was added to the mixture. A 500 μl of 1 M NaOH was added to the mixture at the 5th min, and volume made up to 2.5 ml with distills water and the absorbance was measured spectrophotometrically at 410 nm.
\nThe GC-MS analysis of fractions were performed using a TSQTM 8000 Evo Triple Quadrupole GC-MS/MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific) equipped with an Elite-5 capillary column (length 30 nm and inner diameter 0.25 mm and film thickness 0.25 μm) and mass detector was operated in electron impact (EI) mode with full scan (50–550 amu). Helium was used as the carrier gas at constant flow rate 1 mL/min and an injection volume of 1 μL. The oven injector temperature was programmed from 50°C with an increase of 8°C/min to 200°C, then 7°C/min to 290°C/min. The results were compared using the database of National Institute Standard and Technology (NIST).
\nThe data were subjected to descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variability, minimum and maximum values) and principal component analysis (PCA) using statistical software Past3 program [17].
\nThe proximate analysis values of 24 soybean genotypes (crude protein, ash fat, carbohydrate, and moisture contents) values and total phenolic and flavonoid contents are shown in Table 2, and the detailed proximate analysis estimates are presented in Table S1. The minimum crude protein value was recorded for Argentinian (35.63%), while maximum recorded for Clark genotypes (43.13%). The genotypes, i.e., Clark, Indo-1, Indo-black, Ijen, Romal-1, X 30 and 3803 recorded higher than 40% crude protein. The significant variations for crude proteins among genotypes were recorded and that might observed due to differences in genetic background and/or origin. The higher protein content in the genotypes is also reported previously which ranged from 43 to 45% [18]. These results are also in line with Zarkadas et al. [19, 20] who reported crude protein contents in soybean ranging from 33.67 to 42.11%. The minimum moisture contents were recorded in Giza 83 (3.08%) while maximum was recorded for Indo-1 (5.88%) with an average (4.90%) mean value showing non-significant difference. Ash contents ranged from 4.55 to 6.28% with an average of 5.44%. The maximum was recorded for Giza 111 (6.28%) genotype while Romal-1 genotype had the lowest (4.55%) of ash contents. The moisture and ash contents values were recorded lower than that reported by [21]. Total fat ranged from 16.92 to 22.94% with a mean value of 21.16%. The genotype Indo-black contained the lowest while the genotype 3803 recorded the highest content. Soybean is considered about 47% of its energy value in fat content [22, 23] which is compared to other legumes. Our results regarding total fat were in line with that of [24] who reported that that total fat value ranged 18 and 22 g/100 g in soybean genotypes. The minimum carbohydrate content in Clark (26.11%) while maximum in Argentinian (33.18%), with an average (29.48%) was recorded among soybean genotypes.
\n\n | Crude protein (g/100 g) | \nMoisture (g/100 g) | \nAsh (g/100 g) | \nTotal fat (g/100 g) | \nCarbohydrate (g/100 g) | \nTotal phenolic content (TPC) | \nTotal flavonoid content (TFC) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | \n24 | \n24 | \n24 | \n24 | \n24 | \n24 | \n24 | \n
Min | \n35.63 | \n3.08 | \n4.55 | \n16.92 | \n26.11 | \n1.15 | \n0.68 | \n
Max | \n43.13 | \n5.88 | \n6.28 | \n23.61 | \n33.18 | \n1.77 | \n2.13 | \n
Mean | \n39.02 | \n4.90 | \n5.44 | \n21.16 | \n29.48 | \n1.45 | \n1.24 | \n
Stand. dev. | \n2.09 | \n0.65 | \n0.33 | \n1.41 | \n1.86 | \n0.16 | \n0.36 | \n
Coeff. Var. | \n5.35 | \n13.26 | \n6.11 | \n6.68 | \n6.30 | \n11.58 | \n29.32 | \n
Descriptive statistics of chemical composition in 24 soybean genotypes.
Flavonoid and phenolic compounds are the important phytochemicals and natural antioxidants founds in fruits, vegetable and cereals grains. It serves as multiple biological functions, i.e., defense against cardiovascular disease, cancer and aging [25]. The results regarding total phenolic and flavonoids contents for 24 soybean genotypes are presented in Table S1, and significant differences were recorded for all soybean genotypes. The seed extracted results indicated that the maximum phenolic contents was recorded in Romal-1 (1.7 mg/g) while minimum in Giza 111 (1.15 mg/g) with an average 1.45 GAE/g mg/g (Table 2). However, total flavonoid content ranged 0.68 to 2.13 mg QE/g (Table 2). Phenolic content is strongly linked with antioxidant capacity [26, 27] and can contribute towards antioxidants activities [28]. The use and demands of phenolic are increasing rapidly in food industry to enhance nutritional value and quality of food [29].
\nMethanolic extracts of 24 soybean genotypes using GC-MS analysis were used to identify a large number of phytochemical. Based on peak area, retention time and molecular formula, about 88 compounds were recognized. A large number of bioactive phytochemicals including flavonoids, phenolic acids, saponins, isoflavones, sphingolipids and phytosterols were also reported previously for soybean [12, 13, 14]. The carbamide was the first compound that identified at 3.67 min retention time, whereas, last compound identified at 48.53 min retention time was methyl 10 Trans, 12-cisoctadecadienoate recognized at 48.53 min retention time (Table S2). A wide difference was recorded for composition of phytochemical in 24 soybean genotypes. The phytocompounds and their biological activities in soybean genotypes were presented in Table 3. The phytocompounds of the studied soybean genotypes divided into different groups (Figure 1). The resulted 88 compounds were categorized into heterocyclic compounds (19), aldehydes (5), alcohols (5), esters (13), amide (3), sugar moiety (7), ether (4), phenolic compound (9), carboxylic acids (7), ketones (13), alkanes (2), one fatty acid ester and one Alkene. A typical chromatogram of one soybean genotype was shown in Figure 2. The GC-MS analyses showed that the methanolic extract is largely composed of heterocyclic compound, ester and phenolic compound. Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, 2,6-dimethoxy, 3,5-dimethoxyacetophenone, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, phenol and 1,2-cyclopentanedione were noticed in most of the genotypes. These phytochemicals are involved in various pharmacological actions, i.e., antioxidants and antimicrobial activities [30]. These chemicals are also active in many biological activities that were listed (Table S2). Phytochemicals also possess antioxidant activities, anti-cancer, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, antiviral, or anti-inflammatory activities and play an important role for plant metabolism [30, 31]. The five compounds belong to aldehyde group (benzeneacetaldehyde, 3,4-dimethylbenzaldehyde, methoxy-propanal, p-hydroxyphenyl, glyoxal and propanal, 2-(benzoyloxy)-, benzeneacetaldehyde), were detected in 10 genotypes (Table S2). Admiral and Williams 82 contains 3-methoxy-propanal while indo-black, Indo-1 and Indo-II contains 3,4-dimethylbenzaldehyde, whereas Giza 35 and X30 contains p-hydroxyphenyl) glyoxal and propanal, 2-benzoyloxy, respectively. The highest number of aldehyde compounds is present in William 82 genotype (2). It is also reported that; aldehyde possess powerful antimicrobial activity due to their highly electronegative arrangement of conjugated group C=C double bond [32], as the electronegativity increase, antimicrobial activity also increases in those genotypes [33, 34]. These compounds react with vital nitrogen components such as protein and nucleic acid, consequently inhibit microorganism. Thirteen ketone related compounds were identified, i.e., 1-(dimethylamino)-, 1,2-propanone, 1,2-cyclopentanedione and 6-Oxa-bicyclo [3.1.0] hexan-3-one, 2,4-dihydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furan-3-one,2-acetyl-2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-1,4-thiazine,butyrolactone, 2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone, 5-hepten-3-one, 5-methyl-, dihydroxyacetone, 2-pyrrolidinone, 1-methyl, 2,4,6,-cycloheptatrien-1-one,4-methyl-, 3,5-dimethoxyacetophenone. The indo-11 and 3803 genotypes recorded highest ketonic compounds (8) followed by present in Giza 35 and USA-1 genotypes that contained 6ketonic group each. Ketones might be formed by beta-oxidation of fatty acid and have some important flavor compounds [35]. During fatty acid metabolism, many volatile compounds are also formed, producing alcohols, acids and esters. Many alcoholic compounds are derived from bioremediation of unsaturated fatty acids and are prerequisite for the formation of long chain esters. These identified compounds in soybean genotypes are 4-methyl-2-haptanol, 1,2,3-propanetriol, isosorbide (D-glucitol, 1,4,3,6-dianhydro), 1-undecanol alcohol, and 1,3-dioxolane-4-methanol (glycerol formal). 4-Methyl-2-haptanol was present in Genotype Giza 35 while 1,2,3-propanetriol was present in nine genotypes and isosorbide was detected in three soybean genotypes. The highest alcoholic compounds (3) were detected in Clark genotype as compared to other genotypes. Alcohols also possess antibacterial activity against vegetative cell. Glycerol and derivatives also show bacterial inhibiting effect [36]. The following seven carboxylic acids namely acetic acid, 2-pyridinecarboxylic acid (also called picolinic acid), 2,2-[oxybis(2,1-ethanediyloxy)]bis, butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-, propyl-(also called 2-propylmalonic acid), propanedioic acid, benzoic acid, butanoic acid, 4,4-dithiobis[2-amino-,[S-(R/,R/)] were detected (Table S2). Five genotypes were having acetic acid and 2-pyridinecarboxylic acid was present in five genotypes. Three genotypes have butanoic acid and 4-hydroxy-was appeared in three genotypes while one genotype has benzoic acid. Giza 35, X30, Argentinian and Chinese compassed the maximum numbers of carboxylic acids compounds. Thirteen esters were identified. The butyrolactone, acetic acid, 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl ester, formic acid, 3-methylbut-2-yl ester, pentanoic acid, 2-isopropoxyphenyl ester, phthalic acid, hex-3-yl-isobutyl ester, hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, phthalic acid, butyl undecyl ester, 5,8,11-heptadecatriynoic acid methyl ester, methyl 10-trans, 12-cis-octadecadienoate, 9,12-octadecadienoic acid(Z,Z)-methyl ester, benzoic acid, 4-ethoxy-, ethyl ester, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, dibutyl ester, and pentanoic acid, 2,2-4-trimethyl-3-carboxyisopropyl, isobutyl, ester were identified. The genotype A-1 had maximum six esters compounds followed by others genotypes (Giza 83, Romal-1, Clark, Argentinian and 3803) having five (5) esters compounds. Hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester shows antioxidant, nematicidal activities and hypocholesterolemic [37]. Regarding phenolic compound, a total of nine compounds were identified. 1,2-benzenediol,3-methoxy-, 5-tert-butyl-1,2,3-benzenetriol, phenol, 4-ethenyl-, acetate, phenol, 2,6-dimethoxy-, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, phenol,2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methy l-, phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-, and phenol, 2-methoxy. The genotypes Indo-1 and Ijen and recorded the highest number of phenolic compounds which is five while the genotypes Clark, NARC-2, Giza 35, USA-1 and Indo-11 contained the four (4) phenolic compounds each. The plant phenolics compounds are of great interest to human due to their anti-oxidative and possible anticarcinogenic activities. The dietary phenolics are considered anti-carcinogens because of antioxidants, but there is no clear proof supporting this supposition [38]. Phenolic may inhibit carcinogenesis by interfering the molecular events in initiation, promotion, and progression stages. Isoflavones and lignans from soybean may distract tumor formation by mediating estrogen-related activities and also modulate the growth of benign and malignant prostatic epithelial cells in vitro [39]. The following sugar moiety, L-galactose, 6-deoxy-, 3,4-0-isopropylidene-d-galactose, a-methyl-D-m annopyranoside, 3-O-methyl-d-glucose a-D-galactopyranoside, methyl were appeared among soybean studied genotypes. The relatively notable amounts of heterocyclic compounds were identified including 3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-2, 2,6-diisoprpylnapthalene, 4H-pyran-4-one, 3-dihydro-4Hpyran-4-one, 3-hydroxy-2-methyl-, pyrazine, ethyl-, oxirane, 2-ethyl-2-methyl, 1H-indazole, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro, N-aminomorpholine, and benzofuran, 2,3-dihydro. The genotype X30 had four sugars compounds while genotypes USA-1, Indo-1, and Indo-11 had three sugars compounds each. Benzofurans are considered to possess anti-oxidant, antimicrobial effect and anti-inflammatory [40]. The compounds detected in this study have reported to have potentials as therapeutic agents, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory compounds and demonstrating that different compounds can exhibit similar activity and this might be due to presence of similar functional groups (Table S2). Antioxidant properties of soybean extract could be the basis for the presence of various antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds.
\n\n | Compound | \nOther names | \nNature | \nActivity | \nRT | \nMW | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
22 | \n2H-1-Benzopyran,3,5,6,8a-tetrahydro-2,5,5,8a-tetramethyl-,(2S-cis)- | \nEdulan II | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 7.58 | \n192 | \n
27 | \n1,2-Cyclopentanedione | \n\n | Ketone | \nAntioxidant | \n7.98 | \n98 | \n
28 | \nPyran-4-Carboxylic acid, 4-(4-methoxyphenyl)-tetrahydro- | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \n\n | 8.02 | \n236 | \n
34 | \n2,4-Dihydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furan-3-one | \n\n | Ketone | \n\n | 9.74 | \n144 | \n
36 | \n2H-Pyran-2,6(3H)-dione | \nGlutaconic anhydride | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 10.75 | \n112 | \n
39 | \n2-Pyrrolidinone, 1-methyl | \nM-Pyrol | \nKetone | \n\n | 11.86 | \n99 | \n
42 | \n2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone | \n\n | Ketone | \n\n | 12.28 | \n128 | \n
44 | \nPhenol, 2-methoxy- | \n\n | Phenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n13.83 | \n124 | \n
49 | \n4H-Pyran-4-one,3-hydroxy-2-methyl- | \nMaltol | \nHeterocyclic compound | \nFlavor enhancer | \n14.78 | \n126 | \n
50 | \n5-Hepten-3-one, 5-methyl- | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 15.09 | \n126 | \n
52 | \n3,5-Dihydroxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-one | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \nAntimicrobial, anti-inflammatory | \n16.61 | \n144 | \n
57 | \nPhenol, 4-ethenyl-, acetate | \n4-Vinylphenyl acetate | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | \n19.29 | \n162 | \n
60 | \nBenzofuran, 2,3-dihydro | \nCoumaran | \nHeterocyclic compound | \nAntihelminthic, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal | \n20.16 | \n120 | \n
62 | \nBenzeneacetaldehyde, 3-methyl | \nm-Tolualdehyde | \nAldehyde | \nAntimicrobial | \n20.34 | \n120 | \n
61 | \n1,2-Benzenediol,3-methoxy- | \nPyrocatechol, 3-methoxy | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntioxidant | \n21.01 | \n140 | \n
64 | \n2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol | \nPhenol, 4-ethenyl-2-methoxy- | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | \n23.35 | \n150 | \n
68 | \nPhenol, 2,6-dimethoxy- | \nPyrogallol 1,3-dimethyl ether | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | \n24.99 | \n154 | \n
70 | \nPhenol,2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl- | \nButylated hydroxytoluene | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n30.99 | \n220 | \n
71 | \nPhenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)- | \nPhenol, 2,4-di-tert-butyl- | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | \n31.19 | \n206 | \n
72 | \n5-tert-Butyl-1,2,3-benzenetriol | \n5-Tert-butylpyrogallol | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntioxidant, antiseptic, antibacterial, anti-dermatitic fungicide, pesticide | \n31.91 | \n182 | \n
76 | \n3,5-Dimethoxyacetophenone | \n\n | Ketone | \nAntioxidant | \n33.65 | \n180 | \n
85 | \nHexadecanoic acid, methyl ester | \nPalmitic acid, methyl ester | \nEster | \nAntioxidant, flavor, hypocholesterolemic, nematicide | \n46.13 | \n270 | \n
List of important phytocompounds identified in the methanolic seed extract of soybean genotypes by GC-MS.
Pie diagram showing the percentage of phytochemical groups identified in 24 soybean genotypes.
A typical GC-MS profile of seeds of soybean genotype.
The first three principal components explained 78.64% of total variations among genotypes (Table 4 and Figure 3). The first component described 59.65% of total variation, and positively correlated with phytochemical classes of ether, alcohol, sugar moiety ketone and phenolic compounds. Genotypes Ijen, Clark, A-1, USA-1, Indo-II, 3803, X 30, Giza 35, Indo-black and Indo-I showed the most variability according to these components and can be selected for these classes. PC2 illustrated 10.63% of the total variance, and the amide, sugar moiety, ether, alkane, ketone and carboxylic acid positively correlated with this component. The genotypes showed most variability were Giza 111, Giza 35, X 30, X 32, Indo-II and 3803. Alkane, Aldehyde, Carboxylic acid and Phenolic compound were positively correlated with the third component. The genotypes Giza 35, X 32 showed most variability based on this component. In this study, genotypes Giza 35, X 30, Indo-II and genotype 3803 showed positive loading in at least two out of the three PCs, which can be utilized in breeding for ceratin class of phytochemical. Utilizing PCA effectively reduces the number of variables needed to classify cultivars and permitted soybean researchers to more easily develop significant relationships between important soybean characteristics. Soybean cultivars have been classified using (PCA) of the fatty acid data [41]. The first four principal components generated in total 81.49% of the variance, where PC1 positively correlated with oleic, linoleic, and gondoic acids, PC2 with stearic, linolenic and arachidic acids, PC3 behenic and lignoceric acids, and PC4 by palmitic acid. Moreover, due to the ability of PCA to manage and interpret large data sets, it has been used in studying relationships that exist in fatty acid characterization [42]. Although soybean oil has been included in some chemometric studies comparing vegetable oils, soybean cultivars have yet to be extensively classified using multivariate techniques [43, 44].
\n\n | PC 1 | \nPC 2 | \nPC 3 | \n
---|---|---|---|
Eigen values | \n0.17 | \n0.03 | \n0.02 | \n
Percent of variance | \n59.65 | \n10.63 | \n8.36 | \n
Cumulative percentage | \n59.65 | \n70.28 | \n78.64 | \n
Alcohol | \n0.42 | \n0.11 | \n−0.12 | \n
Aldehyde | \n−0.14 | \n0.00 | \n0.24 | \n
Alkane | \n−0.01 | \n0.29 | \n0.75 | \n
Amide | \n−0.59 | \n0.67 | \n−0.28 | \n
Sugar moiety | \n0.39 | \n0.44 | \n−0.06 | \n
Carboxylic acid | \n0.03 | \n0.06 | \n0.31 | \n
Ester | \n0.12 | \n−0.25 | \n−0.26 | \n
Ether | \n0.45 | \n0.34 | \n0.02 | \n
Heterocyclic compound | \n0.05 | \n0.14 | \n−0.16 | \n
Ketone | \n0.27 | \n0.21 | \n−0.18 | \n
Phenolic compound | \n0.11 | \n−0.09 | \n0.24 | \n
Eigen values and proportion of the variance explained for the three principal components of the 24 soybean genotypes based on phytochemical components.
Two-dimensional biplot ordination of 24 soybean genotypes on principal component axes according to 11 phytochemical classes.
The results revealed that soybean genotypes cover variable patterns of total proteins flavonoids, phenolic and various bioactive volatile compounds. The mass spectrometry analysis results demonstrated that, majority of soybean genotypes are a source bioactive compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and other functions. 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol, phenol, 2,6-dimethoxy-, 3,5-dimethoxyacetophenone, hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, 1,2-cyclopentanedione, and 3,5-dihy droxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-one were present in majority of genotypes. However, the genotypes Ijen and Indo-1 contributed more phenolic compound than others genotype. Genotype A-1 has the maximum compound in esters compounds. The genotypes Indo-11 and 3803 contribute maximum ketone compounds while Giza 111 contributes more in heterocyclic compounds. Some genotypes may have good therapeutic potential and could be served as a potential source in drug wdevelopment as a health supplement. This study also provides a platform for isolating and understanding the properties of each compound for it pharmacological properties.
\nThe authors of this project in number AT-34-58 are highly appreciated the encouragement and the assistances provided by the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology.
\nThe authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists.
Genotype name | \nCrude protein (g/100 g) | \nMoisture (g/100 g) | \nAsh (g/100 g) | \nTotal fat (g/100 g) | \nCarbohydrate (g/100 g) | \nTotal phenolic content mg/g | \nTotal flavonoid content mg/g | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Admaril | \n37.84 | \n4.56 | \n5.27 | \n21.65 | \n30.68 | \n1.30 | \n0.975 | \n
Romal-1 | \n40.93 | \n4.79 | \n4.55 | \n20.35 | \n29.38 | \n1.75 | \n1 | \n
NARC-2 | \n38.01 | \n4.84 | \n5.79 | \n21.16 | \n30.2 | \n1.50 | \n1.25 | \n
Williams 82 | \n38.23 | \n4.97 | \n5.65 | \n22.79 | \n28.36 | \n1.42 | \n1.05 | \n
X 32 | \n39.8 | \n4.31 | \n5.54 | \n21.04 | \n29.31 | \n1.25 | \n0.875 | \n
Holladay | \n37.04 | \n4.35 | \n5.55 | \n23.61 | \n29.45 | \n1.35 | \n0.75 | \n
Giza 22 | \n39.82 | \n4.45 | \n5.55 | \n21.91 | \n28.27 | \n1.37 | \n0.675 | \n
Giza 21 | \n39.84 | \n4.4 | \n5.56 | \n21.72 | \n28.48 | \n1.40 | \n0.8 | \n
X2 L 12 | \n38.26 | \n4.26 | \n5.29 | \n21.96 | \n30.23 | \n1.42 | \n1.2 | \n
Giza 83 | \n38.29 | \n3.08 | \n5.39 | \n21.42 | \n31.82 | \n1.38 | \n0.925 | \n
Crawford | \n39.43 | \n4.84 | \n5.58 | \n22.38 | \n27.77 | \n1.30 | \n1.125 | \n
Giza 35 | \n38.8 | \n3.77 | \n5.49 | \n21.78 | \n30.16 | \n1.32 | \n1.025 | \n
X 30 | \n40.05 | \n4.99 | \n5.64 | \n21.78 | \n27.54 | \n1.70 | \n1.0375 | \n
Giza 111 | \n36.89 | \n5.34 | \n6.28 | \n22.07 | \n29.42 | \n1.15 | \n1.75 | \n
Clark | \n43.13 | \n5.41 | \n5.77 | \n19.58 | \n26.11 | \n1.35 | \n1.375 | \n
3803 | \n40 | \n5.12 | \n5.45 | \n22.94 | \n26.49 | \n1.33 | \n1.625 | \n
A − 1 | \n39.01 | \n5.19 | \n4.8 | \n20.69 | \n30.31 | \n1.37 | \n1.45 | \n
Ijen | \n41.7 | \n5.54 | \n5.54 | \n18.66 | \n28.56 | \n1.65 | \n1.25 | \n
Indo-black | \n42.71 | \n5.88 | \n5.36 | \n16.92 | \n29.13 | \n1.65 | \n1.025 | \n
Indo-I | \n42.74 | \n5.88 | \n5.7 | \n19.33 | \n26.35 | \n1.62 | \n1.775 | \n
Indo-II | \n37.87 | \n5.51 | \n5.14 | \n21.17 | \n30.31 | \n1.32 | \n1.375 | \n
USA-1 | \n36.89 | \n5.34 | \n5.24 | \n21.34 | \n31.19 | \n1.77 | \n2.125 | \n
Indian | \n36.59 | \n5.43 | \n5.25 | \n20.88 | \n31.85 | \n1.65 | \n1.7625 | \n
Chinese | \n35.98 | \n5.19 | \n5.26 | \n21.06 | \n32.51 | \n1.50 | \n1.35 | \n
Argentinian | \n35.63 | \n5.12 | \n5.3 | \n20.77 | \n33.18 | \n1.37 | \n1.325 | \n
Proximate analysis, total phenolic and flavonoid in the seeds of 24 soybean genotypes seeds (on a dry weight basis).
Sr. no | \nCompound | \nOther name | \nNature | \nActivity | \nRT | \nMW | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nCarbamide | \nUrea | \nAmide | \n\n | 3.67 | \n60 | \n
2 | \nPropanal, 3-methoxy | \n3-Methoxy-propanal | \nAldehyde | \nAntibacterial | \n3.75 | \n88 | \n
3 | \nn-Hexane | \n\n | Alkane | \nAntibacterial | \n3.8 | \n86 | \n
4 | \nAcetamide, oxime | \n\n | Amide | \nAntimicribial | \n3.86 | \n74 | \n
5 | \n1,2-Naphthalenedione, 4 chloro | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \n\n | 3.92 | \n192 | \n
6 | \n1,3-Dioxolane-4-methanol | \nGlycerol formal | \nAlcohol | \n\n | 3.93 | \n104 | \n
7 | \n1-Monolinoleoyglycerol trimethylsilyl ether | \n\n | Ether | \n\n | 4.02 | \n498 | \n
8 | \nAcetic acid | \n\n | Carboxylic acid | \n\n | 4.17 | \n60 | \n
9 | \nAcetic acid, 2,2-[oxybis(2,1-ethanediyloxy)]bis | \n(2-[2-(Carboxymethoxy)ethoxy]ethoxy)acetic acid | \nCarboxylic acid | \n\n | 4.24 | \n222 | \n
10 | \nEthyl(dimethyl)isopropoxysilane | \nEthyl(dimethyl)silyl isopropyl ether | \nEther | \n\n | 4.54 | \n146 | \n
11 | \nSilane, triethylmethoxy- | \nMethyl trethylsilyl ether | \nEther | \n\n | 4.6 | \n146 | \n
12 | \nButanoic acid, 4,4-dithiobis[2-amino-,[S-(R*,R*)] | \n\n | Carboxylic acid | \n\n | 4.73 | \n268 | \n
13 | \n2-Pyridinecarboxylic acid | \nPicolinic acid | \nCarboxylic acid | \nNatural chelator | \n4.73 | \n123 | \n
14 | \n2-Propanone, 1-(dimethylamino)- | \n(Dimethylamino)acetone | \nKetone compound | \n\n | 4.89 | \n101 | \n
15 | \n2,2-Bioxirane | \nButane1,2:3,4-diepoxy- | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 4.92 | \n86 | \n
16 | \nCyclotrisiloxane, hexamethyl | \nDimethylsiloxane cyclic trimer | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 5.3 | \n222 | \n
17 | \nPyrimidine, 2-methyl- | \n2-Methylpyrimidine | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 5.61 | \n94 | \n
18 | \nL-Galactose, 6-deoxy- | \n6-Deoxyhexose | \nSugar moiety | \nPreservative | \n6.39 | \n164 | \n
19 | \n2-Propenamide | \nAcrylamide | \nAmide | \n\n | 6.43 | \n71 | \n
20 | \n1,2,4-Triazole, 4-(4-methoxybenzylidenamino)-5-methyl-3-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \n\n | 7.54 | \n310 | \n
21 | \nAcetic acid, 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl ester | \nDimethylaminoethanol acetate | \nEster | \n\n | 7.57 | \n131 | \n
22 | \n2H-1-Benzopyran, 3,5,6,8a-tetrahydro-2,5,5,8a-tetramethyl-,(2S-cis)- | \nEdulan II | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 7.58 | \n192 | \n
23 | \nPyrazine, ethyl- | \nEthylpyrazine | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 7.67 | \n108 | \n
24 | \nOxirane, 2-ethyl-2-methyl | \nButane, 1,2-epoxy-2-methyl | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 7.77 | \n86 | \n
25 | \nButyrolactone | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 7.88 | \n86 | \n
26 | \n4-Methyl-2-haptanol | \n\n | Alcohol | \n\n | 7.96 | \n130 | \n
27 | \n1,2-Cyclopentanedione | \n\n | Ketone compound | \nAntioxidant | \n7.98 | \n98 | \n
28 | \nPyran-4-carboxylic acid, 4-(4-methoxyphenyl)-tetrahydro- | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \n\n | 8.02 | \n236 | \n
29 | \n6-Oxa-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-3-one | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 8.09 | \n98 | \n
30 | \nDihydroxyacetone | \n2-Propanone, 1,3-dihydroxy- | \nKetone compound | \n\n | 8.18 | \n90 | \n
31 | \nButanoic acid, 4-hydroxy- | \n\n | Carboxylic acid | \n\n | 8.54 | \n104 | \n
32 | \nPropanedioic acid, Propyl- | \n2-Propylmalonic acid | \nCarboxylic acid | \n\n | 9.1 | \n146 | \n
33 | \n1,2,3-Propanetriol | \nGlycerin | \nAlcohol | \n\n | 9.33 | \n92 | \n
34 | \n2,4-Dihydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furan-3-one | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 9.74 | \n144 | \n
35 | \nOxirane, [(2-propenyloxy)methyl}- | \nPropane, 1-(allyloxy)2,3-epoxy- | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 10.26 | \n114 | \n
37 | \nHEPES[4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesuffonic acis)] | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \n\n | 10.26 | \n238 | \n
37 | \n2H-Pyran-2,6(3H)-dione | \nGlutaconic anhydride | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 10.75 | \n112 | \n
38 | \n1H-Indazole, 4,5, 6, 7-tetrahydro | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \n\n | 11.54 | \n122 | \n
39 | \n2-Pyrrolidinone, 1-methyl | \nM-Pyrol | \nKetone compound | \n\n | 11.86 | \n99 | \n
40 | \nBenzeneacetaldehyde | \n\n | Aldehyde | \nAntibacterial | \n12 | \n120 | \n
41 | \n2,4,6,-Cycloheptatrien-1-one,4-methyl- | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 12.06 | \n120 | \n
42 | \n2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 12.28 | \n128 | \n
43 | \na-D-Glucopyranoside, O-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(1.fwdarw.3)-a-D-fructofuranosyl | \n\n | Sugar moiety | \n\n | 12.81 | \n504 | \n
44 | \nPhenol, 2-methoxy- | \n\n | Phenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n13.83 | \n124 | \n
46 | \nFormic acid, 3-methylbut-2-yl ester | \n\n | Ester | \n\n | 14.24 | \n116 | \n
45 | \n1-Butanol,3-methyl-, formate (isopentyl alcohol, formate) | \nIsopentyl alcohol, formate | \nFatty acid ester | \nAntimicrobial activity | \n14.24 | \n116 | \n
47 | \n1,5-Hexadien-3-ol | \n\n | Alkene | \n\n | 14.36 | \n98 | \n
48 | \nCyclopentane, (1,1-dimethylethyl)-{Tert-Butylcyclopentane} | \nTert-Butylcyclopentane | \nAlkane | \nAntibacterial | \n14.68 | \n126 | \n
49 | \n4H-Pyran-4-one,3-hydroxy-2-methyl- | \nMaltol | \nHeterocyclic compound | \nFlavor enhancer | \n14.78 | \n126 | \n
50 | \n5-Hepten-3-one, 5-methyl- | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 15.09 | \n126 | \n
51 | \n2-Acetyl-2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-1,4-thiazine | \n1-(3-Thiomorpholinylethanone | \nKetone compound | \n\n | 15.85 | \n145 | \n
52 | \n3,5-Dihydroxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-one | \n\n | Heterocyclic compound | \nAntimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative | \n16.61 | \n144 | \n
53 | \nPropanal, 2-(benzoyloxy)-,® | \n1-Methyl-2-oxoethyl benzoate | \nAldehyde | \n\n | 16.69 | \n178 | \n
54 | \nBenzoic Acid | \n\n | Carboxylic acid | \n\n | 16.76 | \n122 | \n
55 | \nN-aminomorpholine | \n4-Aminomorpholine | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 16.95 | \n102 | \n
56 | \nPentanoic acid, 2-isopropoxyphenyl ester | \n2-Isopropoxyphenyl pentanoate | \nEster | \n\n | 18.26 | \n236 | \n
57 | \nPhenol, 4-ethenyl-, acetate | \n4-Vinylphenyl acetate | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n19.29 | \n162 | \n
58 | \nBenzaldehyde, 3,4-dimethyl- | \n3,4-dimethylbenzaldehyde | \nAldehyde | \nAntibacterial | \n19.3 | \n134 | \n
59 | \nBenzene, (ethenyloxy)- | \nEther, phenyl vinyl | \nEther | \n\n | 19.31 | \n120 | \n
60 | \nBenzofuran, 2,3-dihydro | \nCoumaran | \nHeterocyclic compound | \nAntihelminthic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal | \n20.16 | \n120 | \n
61 | \nBenzeneacetaldehyde, 3-methyl | \nm-Tolualdehyde | \nAldehyde | \nAntimicrobial | \n20.34 | \n120 | \n
62 | \n1,2-Benzenediol,3-methoxy | \nPyrocatechol, 3-methoxy | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntioxidant | \n21.01 | \n140 | \n
63 | \nIsosorbide | \nD-Glucitol, 1,4,3,6-dianhydro | \nAlcohol | \n\n | 22.61 | \n146 | \n
64 | \n2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol | \nphenol, 4-ethenyl-2-methoxy- | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n23.35 | \n150 | \n
65 | \n(p-Hydroxyphenyl)glyoxal | \nBenzeneacetaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-a-0x0 | \nAldehyde | \nAntibacterial | \n23.71 | \n150 | \n
66 | \n2-Acetamido-2-deoxy-d-mannolactone | \n\n | Sugar moiety | \nAnti-bacterial | \n24.8 | \n217 | \n
67 | \nPhenol, 2,6-dimethoxy- | \nPyrogallol 1,3-dimethyl ether | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n24.99 | \n154 | \n
68 | \n1-Undecanol alcohol | \nUndecyl alcohol | \nAlcohol | \n\n | 29.83 | \n172 | \n
69 | \nPhenol,2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl- | \nButylated hydroxytoluene | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n30.99 | \n220 | \n
70 | \nPhenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)- | \nPhenol, 2,4-di-tert-butyl- | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic | \n31.19 | \n206 | \n
71 | \n5-Tert-butyl-1,2,3-benzenetriol | \n5-Tert-butylpyrogallol | \nPhenolic compound | \nAntioxidant, antiseptic antibacterial, anti-dermatitic fungicide, pesticide | \n31.91 | \n182 | \n
72 | \nBenzoic acid, 4-ethoxy-, ethyl ester | \n\n | Ester | \n\n | 32.12 | \n194 | \n
73 | \n3,4-0-Isopropylidene-d-galactose | \n3,4,0-(1-Methylethylidene)hexopyranose | \nSugar moiety | \nPreservative | \n32.35 | \n220 | \n
74 | \nPentanoic acid, 2,2-4-trimethyl-3-carboxyisopropyl,isobutyl ester | \n\n | Ester | \n\n | 32.97 | \n286 | \n
75 | \n3,5-Dimethoxyacetophenone | \n\n | Ketone compound | \nantioxidant | \n33.65 | \n180 | \n
76 | \na-Methyl-D-mannopyranoside | \n\n | Sugar moiety | \nPreservative | \n34.35 | \n194 | \n
77 | \na-D-Galactopyranoside, methyl | \nGalactopyranoside, methyl, a-D- | \nSugar moiety | \nPreservative | \n34.61 | \n194 | \n
78 | \n3-O-methyl-d-glucose | \n3-O-methylhexose | \nSugar moiety | \nPreservative | \n37.68 | \n194 | \n
79 | \n2,6-Diisopropylnapthalene | \n\n | Hetercyclic compound | \n\n | 37.71 | \n212 | \n
80 | \nDodecyl acrylate | \nn-Lauryl acrylate | \nEster | \n\n | 38.17 | \n240 | \n
81 | \nCyclopenta [1,3][cyclopropa [1,2]cyclohepten-3(3ah)one, 1,2,3b,6,7,8-hexahydro-6,6-dimethyl- | \n\n | Ketone compound | \n\n | 40.31 | \n190 | \n
82 | \n5-Tert.butyloxy carboxamido-2,3,3-trimethyl-3H-indole | \nTert-butyl 2, 3,3-trimethyl-3H-indole-5-ylcarbamate | \nHeterocyclic compound | \n\n | 41.6 | \n274 | \n
83 | \nPhthalic acid, hex-3-yl-isobutyl ester | \n\n | Ester | \n\n | 42.4 | \n306 | \n
84 | \nHexadecanoic acid, methyl ester | \nPalmitic acid, methyl ester | \nEster | \nAntioxidant, flavor, hypocholesterolemic, nematicide | \n46.13 | \n270 | \n
85 | \n5,8, 11-Heptadecatriynoic acid methyl ester | \n\n | Ester | \n\n | 46.2 | \n272 | \n
86 | \nPhthalic acid, butyl undecyl ester | \n\n | Ester | \n\n | 47.36 | \n376 | \n
87 | \n1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, dibutyl ester | \nDibutyl phthalate | \nEster | \nPlasticizer, antimicrobial, antifouling | \n47.37 | \n278 | \n
88 | \nMethyl 10 trans, 12-cis-octadecadienoate | \n\n | Ester | \n\n | 48.53 | \n294 | \n
List and basic features of identified phytocomponents in the methanolic extract of soybean genotypes by GCMS analysis.
Antioxidants either endogenous or exogenous are essential substances to regulate the oxidative process. The endogenous antioxidants known as glutathione, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), have an inhibition role on free radicals during oxidation [1]. Nevertheless, either these antioxidant mechanisms are inadequate or for a better healthy life, exogenous antioxidants should be preferred [2]. The exogenous antioxidants which are especially called natural antioxidants such as vitamins, flavonoids, polyphenols, minerals, plants and phytochemicals, are derived from foods and medicinal plants. Over the years, the relationship between natural antioxidants and health has been discussed due to their important efficiencies. Generally, natural antioxidants have a wide range of effects especially antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, immunomodulatory, and antiviral [3, 4, 5]. Belong these, natural antioxidants have been drawing great attention for scientific studies.
\nThere are several multidisciplinary studies with natural antioxidants that have focused on human and animal experiments. The researchers have examined to understand the mechanisms of antioxidants on oxidative stress. They have been widely documented the knowledge of free radicals with antioxidants by identifying the oxidative stress pathway, cellular efficiencies and general health impact [6, 7]. Besides, although higher clinical complications have been observed in diseases, the mechanisms for the use of natural antioxidants are still not fully understood.
\nSince the past century, there have been essential diseases needed to determine how diseases progress and how the world could control them. Environmental factors, insufficient water, climate changes or new viruses influence the spread of contagious disease, and thereby cause epidemics. Nevertheless, The World Health Organization (WHO) has been still working on epidemiological studies to identify the possible sources of outbreaks, and to observe the pathogens spread from one region to different regions of the world [8]. Throughout history, there have been many significant pandemics recorded in human history. Some examples of the most up to date are Influenza virus (H1N1), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), Ebola, Zika, Yellow Fever, Cholera, Malaria, and Tuberculosis [9].
\nToday, in response to pandemics, people have been transformed into plants and phytochemicals to protect their health. Also, researchers have advocated that these natural foods could meet antioxidant protection. However, studies are still ongoing. This chapter aims to summarize the essential natural antioxidants, their mechanism, and their effects on pandemic diseases.
\nIn recent years, climate change, lack of safe drinking water, poor living conditions and food insecurity have been the main causes of illness, epidemics and pandemics. Besides, there are also many chemicals or toxins, which can contaminate food, drink, and medicines that cause death, injury or harm to organs. The WHO reported that besides environmental changes, many diseases can occur in animals and can be transmitted if animals and people come into close contact, for example, animal husbandry, wildlife trade, etc. Also, urbanization and air travel are essential factors for outbreaks nowadays. First and foremost, flights across the world can cause illness in other countries. This means that the pathogen has a new home, and a pandemic is realized within hours [8].
\nThe WHO indexed the 21st century’s serious diseases, which threaten public health and have no therapeutic strategies, especially vaccines or new medicines, in 2018. Some important as follows: Influenza virus (H1N1), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), Ebola, Zika, Yellow Fever, Cholera, Malaria, Tuberculosis. It was also reported that in the 21st century, epidemics can spread faster and farther than ever. Besides that, the last announced one, coronavirus-disease 2019 (COVID-19), was accepted as a pandemic disease by the WHO.
\nThe global strategy is to eliminate and eradicate these illnesses through vaccines or medical investments. The WHO also recommends fresh foods and healthy nutrition during pandemics, which positively affect immunity [10]. The key vision of the relationship between nutrition, their role in immunity, and stress management was highlighted. Recent advances are also being critically demonstrated in antioxidant compounds, herbal ingredients, and pharmaceutical products with literature. The coronavirus diseases such as MERS, SARS, and COVID-19, it was reviewed that vitamin C, D and E, have an important role in the regulation of T cell differentiation in immunity [11]. Also, Leite Diniz et al. [12] reviewed that several natural antioxidants can have antiviral properties on metabolic modulation, and can treat the clinical symptoms in SARS, MERS, and COVID-19.
\nNevertheless, it was reviewed that some herbal remedies such as geranium, green tea, pomegranate or Echinacea may be safer than drugs against influenza infections due to the anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of herbs and their extracts [13]. Also, it was showed that all these herbs and extracts have potential effects on respiratory complications and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Kaihatsu et al. [14] reported that natural phenolic compounds and coffee ingredients can inhibit the influenza virus by possessing radical scavenging activity. Moreover, flavonoids in citrus fruits have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities on the pulmonary system which showed by a bronchial epithelium model study [15].
\nThe effect of thyme and its volatile oils may affect the penetration of the virus into the host cell or block viral proteins that are necessary for the virus to enter the host cells. Thyme may also act as an antiviral against intracellular viruses. In the meantime, evidence shows that natural compounds have plays a key role in alternative treatments to fight SARS-CoV-2. Recently determined that SARS-CoV-2 has spike glycoprotein consisted of two units. The first unit initiating virus attachment to the host cell surface and the second unit responsible for the virus-host membrane. Subunits are of great clinical importance as inhibition of the receptor binding domain which is the first step to hinder viral infections. Studies have shown that carvacrol, anethole, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, camphene, pulegone, ocimene and menthol showed good binding affinities and those natural compounds may contribute to the stability of the complex protein ligand [16, 17].
\nFurthermore, the potential effects of marine algal antioxidants on viral diseases has been reported [18]. Besides, some researchers reported that natural foods and natural compounds can have antibacterial and antiviral effects on cellular and molecular pathways, and thereby immunity is improved in several outbreaks such as Ebola, Cholera, Malaria and Tuberculosis [19, 20, 21].
\nPandemics are old as humanity as well as natural antioxidants. Several natural foods and antioxidants have been used for healthy nutrition. However, the impact of several pandemics in the last century, there has been a growing interest between healthy food, nutrition, natural antioxidants and disease. Researchers studied the new therapeutic possibilities of the natural antioxidant for this purpose.
\nA healthy life is associated with the oxidative status of the organism. In a cellular mechanism, the oxidative process starts with oxygen generation to energy. Thereby, free radicals occur as a consequence of energy in mitochondria. The rest products are reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) which have a role in toxicological and pathological conditions. On the contrary, both ROS and RNS positively affect the cellular mechanism and immune system when they are at low levels, which means a normal metabolic process. Free radicals produce against stress conditions and antioxidants during the normal healthy condition, which is also called homeostasis. So, the body tries to maintain the oxidant and antioxidant balance.
\nOxidative stress markers, ROS and RNS, produce homeostasis through enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Enzymatic reactions include cellular oxidase system like peroxidase, NADPH oxidase, hydrogen peroxidase. On the other side, the non-enzymatic process is based on organic compounds of the organism; for example, oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria [22, 23]. ROS and RNS are formed from endogenous and exogenous sources that belong to several physiological and psychological mechanisms. Endogenous sources are generally occurring by immune cell activation, infection, excessive exercise, aging, or mental stress. However, environmental pollutants, drugs, heavy metals or radiation are exogenous sources, and are metabolized in free radical processes [22, 24].
\nThe oxidative mechanism interacts with the antioxidant, endogenous, or exogenous mechanism. Both antioxidant mechanisms are capable of neutralizing free radicals and protecting the body. Endogenous antioxidant activity is the organism’s first defensive system against free radicals. SOD, GPx, glutathione reductase, and CAT are the most important endogenous antioxidant in a healthy organism. Exogenous antioxidants are nutrients produced from foods and supplements, particularly vitamins E and C, flavonoids, phytochemicals, and certain essential plant-based antioxidants. These compounds can inactivate oxidizing agents and also inhibit inflammatory activation. They can modulate the enzymatic process and inflammatory mediators, including cytokines and peptides [25].
\nOxidative stress, which includes significant bodily activities, is an imbalance between the oxidizing and antioxidant processes. If the oxidative stress cannot be regulated, several damages occur in an organism. While free radicals and oxidants are in excess production, antioxidant reactions are limited, thereby oxidative stress is generated. Several membranes or cellular structures and systems are also adversely affected by this status. Cellular proteins, lipids, lipoproteins, DNA or RNA, and oxidizing compounds, and also critical systems such as cardiovascular, neurological, or immunity, are damaged. For instance, the chains of free radicals react, and the peroxidation of lipids exists. Besides, protein damage affects the structure of the cell membrane as well as the lower antibody output. Also, enzyme activity is reduced due to proteins and occurs in several molecular and cellular mutations. These changes reflect body systems, and diseases can be occur [25].
\nThere are several significant diseases reviewed for oxidative stress in both humans and animals (Figure 1). Cancer is one of the most important one, creates complex changes in an organism such as chromosomal defects or induced free radicals activation. Another critical disease is cardiovascular disease related to stress, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, etc. Studies showed that cardiac structure changes, especially heart failure, hypertrophy, ischemia, or atherosclerosis, generate oxidative stress [26, 27]. Nevertheless, oxidative status and its generation have been described for neurological, pulmonary, and other diseases. It was reported that loss of neuron production and progression stimulates the oxidative process, thereby neurological diseases are presented [28]. The pulmonary diseases are qualified by inflammation and activation of redox transcript factors [29]. Also, researchers have been studied the generation of ROS and RNS in autoimmune and renal diseases, or several other diseases [30, 31, 32]. The importance of the immune system is interested in low antibody production and low protein which concluded in increasing the risks of diseases. Besides that, macrophages’ infiltration of activated immune cells causes inflammation and oxidative damage [30]. Nevertheless, some drugs, heavy metals, or lipid peroxidation molecules are accepted as strong free radicals inducers [33]. The fact that oxidative stress has a large place during inflammation and diseases is inevitable.
\nOxidative stress related diseases.
Oxidative stress has a crucial role in disease onset and development. During viral infections, there may be an increase in the production of oxidizing species not neutralized by the antioxidant system, causing oxidative stress that promotes cell damage [34, 35, 36]. However, it was reviewed that in viral diseases, viruses can control oxidative stress on their benefits in cellular replication [37]. Viruses especially can change the activation of the immune system signaling pathway in oxidative status [38, 39]. ROS and RNS production are triggered by cytokines, and thereby, cell death occurs due to the imbalance between the production of reactive species and the host’s anti-oxidative status. Also, RNA viruses bring about changes in the body’s antioxidant defense system. Viruses are responsible for this by affecting enzymes like SOD and CAT, as well as lowering ascorbic acid, carotenoids and reduced glutathione [40, 41, 42]. Recently, in a pandemic disease COVID-19, lung damage occurs due to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which alter the oxidative stress [43]. Zhao [44] also determined that another immune response of pro-inflammatory cytokines against oxidative stress is activated phagocytes cells in COVID-19. Nevertheless, generated oxidative stress is also associated with nucleic acid damage in viral mutations. It was reported that human coronavirus disease (HCoVs) and SARS are identified by genetic mutations, and also mutations in spike protein [45]. Nevertheless, influenza viruses have been demonstrated with induced oxidative stress with the activation of the Nrf2 pathway in nuclear translocation, and expression in alveolar epithelial cells [46]. Similarly, the hepatitis C virus (HCV) has been linked with genes and phosphorylation of Nrf2 [47]. It was reviewed that the Nrf2 pathway has a critical inhibition role of viral genes [37].
\nManagement of pathogenic effects of viral diseases can be described by the mutual interaction between oxidant and antioxidant status control. Therefore this interaction is also associated with a healthy environment, balanced nutrition, and exogenous antioxidants.
\nThe antioxidant process begins with oxidation when it damages a free radical compound, and then it follows by attempting to restore the body. An antioxidant may act as a pro-oxidant, which has generated ROS and RNS into two ways; breaking the chain and preventing it [48]. A chain breaking antioxidant may stabilize the formation of free radicals in the oxidative state, e.g., lipid peroxidation. Vitamins C and E, or carrots may be accepted in these anti-oxidants that break the chain. On the other hand, endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione, GPx, CAT, and SOD, may inhibit the initiation and propagation steps, consequently delaying the oxidant process.
\nAlong with current literature, there have been several natural antioxidants reviewed for diseases or pandemic diseases [12, 49]. Each of these antioxidant properties is the neutralization capability of oxidative stress (Table 1).
\nNatural Antioxidants | \n|||
---|---|---|---|
Vitamins | \nMinerals | \nPlants | \nPhtyochemicals | \n
Vitamin E | \nSelenium | \nGarclic | \nPolyphenols | \n
Vitamin C | \nZinc | \nGinger | \nFlavonoids | \n
Beta carotene | \nCopper | \nThyme | \nCarotenoids | \n
Lycopene | \nIron | \nEchinacea | \n\n |
\n | \n | Spirulina | \n\n |
\n | \n | Liquorice | \n\n |
Natural antioxidants.
Vitamins, C, E and beta-carotene, which also called as primary antioxidants, have the beneficial effect either in health or diseases. Nevertheless, excessive doses of vitamins can be harmful rather than safe. So there has been ongoing research on nutritional antioxidants. WHO recommends antioxidants for malnutrition, disease, and pandemic-related needs [10]. Besides, nutritionists have endorsed antioxidant foods for humans first, while they have also pointed out that supplements may help.
\nVitamins E and C have a higher antioxidative capacity among vitamins. Vitamin E (also known as tocopherol or alpha-tocopherol) has been reported to protect cellular membranes from lipid peroxide. Studies have suggested that vitamin E may be used in breast cancer, arthritis, some cardiovascular and neurological diseases. Besides, it was determined that the long-term use of vitamin E is acceptable as being available. Sources of vitamin E include vegetable oils, walnuts, cereals, eggs, poultry, and meat [50].
\nNonetheless, vitamin C, called ascorbic acid, is essential for carnitine, neurotransmitter biosynthesis, and collagen. This vitamin has antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, and immunomodulatory effects, which has also reduced the incidence of cancers. Also, vitamin C acts alongside vitamin E to quench free radicals. Vitamin C is found throughout natural sources such as fruits, vegetables, and tomatoes [51].
\nBeta-carotene, which is an active ingredient of pro-vitamin A, is a powerful antioxidant. Beta-carotene has the potential to quench oxygen during oxidative stress. This pro-vitamin has an antioxidant effect on cardiovascular diseases and cancer in particular. Beta-carotene comprises many foods, mainly green plants, spinach, carrots, oils, mangoes, apricots, and a watermelon [52, 53]. Another essential carotenoid, lycopene, is a vegetable nutrient that has protective effects on pulmonary cells and cancer. Lycopene was shown to be capable of balancing free radicals. The best source of lycopene is cooked tomato, juice, and sauce [54]. What are more, more red and pink fruits have this vitamin, like watermelon, grapefruit.
\nHigh doses of vitamins are recommended for using safely during pandemics. It was reported that especially Vitamin C has used for the treatment of cardiovascular, pulmonary disease as well as sepsis or nephropathy. It was evaluated that vitamin C can improve the mechanical ventilation of patients [55].
\nThere are several antioxidant minerals, in particular, selenium, zinc, copper, and iron. Selenium is an essential mineral in several vegetables, mushrooms, meat, and seafood, with anticarcinogenic and immunomodulatory effects. Selenium also plays a crucial role in thyroid function, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and pulmonary diseases [48]. Selenium contains about 35 antioxidant proteins, which reduce free radicals and allow cytoprotective antioxidant genes [56]. The mineral targets hydrogen peroxide and transforms it into water.
\nThe other minerals Mn, Cu, Zn, and Fe, can maintain the endogenous antioxidants. Fe and Cu can suppress free radicals’ formation by keeping bound to transport proteins. A high dose of Fe may negatively affect Zn′s absorption to damage the immune system. It was reported that the increase of Zn in the cell has an antiviral effect in COVID-19 [57]. Also, Te Velthuis et al. [58] determined that a low dose of Zn inhibits replicating the virus in SARS.
\nNevertheless, Cu is an essential mineral for cellular respiration, iron metabolism, and reducing oxidative stress. It was observed that Cu has an antiviral effect in some diseases such as COVID-19, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), or bronchitis [59, 60]. On the other hand, according to some kinds of literature, Fe and Cu may be toxic due to an increase of viral replication and mortality in diseases, for example, HIV or COVID-19 [60]. Therefore, it was accepted that Cu and Fe must be taken in sufficient doses for the biological mechanism [61].
\nAs the pandemic diseases continuing, humans should boost their immune system by taking sufficient minerals. Optimal nutrition can exist with dietary nutrient intake including especially vitamins and minerals.
\nEarlier scientific studies have shown that commonly used wild edible plants, spices and herbal teas have high antiviral activity against a variety of viruses. There is also evidence that some of these drugs are used for various types of coronavirus diseases as potential phyto antiviral agents [62].
\nNatural antioxidants can alternate the multiple pathological processes in oxidative stress, primarily oxidative damage, inflammation, genetic changes, growth factors, etc. It was reviewed that natural antioxidants, mostly plants, and phytochemicals, can improve either oxidant status or antioxidant capacity [12]. Several plants are alternative medicines, such as ginger, garlic, curcumin, thyme, licorice,
Garlic, which is the most crucial spice worldwide, has a remarkably enhanced immune system booster. It may boost the activity of natural killer cells during immune deficiency. This medicinal herb has been approved as a therapeutic agent for homeostasis [65]. Furthermore, garlic has been used against cancer and cardiovascular disease [66]. This interesting spice, which has been used as a seasoning herb and traditional medicine in immunity and viral diseases, has several compounds such as saponin, cardio glycoside, and flavonoids [67, 68, 69]. Antiviral effects in garlic depend on inhibition of viral replication effects, viral protein synthesis, and viral DNA polymerization [70]. Also, garlic and its extracts have been shown to improve CAT and GPx enzymes and act as a collector of hydroxyl radicals [71]. It was reviewed that garlic and its extracts may be an alternative medicinal herbs against COVID-19 [72].
\nGinger is a well-known herb with several effects such as treating sickness, colic, and appetite, controlling gastrointestinal problems, and respiratory infections. It is also accepted as a neuroprotectant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, and anticancer [73, 74]. This herb can maintain homeostasis by cooling the body, and reduce high fever. It was also reported that ginger shows its effect by inhibiting productions of nitric oxide and superoxide [75, 76]. Chang et al. [77] reported that ginger can block the viral attachment in respiratory epithelium, and is effective in human respiratory syncytial virus.
\nA blue-green microalga named Spirulina is a popular superfood with several beneficial effects such as antioxidant, antiviral, immunomodulatory, etc. [5]. It was reported that Spirulina could inhibit viral replication by blocking replication [78]. Hernández-Corona et al. [79] found that Spirulina inhibited the viral cell penetration and replication in a virus disease named herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1). It was reviewed that the antiviral features of Spirulina are belonged to acidic polysaccharides extract such as calcium spirulina. Moreover, studies suggested that Spirulina may be safe for managing influenza outbreaks, however, additional investigations are needed. [80, 81, 82].
\nEssential oils are aromatic oily liquids derived from plant material. These natural products have been widely used, in particular fragrances, cosmetics, aromatherapy, and herbal medicine, spices, nutrition, and agriculture. Essential oils have a known biological activity, including antibacterial, antiviral, anti-fungal, and anti-inflammatory effects [83].
\n\n
Thyme, curcumin, and licorice have been used for decades safely for both therapeutic and treatments. The ingredients of the essential oils of the origanum species were linalol, γ terpinene, p-cymenon, thymol and myrcene. Thymus’s essential oil consists primarily of thymol. Other components found other than thymol are carvacrol, linalyl acetate, linalool, γ-terpinene, p-cymene and geraniol. Numerous studies have been carried out over the application of detected phenolic compounds as an antioxidant and antiviral activities have been tested, and it shows the antiviral effects against respiratory syncytial virus, Coxsackie virus, and herpes simplex virus type 1 [86]. Zhang et al. [86] reported that a significant ingredient of thyme has antiviral and antioxidant features. Curcumin is an active supplement to inhibit the activation of cytokines and neutrophils in the lungs. Many clinical studies have evaluated its effect on inflammation, immunity, microbial, and viral conditions [87]. It was also reported that curcumin could induce the glutathione level as a scavenger of free radicals [37]. On the other hand, an exciting herb named licorice can grow in many geographical structures worldwide. It was reported that licorice could reduce hepatocellular damage in hepatitis B and C. Nevertheless, it has an antiviral effect on HIV and SARS virus [88]. Also, licorice has an immunomodulatory effect, and it can induce respiratory activity [89]. It was determined that licorice shows these activities by its extracts named triterpene, saponins, and flavonoids [90].
\nScientific studies on different species of cistus have shown that different species of the plant contain useful phytochemical products. Plant-derived polyphenols have been shown to be strong antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, cytotoxic and anti-cancer properties with potential health benefits [91].
Begun to be remembered with the existence of human beings, the olive was the symbol of peace and healthy life in every period of life from antiquity. Olive leaf traditionally used against hypertension, diuretic, antipyretic, appetizing and against constipation [93]. The olive leaf contains much more oleuropein than other parts. It has demonstrated that it is a phytochemical active against numerous diseases. Principal active constituents of the olive leaf are oleanolic acid and calcium elenolate compounds. These compounds have been shown to have anti-viral activity against many viruses such as parainfluenza, herpes simplex, pseudorabies, polioviruses (type-1, −2, and − 3), rhinoviruses, mycoviruses, coxsackievirus [94].
\nPhytochemicals are produced in plants, which are also referred to as naturally occurring plant chemicals. Several studies have demonstrated that flavonoids or phytochemicals may block these diseases’ enzymatic activities [12, 95]. The most significant phytochemical compounds, polyphenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids, have been identified as antioxidants [96]. Polyphenols referred to as resveratrol and ellagic acid, are natural compounds in green tea, red wine, whole grains, grapes, and berries. They have potent antioxidants, metabolic, and cardiovascular effects. They can inhibit the proliferation of lung cancer cells by increasing autophagy [97, 98]. Resveratrol and ellagic acid may also help protect DNA and balance cell cycles. Also, it was reported that there is insufficient information on side effects and efficacy. Hence, traditional treatments need to be discussed before treatment.
\nNevertheless, it was reported that flavonoids have an inhibition role in macrophages against inflammatory cytokines production in viral diseases [99]. There are some crucial plants included flavonoids, such as green tea, grapes, apples, and
Plant carotenoids were considered in terms of their role as mediators of free radicals through oxidation or oxygenation [108]. Furthermore, carotenoids act as chemical quench, which is necessary for the antioxidant function. They may reduce the risk of disease, in particular cancer and cardiovascular disease. The most important carotenoids are lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthine, beta-carotene found in tomatoes, carrots and watermelon.
\nTraditional medicinal herbs are rich compounds used in the development of medicines. They have centuries of experience with the use of herbal remedies for prevention and treatment. There are many medicinal herbs scattered geographically throughout the world. As such, further investigations are necessary to identify differences.
\nSeveral clinical approaches have been agreed upon to deal with oxidative stress. Lately, for healthy living, the use of antioxidant supplements has been targeted to provide adequate homeostasis for humans and animals in many diseases or pandemics. Besides the prevention strategies such as isolation, hygiene, and control, nutrition, mostly natural antioxidants, is essential for improving antiviral activity against viral and pandemic diseases such as SARS, COVID-19 and, HIV etc.
\nNatural antioxidants have been used in many therapeutic practices because of their enzyme inhibition and their inhibitory effect on viral protein receptors. In addition, natural antioxidants may enhance immunity during diseases. As well, they have been the subject of multidisciplinary studies [109]. The WHO also acknowledged that there was insufficient evidence of herbal medicines for the treatment or treatment of viral diseases in humans, especially COVID-19 [110].
\nThroughout history, there have been significant pandemic diseases such as the 1918 influenza pandemic (H1N1 virus), HIV and COVID-19. During pandemics, nutrition is as important as health, hygiene, or self-isolation standards. To that end, predominantly natural antioxidants have been used in therapeutic practices. Many herbal medicines, plants, and their extracts have inhibitory effects on pandemic diseases or their symptoms. These nutrients have been investigating their immune-modulating, antiviral, and antioxidant effects for decades. However, all these effects of natural antioxidants are not equal. Research into the health performance of these nutrients is therefore necessary.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n The World Health Organization Influenza virus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Coronavirus-disease 2019 Human coronavirus disease Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus Human immunodeficiency virus Reactive oxygen species Reactive nitrogen species Glutathione peroxidase Catalase Superoxide dismutase Hepatitis C Virus Copper Ferrous Zinc
\n Vitamin C Vitamin E provitamin A Spirulina Thymol Oleanolic acid and calcium elenolate compounds Gallocatechin Bioflavonoid compound Polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids Linalol, γ terpinene, p-cymenon, thymol, myrcene Superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, catalase Polyphenols Catechin, quercetin
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\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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