Substrate materials and pretreatment for bearings and shafts [1].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8412",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book sheds light on recent advances in sustainable construction and building materials with special emphasis on the characterization of natural and composite hydraulic mortars, advanced concrete technology, green building materials, and application of nanotechnology to the improvement of the design of building materials. The book covers in detail the characterization of natural hydraulic lime mortars, a decade of research on self-healing concrete, biocomposite cement binding process and performance, development of sustainable building materials from agro-industrial wastes, applications of sugarcane biomass ash for developing sustainable construction materials, oil-contaminated sand: sources, properties, remediation, and engineering applications, oil shale ash addition effect in concrete to freezing/thawing, connection node design and performance optimization of girders, functionally graded concrete structures, cumulative tensile damage and consolidation effects on fracture properties of sandstone, key performance criteria influencing the selection of construction methods used for the fabrication of building components in the Middle East, fly ash as a resource material for the construction industry, degradation monitoring systems for a building information modeling maintenance approach, durability of composite-modified asphalt mixtures based on inherent and improved performance, and bitumen and its modifiers.",isbn:"978-1-78985-750-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-749-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-074-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78713",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",numberOfPages:280,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dec13857a884f2b52b887e8751e4c37f",bookSignature:"Sayed Hemeda",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8412.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15392,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:49,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:90,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 5th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 4th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 22nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"258282",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Hemeda",slug:"sayed-hemeda",fullName:"Sayed Hemeda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258282/images/system/258282.jpg",biography:"Sayed Hemeda received a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Currently, he is the manager of heritage science programs at the Liberal Arts and Culture Center (LACC) and a professor at the Basic and Applied Science Institute (BAS), Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST). He is the first professor of Heritage Science and Architectural Preservation of Architectural Heritage, Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University, Egypt. He is also the former manager of historic buildings, Conservation Center of Archeology, Cairo University.\nDr. Hemeda is the recipient of many awards from Cairo University including prizes for scientific excellence (2017), the Scientific Encouragement Prize (2014), and the best Ph.D. thesis (2009–2010). He was also awarded the General Union of Arab Archaeologists prize for academic excellence (2019). \nHe has published 85 articles and 29 international books and has been cited 330 times. He has given more than 58 invited lectures in 16 countries. His primary interests are geotechnical engineering for architectural heritage preservation and engineering data analysis including pattern recognition as applied to primarily analytical data from various sources such as objects of cultural significance. \nHe is editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Research. He is an editorial board member for many organizations and publications, including the Open Journal of Geology, Progress of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, and Geoscience Journal. He is also a scientific and organization committee member for many international conferences",institutionString:"Cairo University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"284",title:"Civil Engineering",slug:"technology-civil-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"63429",title:"Mechanical Behavior of Natural Hydraulic Lime Mortars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80852",slug:"mechanical-behavior-of-natural-hydraulic-lime-mortars",totalDownloads:891,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Natural hydraulic lime (NHL) mortars are widely used for restoration works due to their good compatibility with the substrate material in terms of physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. Regarding their mechanical characterization, there is still a need for further understanding of their fracture behavior and the influence of their dosage methodology on the mechanical properties. Thus, this chapter focuses on the mechanical characterization of NHL mortars, such as flexural, compressive, and splitting tensile strengths, elastic modulus, and fracture energy. Moreover, the influence of the composition and production process on such properties was studied as well. Furthermore, the loading rate effect on the fracture behavior was also presented. The results show that NHL mortars have shape and size effect on the compressive strength. In addition, NHL mortar is rate sensitive, mainly due to the viscous effects caused by the presence of free water in the porous structure.",signatures:"Lucía Garijo, XiaoXin Zhang, Gonzalo Ruiz, José J. Ortega and Rena\nC. Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63429",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63429",authors:[{id:"260824",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonzalo",surname:"Ruiz",slug:"gonzalo-ruiz",fullName:"Gonzalo Ruiz"},{id:"260827",title:"Mrs.",name:"Lucía",surname:"Garijo",slug:"lucia-garijo",fullName:"Lucía Garijo"},{id:"260828",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoxin",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xiaoxin-zhang",fullName:"Xiaoxin Zhang"},{id:"260829",title:"MSc.",name:"José Joaquín",surname:"Ortega",slug:"jose-joaquin-ortega",fullName:"José Joaquín Ortega"},{id:"260830",title:"Dr.",name:"Rena C.",surname:"Yu",slug:"rena-c.-yu",fullName:"Rena C. Yu"}],corrections:null},{id:"64787",title:"A Decade of Research on Self-Healing Concrete",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82525",slug:"a-decade-of-research-on-self-healing-concrete",totalDownloads:1484,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The main findings of a decade of research on the design and development of the first self-healing concrete are summarized in this chapter. The autonomous healing concept is introduced, and plethora of design campaigns is enlisted. Healing agent encapsulation and agent tubes vascular networks are reported as the most efficient healing configurations for laboratory-scale and real-size applications, respectively. Crack formation, closure after healing and further damage are phenomena tracked by using advanced experimental monitoring methods and their performance is critically revised. The effect of self-healing technology on concrete mechanical response, durability and long-term response to damage are critically discussed. The study contributes to the open discussion in the scientific research community regarding self-healing concrete upscaling feasibility and finally it aims to contribute as a base for the future studies dealing with concrete design optimization.",signatures:"Eleni Tsangouri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64787",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64787",authors:[{id:"263163",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eleni",surname:"Tsangouri",slug:"eleni-tsangouri",fullName:"Eleni Tsangouri"}],corrections:null},{id:"62453",title:"Biocomposite Cement-Based Mortar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79262",slug:"biocomposite-cement-based-mortar",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the preparation of a new kind of biocement based on the biophosphate minerals, which have cementation, by the bacteria reacting with the substrate. Ammonia/ammonium can be changed into environment-friendly struvite when the soluble phosphate is added to biocarbonate cement. After that, struvite and carbonate, which can be considered as composite cements, are applied to cement loose particles. The biocement is environmentally friendly, which has important application prospects. Based on mixing-precipitation process, the injection process was adopted to bind loose sand particles. Permeability, porosity, compressive strength, and internal microstructure of the biosandstones cemented by composite cement were determined under different number of injections. Mixing-precipitation process was inferior to injection process according to compressive strength of the biosandstones caused by the particle size and morphology of composite cement. Permeability, porosity, compressive strength, and fixation ammonia ratio of the biosandstones were compared when three different formulations of composite cement (CJ1, CJ1.5, and CJ2) were adopted to bind sand columns. The results show that the CJ2 has the best overall performance. The molar ratio of K2HPO4·3H2O and urea was 2:1 in the CJ2 formulation.",signatures:"Xiaoniu Yu and Yan Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62453",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62453",authors:[{id:"259805",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Xiaoniu",surname:"Yu",slug:"xiaoniu-yu",fullName:"Xiaoniu Yu"},{id:"260016",title:"Mrs.",name:"Yan",surname:"Gao",slug:"yan-gao",fullName:"Yan Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"64293",title:"Development of Sustainable Building Materials from Agro- Industrial Wastes in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81662",slug:"development-of-sustainable-building-materials-from-agro-industrial-wastes-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:1550,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One of the continuing challenges posed by unprecedented urbanisation in Nigeria, estimated at about 5% per annum, is the provision of adequate and affordable housing. The shortage in housing, due in part to the ever-rising prices of construction materials, makes it logical to consider alternative building materials. Paradoxically, Nigeria is grappling with the challenges of managing solid waste, many of which could find suitable applications in the production of cement-, concrete- and clay-based walling, roofing and ceiling products as well as pozzolans for partial replacement for ordinary Portland cement. The objective of this chapter is to present information on the development, experimental investigations and practical application of sustainable building materials from agro-industrial wastes in Nigeria. Agroforestry residues such as bagasse and corn cob ashes have been found suitable as pozzolans; cement- and clay-bonded reinforced composite roofing tiles, hollow concrete blocks and stabilised clay bricks have been developed using a variety of lignocelluloses as sources of fibre reinforcement, while biomaterial substitutes for steel reinforcement in concrete have been tested. However, for these products to become widely acceptable, greater awareness has to be created among all stakeholders in the building construction industry, coupled with the development of appropriate building codes.",signatures:"Abel Olajide Olorunnisola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64293",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64293",authors:[{id:"260028",title:"Prof.",name:"Abel Olajide",surname:"Olorunnisola",slug:"abel-olajide-olorunnisola",fullName:"Abel Olajide Olorunnisola"}],corrections:null},{id:"62291",title:"Oil Shale Ash Addition Effect in Concrete to Freezing-Thawing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79285",slug:"oil-shale-ash-addition-effect-in-concrete-to-freezing-thawing",totalDownloads:849,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modifying the properties of cement by including mineral-based additives into cement ensures benefits such as preventing environmental hazards of waste additives and providing increase in cement amount. Based on these main considerations, as a part of the study in which contribution of ash, obtained as a result of the burning of oil shale rocks in fluidized bed thermal plants, to Portland cement (PC) in 15% ratio is chemically proven, this study is performed in order to understand the direction and severity of the effects that oil shale ash (OSA) might have on the properties of cements. For this purpose, freezing-thawing experiments were performed on cement samples produced with PC 42.5 cement, which has 0, 10, 20, and 30% of OSA additions. It is desired to make a conclusion by finding weight loss factor (AFw) and relative elasticity module (E) loss related with press and ultrasonic test methods based on given experiments. As a result, it was observed that durability of concretes obtained by addition of oil shale rocks in 15% ratio to PC 42.5 cements against freezing/thawing effects is greater than that of PC 42.5 control sample.",signatures:"Sabit Oymael, Alper Bideci and Özlem Sallı Bideci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62291",authors:[{id:"207250",title:"Dr.",name:"Alper",surname:"Bideci",slug:"alper-bideci",fullName:"Alper Bideci"},{id:"260379",title:"Prof.",name:"Sabit",surname:"Oymael",slug:"sabit-oymael",fullName:"Sabit Oymael"},{id:"260380",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem",surname:"Sallı Bideci",slug:"ozlem-salli-bideci",fullName:"Özlem Sallı Bideci"}],corrections:null},{id:"64158",title:"Connection Node Design and Performance Optimization of Girder Truss",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80992",slug:"connection-node-design-and-performance-optimization-of-girder-truss",totalDownloads:896,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Girder truss is a kind of high-performance truss, which is combined with some single trusses by connectors. It is the common structural form of the key-bearing node in the modern wood structure floor and roof structure system. With the development of the sponge city and green building in China, girder truss is widely used in wood structure buildings and re-roofing project for its lightweight, high strength, good seismic performance, simple construction, design flexibility, and other excellent characteristics. Since the stress environment of girder truss is more complicated than single wood truss, the wood girder truss needs higher bearing capacity. This chapter emphatically provides a theoretical basis for practical engineering and mainly introduces a new type of girder truss connected with different diameters of wood dowels. The deformation of each node in the static loading process is measured in situ and continuously by using the self-designed loading device and the advanced measuring system. Research contents include the increasing effect of girder truss than single truss and influence of different connection modes on the mechanical properties of girder trusses. We can restore the mechanical properties and failure mechanism from the two aspects of phenomena and mechanism by comparing the test results.",signatures:"Ze-li Que, Liu-liu Zhang, Fei-bin Wang, Yi-fan Gao, Wei-zhen Cai,\nXin-meng Wang and Chang-tong Mei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64158",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64158",authors:[{id:"260603",title:"Prof.",name:"Zeli",surname:"Que",slug:"zeli-que",fullName:"Zeli Que"},{id:"270557",title:"MSc.",name:"Liuliu",surname:"Zhang",slug:"liuliu-zhang",fullName:"Liuliu Zhang"},{id:"270559",title:"Mrs.",name:"Feibin",surname:"Wang",slug:"feibin-wang",fullName:"Feibin Wang"},{id:"270560",title:"MSc.",name:"Yifan",surname:"Gao",slug:"yifan-gao",fullName:"Yifan Gao"},{id:"270561",title:"MSc.",name:"Weizhen",surname:"Cai",slug:"weizhen-cai",fullName:"Weizhen Cai"},{id:"270562",title:"MSc.",name:"Xinmeng",surname:"Wang",slug:"xinmeng-wang",fullName:"Xinmeng Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"64048",title:"Functionally Graded Concrete Structure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81435",slug:"functionally-graded-concrete-structure",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"By inverse analysis, the concept, functionally gradient, is introduced into thick-walled lining to improve the supporting performance. Theoretical results show that for two linings with the same sizes, an ideal functionally graded lining (IFGL) has higher elastic ultimate bearing capacity than a traditional single-layered lining (TSL). But the IFGL model requires that the Young’s modulus should be a continuously monotonically increasing function in the radial direction, which, obviously, cannot be achieved currently for the concrete materials. In order to apply this idea to real lining, we use a simplest multilayered lining, a double-layered functionally graded lining (DFGL), as an approximate simulation of the IFGL. Then, we carried out elastoplastic analysis on IDFL and DFGL and model test on DFGL to assess the support performance. Results of elastoplastic analysis show that the elastic ultimate bearing capacities of both the IDFL and DFGL are higher than the traditional single-layered lining. Model tests also verify the conclusion.",signatures:"Ning Zhang, Aizhong Lu and Xuguang Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64048",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64048",authors:[{id:"261580",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ning-zhang",fullName:"Ning Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"64006",title:"Cumulative Tensile Damage and Consolidation Effects on Fracture Properties of Sandstone",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81434",slug:"cumulative-tensile-damage-and-consolidation-effects-on-fracture-properties-of-sandstone",totalDownloads:928,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presence of cracks in many historical objects indicates the action of external forces accompanied by internal strain gradients. This is usually a repetitive process, and damage cumulation may occur. A study of these effects requires a suitable methodology for testing historical stone that has been subjected to repeated tension strains. The chapter presents the results of a pilot experimental assessment of changes in the mechanical characteristics of sandstone due to accumulation of damage. The Young modulus and the Poisson number were investigated, using a verified methodology for testing stone in simple tension and in cyclic simple tension/compression loading. The results show that the first tension load displacement can be approximated very satisfactorily by a power function, and the optical digital image correlation (DIC) method again demonstrated its capacity and suitability for measuring the complex deformation field on porous surfaces and on naturally well-structured surfaces. The chapter further presents a methodology for investigating fracture phenomena in sandstone treated for consolidation. It shows the preparation of test specimens with a cyclic loading generated crack, control of the test specimen preparation, and verification by means of X-ray micro-CT and DIC techniques. The chapter illustrates an influence of various consolidation agents on the toughness of cracked specimens.",signatures:"Martin Šperl and Miloš Drdácký",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64006",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64006",authors:[{id:"144548",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Šperl",slug:"martin-sperl",fullName:"Martin Šperl"},{id:"261550",title:"Prof.",name:"Miloš",surname:"Drdácký",slug:"milos-drdacky",fullName:"Miloš Drdácký"}],corrections:null},{id:"64278",title:"Key Performance Criteria Influencing the Selection of Construction Methods Used for the Fabrication of Building Components in the Middle East",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81673",slug:"key-performance-criteria-influencing-the-selection-of-construction-methods-used-for-the-fabrication-",totalDownloads:1164,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There is a lack of an efficient systematic approach to the selection of appropriate construction methods for building projects. Not only various innovative methods are now available, but also established methods may often be adapted inappropriately, without recourse to the necessary scientific foundation of their efficiency. The result is that there is a low level of performance on building projects. This study examines how key performance criteria were used in the selection of construction methods on projects. The study employed an extant review of the literature, cross-section survey of construction managers of building projects and experts interview in the Middle East to identify and evaluate the influencing of the key performance criteria on selecting construction methods for building projects. It emerged from the Pearson Correlation Coefficient and Analytical Hierarchy Process analysis that key performance criteria consisting of time, quality, and cost have strong positive significant roles in the selection of construction methods used on building projects and that these selection criteria differed depending on the building components. The study concludes that the likelihood of a construction method being selected for use on projects in the Middle East depends on its ability to shorten the duration, improving the quality and reduce the cost of projects.",signatures:"Alireza Moghayedi and Abimbola Windapo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64278",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64278",authors:[{id:"261887",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Alireza",surname:"Moghayedi",slug:"alireza-moghayedi",fullName:"Alireza Moghayedi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64981",title:"Flyash as a Resource Material in Construction Industry: A Clean Approach to Environment Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82078",slug:"flyash-as-a-resource-material-in-construction-industry-a-clean-approach-to-environment-management",totalDownloads:1343,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The maximum amount of electricity is produced by most of the thermal power plants by burning coal at their operating facilities. Due to this activity, various types of secondary materials are generated. Any material resulting from coal-combustion processes may be called as a coal-combustion product (CCP). Among different CCPs reported worldwide by coal-burning power plants, flyash is the most common one. As per the characterization report, flyash is considered as a powdery material being collected by dust collectors installed in the thermal power plants with the use of coal as fuel. There are different problems related to flyash like requirement of large area of land for disposal and toxicity caused by flyash which leach to groundwater. The study has established flyash as air and water pollution source. It is considered as waste that may act as a resource material in construction industry, thereby acting as a resource for waste and environment management. Till a decade back, flyash was treated as waste material worldwide, but now it is developed as an environment savior.",signatures:"Mohammad Nadeem Akhtar and Nazia Tarannum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64981",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64981",authors:[{id:"261598",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Akhtar",slug:"mohammad-akhtar",fullName:"Mohammad Akhtar"}],corrections:null},{id:"64104",title:"Degradation Monitoring Systems for a BIM Maintenance Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81433",slug:"degradation-monitoring-systems-for-a-bim-maintenance-approach",totalDownloads:950,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Digitization allows to develop unprecedented technological systems based on the use of sensors, robotics, and automation. The construction industry is involved in this process of integrating new technologies through a platform called Building Information Modeling (BIM), which simplifies the management of the increasing complexity of construction processes. This methodology aims to create a global interactive system of information sharing between the different actors in the construction process. The integration of the processes creates economic and environmental opportunities, which can translate into increased efficiency of the sector. The information collected can be used throughout the construction lifecycle, which together with the monitoring of the buildings will support maintenance decisions. The monitoring of reinforced concrete structures with sensors allows the identification and quantification of the degradation processes, through the monitoring of several characteristic parameters of the reinforced concrete over time, and the determination of significant changes that indicate the existence of a degradative process in development. Obtaining this type of information, and its integration into BIM models, will allow intervention at an early stage in order to limit damages and costs associated with the maintenance of the structure, contributing to increase in the structure’s useful life.",signatures:"Pedro Romano and Paulo Brito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64104",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64104",authors:[{id:"261653",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Brito",slug:"paulo-brito",fullName:"Paulo Brito"},{id:"261654",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Romano",slug:"pedro-romano",fullName:"Pedro Romano"}],corrections:null},{id:"64259",title:"Durability of Composite-Modified Asphalt Mixture Based on Inherent and Improved Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81824",slug:"durability-of-composite-modified-asphalt-mixture-based-on-inherent-and-improved-performance",totalDownloads:1787,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The composite performance of modified asphalt and composite-modified asphalt mixture (CMAM) is divided into inherent performance and improved performance. The inherent performance refers to the original performance of the virgin asphalt and asphalt mixture. The improved performance refers to the performance obtained by modifying the virgin asphalt. In the study, the modified asphalt and asphalt mixture were tested through a series of experiments. The antiaging durability of the modified asphalt is explored based on the inherent performance and improved performance at high and low temperatures. The antiaging durability of the modified asphalt mixture is explored based on the inherent performance and improved performance at the mechanical performance. Meanwhile, based on inherent and improved performances, this chapter uses three kinds of CMAM (4% SBS/3% SBR, 4% SBS/15% rubber, and 4% SBR/15% rubber) as research objects to test the change rule of mechanical properties. This chapter outlines CMAM design, mechanical property tests, and comparative durability analysis.",signatures:"Haitao Zhang and Mingyang Gong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64259",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64259",authors:[{id:"260604",title:"Prof.",name:"Haitao",surname:"Zhang",slug:"haitao-zhang",fullName:"Haitao Zhang"},{id:"269367",title:"Dr.",name:"Mingyang",surname:"Gong",slug:"mingyang-gong",fullName:"Mingyang Gong"}],corrections:null},{id:"64801",title:"Bitumen and Its Modifier for Use in Pavement Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82489",slug:"bitumen-and-its-modifier-for-use-in-pavement-engineering",totalDownloads:1571,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on bitumen specifically. This chapter consists of several parts that can be mentioned, including the history of the appearance of bitumen and the types of constituent elements, as well as its mechanical properties and chemical structure and its thermal sensitivity. In all parts, the effects of bitumen on asphalt are discussed. In the following sections, the bitumen modification mechanism, polymer modifiers, and their behavior on the bitumen resistance to asphalt failures are also discussed. 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\r\n\tThis book seeks to provide scientific information related to the importance of how Health and Educational Success relate and supplement each other. Starting from the development of programs in the Higher Education Sector, Drawing up mechanisms to implement the programs, and further reviewing those programs. The importance of upskilling the Health Professionals is also important because they will have graduated from the drawn programs therefore, it is important that their skills improved from time to time so that they can be able to offer relevant care. Additionally, the receiver of care who are patients and communities also must be provided with relevant Health Education which aligns to programs that were crafted. Importance of continuously subjecting these programs to Quality Assurance measures is important to be sure that the programs are implemented as they were approved by Accreditation Professional bodies. Health and Educational Success will lead to healthy living.
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Dr. Ramavhoya is a Peer review member of Annals of a global health journal, a Member of the Senate committee with SG Lourence nursing college, and a Member of the HIV & AIDS Publication group.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A senior lecturer at the University of Limpopo with experience in Health Care Sciences, previously affiliated with SANC, the University of South Africa, and the Garankuwa College of Nursing.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"An active researcher with more than 100 publications in national and international journals such as Curationis, Health SA Gesondheid, and Journal of Nursing Management among others. Dr. Mothiba served the TREC as a nurse and became its Deputy Chairperson in 2019, was awarded five Vice-Chancellor’s Excellence Awards at the University of Limpopo(2013, 2016, 2019), and the Best Academic Achievement award from the University of Johannesburg in 2013.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"446660",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Ramavhoya",slug:"irene-ramavhoya",fullName:"Irene Ramavhoya",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003JZt3rQAD/Profile_Picture_1641369636515",biography:"A highly skilled, innovative, proactive thinker with commendable vast experience in health care service delivery in clinical, educational, and managerial skills at the hospital, community, and educational health care setting. 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Spending 15 years in teaching was instrumental in building my research career, build capacity by supervising masters and PhD students, thus instilling the awareness of knowledge management in students to improve practice leading to provision of quality patient care. I have successfully supervised up to completion 25 Masters (males and females) and 7 doctoral candidates (all women and 5 working at University of Limpopo Faculty of Health Sciences. I am currently have 9 postgraduates assigned to me for masters and doctoral studies. This gives me hope that I am achieving my goals of mentoring women in academia. This also led me to co-author some of my 105 articles with masters and doctoral graduates along with research team members. To date I had published 9 book chapters of 7 of them in 2021 though 3 are still in press. \nResearch Projects: I was appointed as Deputy Project Leader from 2014 to 2020 for the VLIROUS Project 2 funded by Flemish Inter-University Council which included peers from Antwerp University in Belgium in which I supervised masters and doctoral students together with peers. This project was aimed at prevention and management of NCDs in the rural communities. I was a Deputy Principal Investigator, for a Swedish Forte and SAMRC for a collaborative project on Strengthening Maternal Health in Limpopo Province. This was aimed at improving maternal health service provision and debriefing of Midwives in Limpopo Province. I am also part of International Skin Integrity Research Group with University of Nottingham University in the UK. I am also a Co-Principal Investigator of Co-designing Community-based ICT’s Interventions to Enhance Maternal and Child Health in South Africa (CoMaCH) Project in partnership with four Universities in the UK, UL, WITS and HSRC.\nAchievement Awards: I have received five Vice Chancellor Research Excellence Awards in the University of Limpopo in 2013, 2016 and 2019. I was presented with the 'Top Academic Achiever Award” by the University of Johannesburg for my doctoral degree in 2014 October, and was allowed to join the Golden Key Honour Society. The Key is built on pillars of knowledge, capacity building and development of international research partnerships.\nResearch Rating: NRF C3 rated researcher\nIn conclusion, my academic career history Lecturer, senior lecturer 2006 July to 2014 July UL, 2014 August to date Professor, Research Professor FHS 2018 December to 2020 June, FHS Acting Executive Dean 2020 July to June 2021. 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One of the most commonly used forms of MoS2 is a bonded film lubricant. Its application process is relatively simple and stable performance can be obtained, compared to other coatings such as sputtering. They are often used in automobiles and OA equipment, especially in aerospace applications.
Lubrication properties of MoS2 are known to be greatly affected by environmental atmosphere, and the same is true for bonded MoS2 film lubricants. They generally perform well in dry air, inert gas environments and in vacuum, compared to moist air environment. Because of this, they often used in space applications.
However, the performance in the atmosphere is often important even for space applications, which may be used in the atmosphere before the launching for the tests etc., and for devices that moves in and out of vacuum and the atmosphere.
The lubrication properties of bonded MoS2 film lubricant in vacuum and in air were investigated, and it was found that specific wear rate is often not effective in estimating the wear life. Fatigue at the interface between the film and the substrate is found to be the main factor that determines wear life of bonded MoS2 film lubricant, and short life in the atmosphere could be attributed to the fatigue.
Figure 1 shows the typical application process of the bonded MoS2 film lubricant. It can apply to various forms of products, including inner side of the holes. The thickness of the film is typically about 10 micro-meters. Sometimes this is too large for some mechanical parts, e.g. precious ball bearings, but usually small enough to realize smooth engagement of the parts.
Typical application process of bonded MoS2 film lubricant.
Figure 2 [1] shows the cross-section of the bonded MoS2 film lubricant including substrate and film. The cross-section is enlarged vertically because it was cut diagonally. It can be seen that an intricately shaped substrate anchors the film. Such substrate surface morphology is produced by pretreatment of the substrate such as blasting. Chemical pretreatment passivates the surface of the substrate, some of which gives the surface a fine mesh-like structure. It has been reported that the final texture of the substrate surface is determined by blasting and that phosphate treatment, a type of chemical treatment, promotes significant changes in surface roughness [2]. Substrate pretreatment is an important process for providing a strong adhesion between the film and the substrate, resulting in a longer wear life of the bonded film lubricant [3].
Cross-section of bonded MoS2 film lubricant [
As the lubrication performance in vacuum is excellent, the bonded MoS2 film lubricants are often used in space applications [4, 5, 6]. Figure 3 [4] shows the joint mechanism of the robot arm of the space station: ISS. Bonded MoS2 film lubricant is applied to gears and sliding bearings in it. In general it seems to be often used for pure-sliding or rolling-sliding surfaces rather than pure-rolling surfaces.
Joint mechanism of robot arm of space station: ISS [
Bonded MoS2 film lubricants are used at a variety of sliding speeds and loading conditions, but naturally their limiting PV values are smaller than oil lubrication. The working conditions under which they perform well seem to be high load and low speed conditions [7] where oil lubrication does not perform well. In this chapter, we will mainly discuss the friction and wear of bonded MoS2 film lubricants under relatively high load and low speed conditions.
The friction and wear life of journal bearings with bonded MoS2 film lubricant applied to some substrates were investigated in vacuum using the test equipment shown in Figure 4 [8]. Figure 5 illustrates the friction measurement part of the equipment set in the vacuum chamber. The shaft was oscillated by AC servo motor through reduction gear and feedthrough. The radial load was applied by an air cylinder outside the vacuum chamber through a bellows. The bore and width of the bearing were 10 mm and 7 mm, respectively. The lubricant was applied both to the bearing and the shaft. The frictional torque was measured by the load cell above the test bearing.
In-vacuum journal bearing test equipment [
Friction measurement part of the in-vacuum journal bearing test equipment.
The commercially available bonded MoS2 film lubricant, including about 25 wt. % MoS2 and phenolic resin binder, was spray coated and heat cured at 150°C for 1 h. The film thickness was about 10 micro-meters and the diameter clearance between the bearing and the shaft with lubricant film was 10-20 micrometers.
Table 1 [1] shows the substrate materials and pretreatment for the bearings and the shafts. Table 2 [1] indicates the bearing and the shaft combinations. The circled numbers in the table correspond to those in Table 1. Table 3 [1] shows the test conditions.
No. | Substrate material | Heat-treatment | Hardness Hv. | Pretreatment |
---|---|---|---|---|
① | JIS 2017 aluminum alloy | JIS T4 | 120-130 | Sand-blasting |
② | JIS 440C stainless steel (martensitic stainless steel) | Quench hardening and tempering | 570-590 | Sand-blasting and passivating |
③ | JIS 304 stainless steel (austenitic stainless steel) | — | 220-250 | Sand-blasting and passivating |
Substrate materials and pretreatment for bearings and shafts [1].
Set No. | Substrate material | |
---|---|---|
bearing | Shaft | |
1 | ① | ② |
2 | ② | ② |
3 | ③ | ③ |
Bearing and shaft combinations [1].
Motion | Oscillation |
---|---|
Atmosphere | 10−5 Pa vacuum |
Load | 1470 N |
Angular velocity | 10 deg./s |
Oscillational angle | 50 deg |
Test conditions [1].
Figure 6 [1] illustrated the typical measured friction evolution. The measured friction drew the rectangular wave due to the oscillation motion and half of the total amplitude was used as the frictional force. The friction gradually decreased with the number of oscillations and suddenly increased. This sudden increase point was used as the wear life of the lubricant.
Typical measured friction evolution [
Figure 7 [1] shows the appearance of the tested shaft. A part of the film lubricant was removed and the metal substrate was exposed and scratched. Figure 8 [1] shows the lubricant film profiles of Set No.3 specimen in Table 2 at the points (a) and (b) in the wear life shown in the right diagram. Most of the film thickness remained near the end of the wear life, and the scratched part was observed at the end of the test.
Appearance of the tested shaft [
Lubricant film profiles: (a) about 60% of wear life, (b) after the friction increase [
Figure 9 [1] indicated the wear life and friction coefficient of the tested combinations. There was no significant difference in the friction coefficients, but the wear life of the SUS304 was much longer than the others.
Wear life and friction coefficient of the tested combinations [
It was observed that the film thickness of the lubricant gradually decreased, but it seems that the wear life suddenly came with most of the film thickness remaining. This form of wear has been observed in several previous studies [9, 10]. This means that specific wear rates cannot be used to predict wear life. In some studies, specific wear rates has been proposed for the wear life estimation of the bonded MoS2 film lubricant [9, 11]. It may be used for relatively large sliding speed and low load conditions, but cannot be used for small sliding speed and high load conditions like this case.
The sudden decrease of the film is probably due to the de-bonding of the film from the substrate, possibly due to fatigue. The adhesion strength between the substrate and the film must affect the fatigue strength, that is, the wear life, and is strongly dependent on the anchoring effect by the surface morphology of the pretreated substrate.
The surface morphology of the pretreated substrate was investigated using “pretreated surface specimen” shown in Figure 10 [1]. A portion of one side of a rectangular metal specimen was pretreated and the bonded MoS2 film lubricant was applied to half of the pretreated area. Figure 11 [1] shows the surface profiles of the specimens. As shown in (a) and (c), the pretreated areas of the aluminum alloy substrate and the SUS304 stainless steel substrate had a roughness that went up and down across the original surface, while that of the SUS440C stainless steel substrate was below the original surface. This means that ductile metal surfaces such as aluminum alloy and SUS304 stainless steel (austenitic stainless steel) were deformed plastically by the blasting and that of brittle metal such as SUS440C (martensitic stainless steel) seems to have had its surface layer taken away by the blasting. This resulted in a characteristic surface morphology.
Pretreated surface specimen [
Surface profiles of the pretreated surface specimens, (a) aluminum alloy, (b) SUS440C, (c) SUS 304 [
Figure 12 [1] shows the cross- sections of the pretreated surface specimens. The SUS304 specimen indicated the intricate surface morphology, while the SUS440C specimen had a monotonous wavy surface morphology. Probably these morphologies brought the strong adhesion between the substrate and the film, that is, the long wear life, to the SUS304 substrate and short wear life to the 440C substrate. The work hardening would also have contributed to the long wear life of the SUS304 substrate. The short wear life of aluminum alloy substrate could be attributable to the deformation of surface morphology by the load due to the lack of the hardness.
Cross-sections of the pretreated surface specimens: (a) SUS440C substrate, (b) SUS304 substrate [
Friction and wear life characteristics were investigated under various loads, sliding speeds in air and vacuum atmospheres using the test equipment used in Section 3.1. Test materials and test conditions are shown in Table 4 [8] and Table 5 [8], respectively. SUS630 is a precipitation hardened stainless steel with high strength, and was chosen for the shaft specimen in consideration of actual applications.
Shaft material | JIS 630 stainless steel (precipitation hardened stainless steel) |
---|---|
Bearing bush material | JIS 304 stainless steel |
Bearing bore, mm × length, mm | 10 × 7, 5 × 7, 10 × 3.5 |
Bearing clearance, μm | ~20 |
Test materials [7].
No. | Bearing bore × width (mm) | Load (N) | Bearing pressure (MPa) | Oscillational angle (deg.) | Angular velocity (deg. /s) | Atmosphere |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 10 × 7 | 5880 | 84 | 50 | 50 | vacuum |
2 | 10 × 7 | 1960 | 28 | 50 | 50 | vacuum |
3 | 10 × 7 | 980 | 14 | 50 | 50 | vacuum |
4 | 10 × 7 | 5880 | 84 | 50 | 50 | air |
5 | 10 × 7 | 1960 | 28 | 50 | 50 | air |
6 | 10 × 7 | 980 | 14 | 50 | 50 | air |
7 | 10 × 7 | 5880 | 84 | 50 | 5 | vacuum |
8 | 10 × 7 | 5880 | 84 | 50 | 5 | air |
9 | 10 × 7 | 1960 | 28 | 300 | 50 | vacuum |
10 | 10 × 7 | 1960 | 28 | 300 | 50 | air |
11 | 5 × 7 | 980 | 28 | 50 | 50 | air |
12 | 10 × 3.5 | 980 | 28 | 50 | 50 | air |
Test conditions [7].
Figure 13 [8] shows a typical change in the friction coefficient with the number of oscillations in air and in vacuum. The friction coefficient was several times larger and the wear life was several ten times shorter in air than in vacuum. The relationship between the friction coefficient and the load is shown in Figure 14 [8]. Friction coefficient used was in the steady state as shown in Figure 13. Friction coefficient was about 0.2 in air and about 0.05 in vacuum regardless of test conditions.
Typical change in friction coefficient in air and in vacuum [
Relationship between the friction coefficient and load [
Figure 15 [8] shows the relationship between the bearing pressure and the wear life. The wear life refers to the number of oscillations when friction increased sharply. There are two groups, one in vacuum and one in air, with differences in wear life of hundreds of thousands of oscillations. It seems that there is no relationship between the groups.
Relationship between bearing pressure and wear life [
Figure 16 [8] shows the lubricant film profile at about 70% wear life in air, obtained under the same test conditions as No. 5 in Table 5. Most of the film thickness remained, as in the in-vacuum test shown in Figure 8. This suggests that the wear life in air, as well as in vacuum, is due to the de-bonding of the film from the substrate, and that the fatigue strength of the film-substrate interface may determine the wear life.
Lubricant film profile at about 70% wear life in air [
Fatigue strength of some metals are known to be affected by atmosphere and be larger in vacuum than in air (e.g. [12]). However, it has been shown that the propagation rate of fatigue cracks in epoxy resins is almost the same in both vacuum and air [13], and in general, the fatigue of resins, which are the binders of the films, is considered to be less affected by the atmosphere. Therefore, the short wear life due to fatigue of film lubricants in air is not considered to be due to their reaction to the environmental atmosphere. The factor that differs between vacuum and air and is considered to affect fatigue is the friction coefficient.
Stress analysis was performed to investigate the effects of the friction coefficient on the stress in the film [8]. The analysis was performed as a plane strain perfect elasticity problem. Young’s modulus of the film was measured in dry air to be about 10 GPa. Calculation conditions are shown in Table 6 [8].
Film thickness (μm) | Young’s modulus of film (GPa) | Poisson’s ratio of film | Young’s modulus of substrate (GPa) | Poisson’s ratio of substrate | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
10 | 10 | 0.3 | 197 | 0.3 | |
No. | Bearing bore (mm) | Shaft diameter (mm) | Line load (N/mm) | Friction coefficient | Corresponding test numbers |
1 | 10.02 | 10 | 840 | 0.05 | 1, 7 |
2 | 10.02 | 10 | 280 | 0.05 | 2, 9 |
3 | 10.02 | 10 | 140 | 0.05 | 3 |
4 | 10.02 | 10 | 840 | 0.2 | 4, 8 |
5 | 10.02 | 10 | 280 | 0.2 | 5, 10, 12 |
6 | 10.02 | 10 | 140 | 0.3 | 6 |
7 | 5.02 | 5 | 140 | 0.2 | 11 |
Calculation conditions [7].
Figure 17 [8] shows examples of the calculated stresses in the film. Since the film thickness is small compared to the contact length, the stress is almost constant in the depth direction of the film.
Examples of calculated stresses in the film [
Figure 18 [8] shows the relationship between the maximum shear stress at the interface between the film and the substrate in the direction parallel to the interface and wear life. All points are on a straight line, whether they are in vacuum or in air. This is a typical S-N curve for fatigue phenomenon. Therefore, the wear life of the bonded MoS2 film lubricant can be attributed to fatigue due to shear stress at the interface. Since the contact width is much larger than the film thickness, the shear stress at the interface is almost the same as the shear stress at the film surface, i.e., the product of the friction coefficient and the contact pressure, as shown in Figure 17(b) and (d). Since the maximum von Mises stress, which contains a large component of vertical loading, did not show the same relationship as the shear stress, damage inside the film is not considered to be the cause of wear life in this case. Thus, the difference in wear life between vacuum and air is due to the friction coefficient between vacuum and air.
Relationship between the maximum shear stress at the interface between the film and the substrate and wear life [
The effect of repeated vertical loading was investigated separately. Figure 19 shows the “repeated vertical loading machine” [14], in which the bonded MoS2 film lubricant on the flat surface was subjected to the repeated vertical pressure by a steel ball with 5/16 in. (~7.9 mm) diameter. A sinusoidal load of 0.98 N to 4.4 N was applied at a frequency of 1000 cpm.
Repeated vertical loading machine [
Only dents with a few micrometer depth were observed on the tested lubricant films after more than 107 times loading, as shown in Figure 20 [14], and no de-bonding was observed. Hence, the repeated shear stress, i.e. the friction, rather than the repeated vertical load causes the de-bonding of the film lubricant.
Surface profiles of the film after the tests: (a) static loading, (b) 1 × 107 loadings, (c) 4.4 × 107 loadings [
Wear life of bonded MoS2 film lubricants was found to be caused by de-bonding of the film from the substrate due to fatigue under relatively high load and low speed condition. In order to improve wear life, it is important to select substrate materials with appropriate surface morphology through pretreatment to provide strong adhesion to the film. The specific wear rate, which assumes that the amount of wear of the material is constant according to the load and sliding distance, is not suitable for estimating the wear life of bonded MoS2 film lubricants under these conditions.
When the thickness of the film is much smaller than the contact length, as in the case treated here, the frictional force directly becomes the shear force at the interface, which determines the fatigue life of the film-substrate adhesion. In other words, the friction coefficient has a direct effect on the wear life of the film lubricants. It was shown that the wear life of bonded MoS2 film lubricant in vacuum is much longer than in air. This is because the friction coefficient in vacuum is much smaller than in the air.
In order to improve the wear life in air, it is effective to reduce the friction coefficient in air. It is the moisture in air that increases the friction of MoS2 in air. Attempts to reduce the friction in air, such as adsorbing a surfactant on MoS2 to prevent the adsorption of water molecules and thus imparting hydrophobicity to MoS2 [15], are expected to expand the application fields of bonded MoS2 film lubricants.
Medicinal plants are getting more demand because of their distinctive features as an abundant source of curative phytochemicals that may be used to develop new medications. Approximately 20% of all known plants have been employed in pharmacological investigations, positively improving the healthcare system by treating cancer and other ailments [1]. Many of these medicinal plants are good sources of phytochemicals like polyphenols, carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and vitamins that possess antioxidant activities. Today, medicinal plants are finding diverse use in society from medicine to cosmetics, nutraceuticals, herbal drinks, herbal foods, and other articles in their daily uses. Plant phytoconstituents are created as secondary metabolites, which are produced through a variety of biological routes in secondary metabolism. The choice of solvents for extracting phytoconstituents from plants is critical. A suitable solvent has an appropriate extraction capacity as well as the ability to maintain the chemical structure of the desired molecules stable [2].
Green technologies are increasingly being employed in practically every scientific sector to promote ecologically acceptable activities that do little or no harm to humans. Ionic liquids, aqueous biphasic systems, and pressurized hot water have all become attractive research topics in recent years [3]. Traditional techniques of extracting phytoconstituents require the use of more powerful and toxic solvents (nonenvironmentally friendly), as well as more energy. Each method’s extraction time varies, ranging from minutes to 7 days in the case of maceration [4]. Another problem is that none of the current plant processing methods meets all the economical, safety, and scalability requirements. Other concerns include security hazards, solvent toxicity, and the existence of solvent remnants in the extracts. The high cost of feedstock, the high cost of extracting desirable bioactive compounds, their comparatively low yield, and the resulting substantial concentration of residual waste biomass are the major roadblocks to commercially viable phytochemical production [5]. In many process sectors, microwave-assisted extractions like ultrasound-assisted extraction, pulsed electric field extraction, and molecular distillation have been reported. Green chemistry, as ecological and economic chemistry, could be one of the solutions to humanity’s future [6]. The entire process of green extraction of phytoconstituents from natural sources is concluded in the Figure 1.
Extraction of crude drugs using green solvent, green extraction process, and purification techniques.
A vast diversity of plants, animals, and microorganisms can produce a wide spectrum of chemical compounds with amazing health-care properties in nature. Science is steadily changing our world by finding the possibilities of natural products [7]. Natural product extraction has been practised since civilization. Extraction methods are used in the perfume, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, food, and chemicals sectors. Recent extraction technique advancements have mostly focused on creating solutions that employ lower solvents [8].
Soxhlet extraction, maceration, and hydro distillation (HD) are examples of traditional/conventional extraction processes. The choice of specific solvents has a considerable impact on any extraction rate. The polarity of the target biochemical is the most significant factor to consider, and when choosing a solvent, the solvent’s molecular affinity for the solute, as well as its environmental friendliness, toxicity, and economic efficiency, must all be considered. Simple, safe, repeatable, low-cost, and adaptable to a variety of applications are all desirable characteristics in an extraction procedure. High-temperature extraction (e.g., Soxhlet technique, HD) has been shown to cause changes in the composition due to phytoconstituent degradation [9].
To circumvent the constraints of classic extraction procedures, green extraction techniques can be employed to extract phytoconstituents from plants. The majority of these include less harmful chemical synthesis, nontoxic chemicals, safe solvent aides, energy efficiency patterns, use of sustainable feedstock, fewer derivatives, catalysis, design to avoid deterioration, and time scheduling for pollution avoidance, hazardous air pollutants, and naturally safer chemistry for safety programs. The development of effective and selective technologies for extracting and isolating bioactive phytoconstituent is crucial. This article aims to provide a detailed overview of green solvents employed, as well as the methods for extracting and isolating natural compounds form natural sources. Green solvents can help to improve old procedures significantly, especially when incorporated with new and novel methodologies. Hydrolysis of cellulose from biomass with supercritical water and the extraction of hydrophobic compounds using supercritical CO2 are few examples of green extraction process.
Solvents, their vapors, and mists have a variety of health impacts. Many contain narcotic properties, causing lethargy, dizziness, carcinogens, etc. Solvents irritate the eyes and respiratory system, as well as causing skin problems. High doses can cause unconsciousness and death in certain people. Petroleum-based solvents, which are mostly sourced from fossil fuels, are commonly utilized in various stages of the analytical process [10]. Solution preparation, extraction, and enrichment of phytoconstituents, washing of extracts, solvent exchange, sample preservation, dilution, cleaning of glassware, liquid desorption, derivatization, analytical separation, and detection are all activities that involve solvents in phytochemistry. A suitable solvent has an appropriate extraction capacity as well as the ability to maintain the chemical structure of the desired molecules stable.
Water is one such “green” solvent that can have its properties changed by changing the temperature. Water’s polarity allows it to be employed as an extraction solvent for both natural and inorganic substances that are aqueous soluble, like proteins, carbohydrates, and organic acids. Water is an important green solvent for the extraction of phytoconstituents. It has no harmful health or environmental consequences [11]. Furthermore, it is the safest and cheapest solvent. The technology used has an impact on the extractability of biologically active chemicals. Water is used as the only extractant in several ways, including decoction, infusion, and hydro distillation. Water as a solvent can be used in a variety of traditional and modern procedures. Extraction with pressurized hot water is one of the most promising new green extraction techniques and procedures, especially in a dynamic mode [11]. Water, on the other hand, has several drawbacks in terms of the less solubility of nonpolar molecules and energy required to enrich products. This difficulty can be overcome in part by employing supercritical water or a mixture of alcohol and water.
When using hydro distillation, high temperatures and long distillation times might cause volatiles to change and be lost. Supercritical water extraction (SWE) was shown to have a quicker extraction time, cheaper costs, and higher purity than hydro distillation. In terms of oxygenated components, SWE’s products yielded higher valuable essential oil. To boost extraction yields, microwave-assisted extraction with water as a solvent has been proposed.
Alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol have similar solvent properties such as solvent strengths, dielectrics, critical points, and hydrogen donating abilities. However, due to its nontoxic nature, ethanol has ascended to the top [12]. Alkanes (heptane, hexane) and simple alcohols (methanol, ethanol) are healthier for the environment than dioxane, acetonitrile, acids, formaldehyde, and tetrahydrofuran [13]. The main disadvantage of alcohol is that they are flammable and some of them are toxic (i.e., methanol). In addition, extended exposure to their vapors can also lead to health problems.
CO2 as a liquid or supercritical solvent possesses multiple features of an admirable green solvent. They are incombustible, nonpoisonous, nonenvironmentally harmful, plentiful, inexpensive, easy to produce, simple to eliminate from a product, do not add to smog, and do not contribute to global warming [14]. Purified CO2 is produced, pressurized, and cooled to a liquid state at 20 psi and −20°C before being stored or transported in insulated bulk containers for use in a variety of liquid and supercritical CO2 processes. The viscosity of CO2 is extremely low, and supercritical CO2 has negligible surface tension [15]. The strong diffusivity, along with the low viscosity, causes significant improvements in the condensed phases. Supercritical fluid extraction of a crude drug is achieved by passing supercritical CO2 over a column packed drug material. Until the substrate is depleted, supercritical CO2 travels over the column of packed material and dissolves soluble components. The loaded solvent is then transported through a separator, where the soluble components precipitate as pressure and temperature are reduced. The CO2 is recirculated once it has been condensed. It is employed in the removal of caffeine from coffee and tea, the removing fatty material from cacao, the production of hops extracts, sesame seed oil, and pesticide extraction from rice. Under high pressure, SC CO2 is used to extract triglycerides and volatile compounds. Volatile, triglyceride and phenolic chemicals etc. are extricated at high pressure (300–400 bars) with EtOH. Add water or alcohols like ethanol or iso-propyl-alcohol to the SC-CO2 extraction has already been used to modify the polarity [16].
DES is formed when the melting point of a mixture of substances is much lower than the melting points of the two constituents. A hydrogen bond donor (HBD) and a hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) are required to build a DES system, and when mixed in the right proportions, they generate a novel “mesh” of hydrogen-bond-interconnected molecules with remarkable physicochemical features [17]. Their extraordinary physicochemical features (like ionic liquids) combined with remarkable green properties, low cost, and ease of handling are piquing researchers’ attention in a variety of sectors. The eutectic composition of DESs is formed by heating and stirring two or more solid starting components to generate a transparent, viscous homogenous liquid. Other techniques involve grinding (combining and powdering solid components till clear liquid forms), evaporation (dissolving all starting elements in water and then removing the water via evaporation at reduced pressure), and freeze-drying (dissolving all starting components in water and then draining the water via evaporation at reduced pressure).
Among them, heating and stirring below the melting points of the individual constituents is possibly the most acceptable method [18]. Because DESs are nonflammable and nonvolatile, they are easier to store. They are also biodegradable, unlike standard organic solvents. Furthermore, DES manufacture is cost-effective, simple to run, and requires no modification, making their use on a broad scale possible. DESs can be made by mixing molecules derived from natural sources (e.g., glycerol and glucose), which makes them environmentally friendly. Within the HBD section, polymerized deep eutectic solvents (PDEs) are a novel category of DESs that can be polymerized [17].
The high viscosity of DES is a key disadvantage that can limit their usage as extraction solvents since it prevents the solvent from penetrating the extraction matrix. Although increasing the temperature of the extraction process helps reduce viscosity, this is not always the best solution because it consumes energy, and some heat-sensitive phytochemicals may not withstand the higher temperature. The addition of a co-solvent to the extraction medium is a straightforward technique to remedy this problem. Most of the time, this co-solvent is water, which keeps the process green; nevertheless, organic solvents like methanol have also been utilized. Alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and saponins are all extracted using DES [19].
The DES is called natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) when amino acids, organic acids, sugars etc. are used to make DES [20]. Due to the natural nature of its ingredients, NADESs are deemed environmentally beneficial and “readily biodegradable,” and the resulting extracts can use in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics preparations. Because of their great stability and solubilization properties, NADES is ideal candidates to replace traditional solvents. NADESs combinations have efficiently extracted bioactive compounds including flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, natural pigments, sugars, peptides, and volatile components from natural matrices [21].
ILs were a type of organic salt that consisted of an organic cation (e.g., imidazolium, pyrrolidinium, pyrrolidinium tetra alkyl ammonium, pyrrolidinium tetra alkyl phosphonium) and an inorganic or organic anion (e.g., tetrafluoroborate, hexafluorophosphate, and bromide) that form of liquid below 100°C [22]. Because of their distinctive and construction dependent features, like low nucleophilicity, mixability with water or organic solvents, and good extractability, ILs have been frequently used [23]. A variety of organic and inorganic substances are perhaps enriched and separated using IL-based methods. As a result, they have been frequently used in food safety, drug testing, environmental monitoring, biological analysis, and other areas. The ability of ILs could be tailor-made for the extraction of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, quinones, and other phytoconstituents from plants. A vast number of research organizations have also created IL-based silica and polymers that can improve the extraction/separation of target chemicals.
Extraction is an important step in the isolation of bioactive chemicals from plant matter. However, because of the existence of complex cell wall polysaccharides including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin alginate, and carrageenan, the extraction yield of bioactive chemicals is poor. Researchers are now considering modern methods of extracting these compounds because of the low specific gravity of bioactive compounds, the low productivity of the solvents used to extract these compounds, high energy, high durability, solvent residue in the extracts, and the decline in the quality of the final product, as well as environmental concerns [23]. The use of enzymes to extract bioactive chemicals from plants could be a viable substitute for traditional solvent extraction methods. Enzymes are excellent catalyzers for extracting, modifying, or synthesizing complex bioactive substances from nature. The natural ability of enzymes to accelerate reactions with perfect particularity, regiospecificity, and the ability to employ under gentle processing conditions in an aqueous medium facilitate enzyme-based extraction [24]. The use of enzymes for sugar extraction is a new topic that needs further research. To improve extraction processes, custom enzymes must be developed, either by biodiversity screening, genetic engineering perspective, or a mix of the two. From plant sources, enzyme-aided extraction can be utilized to obtain lipophilic, polyphenolic, and hydrophilic chemicals [25]. Factors including high enzyme production and downstream processing costs, extended incubation times, and an extra stage (de-emulsification) in the process are still preventing aqueous enzyme extraction from becoming commercially viable. Commercial enzyme production has been accelerated, and enzyme synthesis has now become more affordable. The downstream processing expenses could be reduced by using appropriate technology rather than the traditional technique [26].
The predominant element of essential oils derived from citrus fruit peels is d-limonene, which belongs to the terpene family. Since its cleaner and degreaser properties were discovered and considered, d-limonene has sparked a surge of interest. In this sense, this chemical has been classified as a viable alternative to halogenated carbon hydrates or traditional degreasing chemicals commonly used in industry and households. Several authors have attempted to create a commercial application for d-limonene. Sustainable chemistry has generated a lot of study into the processing of renewable fuels due to the demand for environment-friendly techniques and products [27].
Because d-limonene has a higher boiling point (175°C) than n-hexane (69°C), it uses more energy to recover the solvent by evaporation. To minimize the difficulty of solvent recovery caused by high d-limonene’s boiling point, a technique based on steam or hydro-distillation employing Clevenger can be used. Distilled water was added to the extracted oil and d-limonene mixture after Soxhlet extraction with d-limonene. D-limonene and extracted oil were separated using a Clevenger device and azeotropic water distillation at less than 100°C [28]. It is a valuable and practical method for determining the lipids and oils in olive seeds. Waste minimization, rapid operation, and energy saving are all possible with Soxhlet microwave-integrated with limonene and microwave Clevenger distillation [29]. Limonene has a dielectric constant that is very similar to that of hexane and has been used to extract rice bran oil, oil from olive leftovers, carotenoids from tomatoes or algae and, more recently, algal lipids from wet algae [30].
Solvent-free extraction of a variety of important natural products (essential oils, fragrances, edible oils, antioxidants, and other organic compounds) eliminates the price and threats correlated with large amounts of solvent. It minimizes the amount of wastewater after extraction and uses a fraction of the energy that a traditional solvent-solid extraction process does.
In 2008, Chemat et al. developed the MHG method, which uses
Crude drugs can be extracted in fresh or dried form. Grinding and drying of plant materials are examples of pre-preparation. This has an impact on the preservation of phytochemicals in final extracts. Air drying takes anywhere from 3 to 7 days. To optimize extraction operations and save energy, mechanical disruption pre-treatments can be employed alone or in combination. Bead milling, high-pressure homogenization, and hydrodynamic cavitation are all methods for mechanical disruption. The extraction of lipids has been demonstrated to be aided using a bead mill. Powdered samples, on the other hand, have a more homogenized and smaller particle size, developing in substantial surface contact with extraction solvents [31].
Nanotechnologies, including microwave, ultrasound, and pulse electric field, were found to improve operation efficacy as a pre-treatment before drying. After size reduction and before extraction, microwave pre-treatments upgraded the extraction of polyphenols, sugars, and other compounds. Pre-treatments with a pulsed electric field (PEF) improved extraction efficiencies in terms of yield and extract standard. PEF pre-treatment of rapeseed, apple, and sugar beet fruit extracts before mechanical expression resulted in higher yields [26]. Oven-drying is one more pre-extraction method that uses heat energy to eliminate moisture from substances. This procedure for preparing a sample is regarded as particular easiest and most rapid thermal processing method available for phytochemicals.
Costly drugs can be dried by freeze-drying. In freeze-drying before use, the sample is frozen at −80°C to −20°C to lyophilize any liquid (e.g., solvent, moisture) in the body samples. The mouth of the test tube or other container holding the sample is wrapped in needle-poked-parafilm to avoid sample loss during the operation. Freeze-drying resulted in a greater phenolic content compared to air-drying because most phytochemicals are preserved. This strategy is used to keep phytoconstituents safe. Freeze-drying, on the other hand, is a difficult process. Microwave drying is more expensive than traditional air drying. As a result, only fragile, heat-sensitive goods and high-quality materials are permitted [32].
The main goal of green extraction procedures is to obtain a rapid extraction, increased efficient energy usage, higher mass and heat transfer, smaller apparatus, and fewer processing stages [3]. Several novel alternatives to traditional techniques for obtaining target compounds from a variety of crude drugs have been proposed, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), subcritical and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) [33]. These extraction methods, which are alternatives to traditional procedures, have piqued the curiosity of academics, who see future applications for recovering bioactive molecules from plants in less time using green solvents. Most of these new methods have already shown promise in extracting high-value chemicals, particularly natural antioxidants, from various sources such as plants or food processing by-products [34].
It is a physical technique in which pressure is employed to extract the oil or juice from a material. A tincture press was used to do this. When essential oils are temperature sensitive, this approach is used. It’s used to extract essential oils from citrus peels like lemons and oranges. Squeezing any plant material at high pressures to extract oils or other liquids is known as expression. In remote rural locations, hand-operated presses or crushes are used, while in industrial hubs, massive mechanical presses are used. However, the products obtained are impure and frequently contain impurities such as water, mucoid particles, and cell tissues, making them murky, and pressing the volatile oil in plants completely is difficult. As a result, the crushed residue is frequently steam distilled to remove all volatile oils. Black soybean oil, for example, is frequently extracted using the low-temperature pressing process [31].
Enfleurage is the method of extracting aroma from flowers by absorbing it through contact with cold lipids. This method is used for fragrant flowers like jasmine and tuberose, which retain their unique aroma even after being plucked. To prevent fat odors from entering, fats should be saturated and odorless. It’s best to use refined lard or beef suet. On both sides of a glass plate mounted on a rectangular hardwood frame or chassis, fat is thinly deposited. On a fat-coated chassis, fresh aromatic flowers are delicately stacked. Enfleurage produces far more floral oil than other processes.
Ultrasound extractions can now be finished in minutes with high reliability, reducing solvent consumption, clarifying control and work-up, improving final product purity, removing wastewater after treatment, and consuming only a fragment of the fossil energy required for a traditional extraction method [35]. USAE (ultrasound-assisted extraction) has been used to extract polyphenols from vegetable tissues, protein, sugar, and starch from cereals and legumes, oil, and flavor components. Extraction efficiency and rate are improved by sonication. It lowers the required temperature, saves solvents, and promotes the solubilization of the desired chemicals. Solubility is enhanced by a significant increase in the very temperature [36].
To extract phytochemicals from plants, both the cell wall and the cell membrane must be broken. Because of this, ultrasounds are used in ultrasound-assisted extraction for cell disintegration. Ultrasounds are sound waves that are above the human hearing range, with frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to a few gigahertz. Plant materials and liquids absorb the energy emitted by ultrasonic waves and convert it to heat. The frequency, intensity, and duration of ultrasonic therapy affect the amount of heat created in plant materials [37]. This heat energy debases proteins, destroys plant cells, and causes therapeutic substances to be released from plant cells. In most cases, the highest extraction rate is attained in the initial few minutes, which is also the most profitable time [38].
The extraction of thermally labile chemicals is possible because of carbon dioxide’s low critical temperature (304.1 K). It can replicate a variety of organic solvents by adjusting the density of SCF carbon dioxide. Because of its variable solvating strength, this feature allows for selective extraction, purification, and fractionation techniques. SCF carbon dioxide media provide the prime possibility for fractionation of reaction products and solvent separation, which can be performed by simply depressurizing the media. This is because SCF quickly penetrates and leaves solid matrices, compared to the use of organic solvents with a higher viscosity [39]. It has a broad variety of applications, including the extraction of common spices such as black pepper, celery seed, cumin, cinnamon, clove bud, and nutmeg. Extraction of Natural Colors: Paprika Pigments, etc. Dry Ginger, Saw Palmetto, Rosemary, and other botanicals are used to extract active ingredients. Forskolin, Turmerones—from Turmeric,
Nontraditional ways are more prominent when it comes to improving the quality and quantity of desired items. By directly linking microwave energy with the bulk reaction mixture, microwave irradiation creates efficient internal heating. The magnitude of energy transfer is determined by the molecules’ dielectric characteristics. Radiation absorption and heating can be quite selective in this approach (Hoz et al.). The reduction in operating time and solvent use are two major benefits of microwave treatments. However, during microwave processing, acceleration in chemical reactions of target substances such as epimerization, oxidation, and polarization should be considered with dielectric heating.
Microwave-assisted extraction without solvents is a long-term technology for extracting and separating chemicals from natural plant resources. Microwave heating is directed at the moisture content of new material. Under microwave irradiation, plant cell water and charged molecules are stimulated; this internal alteration causes a significant amount of pressure to be imposed on plant cell walls, resulting in cell swelling. Due to the rupturing of plant cells, this swelling causes an increase in the mass transfer of solutes. As a result, phytochemical leaching from the plant cellular matrix into the extractant is facilitated during MAE [40]. The best extraction conditions were a microwave power of 150 W for 90 min. Concerning the efficiency and yield of essential oils, solvent-free microwave extraction was superior. As a result, increased rates of adsorption, diffusion, and separation of phytochemicals from the plant matrix into the extracting solvent are more likely [41].
An MAE can be performed using two different types of equipment. The apparatus runs at atmospheric pressure in the open mode, which is often coupled with a refluxing mechanism. Domestic microwaves are frequently modified to accommodate this model. The closed mode, on the other hand, allows for high-pressure operation. Pumping inert gas into the extraction chamber increases the pressure. During the heating of the extraction mixture, however, vapor pressure may generate a degree of pressure. Since these molecules were stable at microwave heating settings of up to 100°C for 20 min, this approach was confined to small-molecule phenolic compounds like phenolic acids (gallic acid and ellagic acid), quercetin, isoflavones, and trans-resveratrol. Due to compound oxidation, more MAE cycles (e.g., from 2 10 s to 3 10 s) resulted in a considerable reduction in phenolic and flavanone yields. Because tannins and anthocyanins are prone to temperature degradation, they may not be suitable for MAE [32].
Microwave-assisted hydro distillation (MAHD) is like standard hydro distillation, with the exception that the solvent is heated using microwaves. The solvent (typically water) and plant parts are placed inside a microwave oven (normally running at 2.45 GHz), and different output powers and reaction periods can be used to improve the extraction process. Again, using microwaves for the heating process speeds up the extraction of chemicals, requiring shorter timeframes to generate comparable amounts of extracts. Furthermore, the chemical makeup of extracts obtained by standard hydro distillation and MAHD is not comparable.
In batch mode, the electric field strength (EFS) ranges from 100 to 300 V/cm, while in continuous mode, the EFS ranges from 20 to 80 kV/cm. An external electrical force is used in electro-permeabilization or electroporation to increase the permeability of cell membranes. The cell membrane is perforated by the formation of hydrophilic holes, which result in the opening of protein channels. When high-voltage electrical pulses are applied across the electrodes, the sample experiences a force per unit charge termed the electric field. The plant material is removed once the membrane loses its structural functioning [41]. Anthocyanin, carotenoids, lycopene, lutein, polyphenols, alkaloids, lactase, protein, polysaccharides, fat, oil, and other bioactive compounds are extracted using PEF. PEF-assisted extraction provides more bioactive component extracts, uses less energy, and takes less time to process, according to the study, resulting in the optimal process parameters [42].
The extracts, which contain numerous phytoconstituents, must be separated and purified further to obtain the fraction or pure phytoconstituents. The techniques utilized for isolation and purification from the extract are determined by the physical and chemical properties of the component to be separated. The physical approaches employed for this goal are as follows.
The point of supersaturation in the solvent in which phytopharmaceuticals are soluble causes them to crystallize. The processes involved in the crystallization of phytoconstituents are slow concentration, slow evaporation, and chilling. Crystallization is an ideal purification procedure. It is operationally easy, very inexpensive, and may be done in quantities ranging from a few micrograms to hundreds of kilograms. The results are normally highly pure (unlike the mixes that can sometimes be obtained with distillation). Using chromatography to purify that much material is a nightmare. Another key point to remember about crystallization is that X-ray crystallography can be used to discover the structure of unknown molecules. With very few exceptions, X-ray crystallography is the gold standard for structure determination: if you can get a substance to crystallize, you can determine its structure. The only issue is that not all compounds crystallize, and finding circumstances that can preferentially recrystallize one chemical can take a long time [43].
This is a process of purifying phytoconstituents from a mixture. It’s commonly used to separate hydrocarbons like crude oil, citral, and eucalyptol. Purification is accomplished by comparing the boiling points of the different substances. When heat is applied, the fractional distillation equipment is built in such a way that each chemical evaporates and separates at its boiling point. As a result, each fractionated chemical will condense and be collected separately via numerous syphons coupled to fractional distillation apparatus [44].
The fractional distillation method is based on differences in compound volatility and is affected by physicochemical properties of the components, as well as the pressure and temperature of the distillation process. The mass and energy transition between the fluid and vapor stages of the mixture has an impact on separation efficiency. Most terpenes are thermally unstable, dissolving, or oxidizing when exposed to high temperatures, light, or oxygen. As a result, the distillation technique is typically used at vacuum pressures to lower the vaporization temperature of the volatile mixture. Due to the boiling temperature reduction, the vacuum also slows processes such as thermal deterioration in temperature-sensitive chemicals. In the chemical industry, vacuum fractional distillation is used to separate compounds with extremely high boiling points that would need a lot of energy to separate under atmospheric pressure [45].
Fractional liberation separates some components from a mixture. The weakest base in the free salt is liberated first when an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is treated with aliquots of alkali, followed by base liberation in ascending order of basicity. After each addition, shake the mixture with an organic solvent to get a fractionated sequence of bases. Organic acids that are soluble in water-immiscible solvents take a similar route. It is feasible to fractionally liberate acids in this case by adding mineral acids to a mixture of acid salts.
Chromatography on a column separates and purifies phytochemicals on a laboratory and industrial scale without the use of complicated technology. The “eluent” is the liquid employed as the mobile phase, and the stationary phase is usually a solid or a liquid. The sample solution is supplied to a porous stationary phase, and the mobile phase is delivered at a greater pressure via the column, causing separation depending on the solute’s affinity for the stationary phase. The development of HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography) was aided by the need for a higher degree of separation and faster analysis, which was met by refining the stationary phase packing material to a size of 3–10 m and eluent delivery via a high-pressure pump. Despite its extensive and time-consuming nature, commercial use of column chromatography is comparable to that of other techniques. The advantages of column chromatography include efficient sample handling regardless of the number or nature of the samples, the availability of a wide range of adsorbents, the selection and recyclization of a large solvent system, improved purity of the product, and minimal space requirements. Column chromatography has a few disadvantages, including the use of a large amount of mobile phase, compared to other techniques it is a complicated technique, time consumption, the requirement for an expert, and a greater cost of identifying the separated product.
The fundamental disadvantage of column chromatography is that it is a time-consuming technique; however, vacuum liquid chromatography can solve this problem. In vacuum chromatography, rather than using pressure, vacuum is employed to improve the flow rate and hence speed up the fractionation process. The stationary phase is usually 40–60 mesh particle size silica or reversed-phase silica, and the crude extracts are separated by gradient elution. TLC is a typical method for examining eluted fractions [43].
In the pharmaceutical sector, simulated moving bed (SMB) technology is an economical and eco-friendly process for purifying crude extracts and fractions [46]. It has a higher purity and yield than other techniques. A traditional Simulated Moving Bed system has 4–24 columns divided into four zones. In general, a four-column SMB should be sufficient for testing and optimizing purification conditions. Purification of sugars, proteins, monoclonal antibodies, separation of organic solvents, optical isomers, charged molecules, and desalting are all common applications. For the separation of crude medicines, the SMB technique utilizes extremely less solvent. The SMB technique is simple to adapt to a continuous process and can be integrated with other equipment such as evaporation. SMB, on the other hand, necessitates meticulous process control and is less adaptable than traditional elution chromatography.
CE provides several advantages, including a smaller sample, high efficiency leads to shorter analysis time, cheap, environmental friendliness, reduced solvent usage, and a powerful tool appropriate for drug discovery [47]. CE is a new method for analyzing different phytochemical groups. Variations in mass to charge ratios are used to separate phytochemicals in capillary electrophoresis. Because borate can form compounds with the flavonoid nucleus’ ortho dihydroxyl groups and the sugar’s vicinal cis-dihydroxyl groups, borate buffers with a pH of 8–11 and a concentration of 25–200 mM are generally used [48].
Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) is the most basic characteristic, and it’s been utilized to isolate a variety of target molecules, especially polyphenolic compounds like epicatechin, catechin, quercetin, gentistic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, trans-resveratrol, myricetin, and rutin from wine and grape samples. A CZE technique was also used to isolate antioxidants in Ginkgo leaf extracts. For the separation of anthocyanins in wine, a new CZE approach was developed recently [49]. Food analysis, environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics, and pharmaceutical analysis have mostly used capillary electrophoresis. Since it allows the use of chirality selectors with limited aqueous solubility, nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis can be utilized to separate enantiomeric drugs. Furthermore, the low dielectric constant of organic solvents can let chiral counter-ions that have less selectivity in aqueous environments form ion pairs and therefore increase their selectivity. CE-MS is one of many multidimensional techniques used in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, particularly for drug development. Because high resolution and structural and/or molecular weight information of an analyte may be collected along with using a mass spectrometer as a detector for CE splitting, could be useful. CE has various advantages (for example, high speed, efficiency, and low price); yet, combining CE with MS produces several problems. CE solvents, for example, are not accepted by MS.
Molecular imprinting knowledge has been a prominent isolation method in the last years because of its distinctive qualities, such as high selectiveness, economical, and ease of preparation. Many correlative cavities with the memory of the template molecules’ size, shape, and functional groups are produced when the template molecules are removed from the molecular imprinted polymer (MIP). As a result, the template molecule and its analogues will be able to recognize the MIP and adsorb it selectively. MIPs have been extensively used in the isolation of phytoconstituents and as sorbents for solid-phase extraction of herbal materials to enrich phytoconstituent components. MIP was made with methyl methacrylate as the monomer, solanesol as the template molecule, and ethylene glycol as the crosslinker by a suspension polymerization method. This technique is used for the purification of enriching in water extract of
Plant materials go through several processes to acquire the necessary secondary metabolites and/or extract, including drying, extraction, separation, and purification. To produce better eco-friendly processes, the current investigation of the use of green solvents in the field of extraction needs more awareness for a greater perception of different factors such as innate solvent properties (polarity, viscosity, solubility, and pH), external factors (temperature, time, and solid-liquid ratio), and cytotoxicity. However, more study is needed on green or smart solvents that have high specificity for phytochemical compounds, as well as improved stability, recovery, and reduced operational costs. Until now, the framework has only been used to evaluate organic solvents. To expand the currently established techniques to new solvents, more study is required. This entails looking into novel waste-solvent treatment technologies as well as alternative solvent production techniques. Will the eventual transfer of DES/NADES-based extraction technologies to industrial sectors need further investments? Would their use result in a shorter lifespan for the extractors and the analytical tools required for their identification and quantification in the long run? All the questions are still open, and there are a lot of options for answers in the future.
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He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. 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