IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7594",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",title:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Genetic and cellular technologies in life science have recently achieved remarkable progress, and thus the roles of biochemical engineers have also been changed to incorporate the use of new technology. Therefore, this book deals with current topics in biochemical engineering. The chapters of this book discuss research that has introduced artificial enzymes, kinetic models in bioprocessing, a small-scale production process, and production of energy with microbial fuel. These chapters offer novel ideas for the production of effective compounds and energy. Moreover, other research has introduced the production technology of stem cells and biomedical processes using nanoshells and extracellular vesicles. These chapters will provide novel ideas to produce effective compounds and develop therapies for various diseases.",isbn:"978-1-83881-210-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-209-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-211-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77355",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-topics-in-biochemical-engineering",numberOfPages:138,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"391609f1f0cb3bba32befeb3aa40ccf3",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",publishedDate:"August 7th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7594.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10687,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:57,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/163777/images/system/163777.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Naofumi Shiomi studied recombinant yeast and its utilization as a researcher at the Laboratory of Production Technology of Kanena Corporation for 15 years until 1998 and earned his Ph.D. in Engineering from Kyoto University, Japan. He now works as a professor at the School of Human Sciences of Kobe College in Japan, where he teaches applied microbiology, biotechnology, and life science in his Applied Life Science laboratory. He has studied bioremediation for 24 years at Kobe College and has published more than 40 papers and several book chapters on recombinant microorganisms, bioremediation, and functional foods. His recent research has also focused on the prevention of obesity and aging.",institutionString:"Kobe College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1346",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"technology-biomedical-engineering-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"66488",title:"Introductory Chapter: Artificial Enzyme Produced by Directed Evolution Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85738",slug:"introductory-chapter-artificial-enzyme-produced-by-directed-evolution-technology",totalDownloads:1103,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Naofumi Shiomi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66488",authors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64476",title:"Fermentation: Metabolism, Kinetic Models, and Bioprocessing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82195",slug:"fermentation-metabolism-kinetic-models-and-bioprocessing",totalDownloads:2526,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biochemical and metabolic interpretation of microbial growth is an important topic in bioreactor design. We intend to address valuable information about the relation of critical operation variables and the simulation of bioprocesses with unstructured and structured kinetic models. Process parameters such as nutrient supply, pH, dissolved oxygen, and metabolic end-products directly impact the physiology and metabolism of microorganisms. Changes in the membrane as well as cell viability are of interest since protein expression and maturation in prokaryota are directly related to membrane integrity. This chapter intends to deliver an insight of different alternatives in kinetic modeling.",signatures:"Carlos González-Figueredo, René Alejandro Flores-Estrella and Oscar A. Rojas-Rejón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64476",authors:[{id:"262807",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar A.",surname:"Rojas-Rejon",slug:"oscar-a.-rojas-rejon",fullName:"Oscar A. Rojas-Rejon"},{id:"262810",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"González-Figueredo",slug:"carlos-gonzalez-figueredo",fullName:"Carlos González-Figueredo"},{id:"263482",title:"Dr.",name:"Rene Alejandro",surname:"Flores Estrella",slug:"rene-alejandro-flores-estrella",fullName:"Rene Alejandro Flores Estrella"}],corrections:null},{id:"64503",title:"Small-Scale Process for the Production of Kefiran through Culture Optimization by Use of Central Composite Design from Whey and Kefir Granules",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82257",slug:"small-scale-process-for-the-production-of-kefiran-through-culture-optimization-by-use-of-central-com",totalDownloads:1024,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cheese is one of the most demanded dairy products worldwide. However, during the conversion of milk to cheese, about 10 liters of milk are employed and about 9 liters of whey are generated for each 1 kg of cheese produced. The whey has traditionally been used for animal feed and as starting material for obtaining whey proteins. Furthermore, whey has the significant values of BOD and COD, becoming the most important contaminant in the dairy industry. For this reason, further growth of cheese sector is being limited by the surplus of whey as a by-product of the production of the cheeses. One of the many possibilities offered by the whey is its use as a starting material to produce many biotech products with a higher added value. The kefiran is a degradable biopolymer and is formed by galactose and glucose units, in almost similar proportions, which have been found with numerous benefits for human health. It is produced by a consortium of acid-lactic bacteria and yeasts, which coexist within the kefir granules, which are able to grow and multiply using the lactose present in the whey. The objective of the present study is to establish a small-scale process that allows the obtaining of kefiran.",signatures:"José Manuel Pais-Chanfrau, Lorena D. Carrera Acosta, Paola M. Alvarado Cóndor, Jimmy Núñez Pérez and Milton J. Cuaran Guerrero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64503",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64503",authors:[{id:"262859",title:"Ph.D.",name:"José Manuel",surname:"Pais-Chanfrau",slug:"jose-manuel-pais-chanfrau",fullName:"José Manuel Pais-Chanfrau"},{id:"273370",title:"BSc.",name:"Lorena Dominique",surname:"Carrera Acosta",slug:"lorena-dominique-carrera-acosta",fullName:"Lorena Dominique Carrera Acosta"},{id:"273372",title:"BSc.",name:"Paola Margarita",surname:"Alvarado Cóndor",slug:"paola-margarita-alvarado-condor",fullName:"Paola Margarita Alvarado Cóndor"},{id:"273373",title:"MSc.",name:"Jimmy",surname:"Núñez Pérez",slug:"jimmy-nunez-perez",fullName:"Jimmy Núñez Pérez"},{id:"273374",title:"MSc.",name:"Milton Jimmy",surname:"Cuaran Guerrero",slug:"milton-jimmy-cuaran-guerrero",fullName:"Milton Jimmy Cuaran Guerrero"}],corrections:null},{id:"64014",title:"Catalyst Development of Microbial Fuel Cells for Renewable-Energy Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81442",slug:"catalyst-development-of-microbial-fuel-cells-for-renewable-energy-production",totalDownloads:1988,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we focus on microbial fuel cells (MFCs) that convert the energy from organic matters into electrical energy using microorganisms. MFCs are greatly expected to be used as a relatively low-cost and safe device for generating renewable energy using waste biomass as a raw material. At present, however, it has not reached the desired practical application because of the low-power generation; hence, improvements on fuel cell efficiency, such as electrode materials, are still being examined. Here, we focus on the microorganisms that can be used as catalysts and play a central role in improving the efficiency of the fuel cells. Several kinds of microbial catalysts are used in MFCs. For example, Shewanella oneidensis has been well studied, and as known, since S. oneidensis transports the electrons generated within the cell to the surface layer, it does not require a mediator to pass the electrons from the cells to the electrode. Furthermore, Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a model organism for MFCs, are also used. The improvements of such microbial catalysts have also been proceeding actively. Here, we elaborated on the principle of MFCs as well as the current situation and latest research on the catalyst development.",signatures:"Masayuki Azuma and Yoshihiro Ojima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64014",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64014",authors:[{id:"265735",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Azuma",slug:"masayuki-azuma",fullName:"Masayuki Azuma"},{id:"265738",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiro",surname:"Ojima",slug:"yoshihiro-ojima",fullName:"Yoshihiro Ojima"}],corrections:null},{id:"65234",title:"Integrated Biologics Manufacturing in Stirred-Suspension Bioreactor: A Stem Cell Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83813",slug:"integrated-biologics-manufacturing-in-stirred-suspension-bioreactor-a-stem-cell-perspective",totalDownloads:1307,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stem cell therapy is garnering attention as several clinical trials have taken place in the recent years by using human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Hundreds of biotechnological companies are investing to find a permanent cure for difficult-to-treat diseases like age-related macular degeneration, Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, etc. by using hPSCs. Therefore, clinical-grade cell manufacturing has become an important issue to make cell therapy products safe and effective. Current manufacturing practices are adopted from conventional antibody or protein production in the pharmaceutical industry where cells are used as a vector for producing the desired products. In cell therapy applications, cells are the products that are sensitive to physicochemical parameters and storage conditions anywhere between isolation to patient administration. Moreover, cell-based product manufacturing consists of multi-step processing, including isolation from patients, genetic modification, derivation, expansion, differentiation, purification, characterization, cryopreservation, etc. This can require long processing times and pose high risk of product contamination as well as high production cost. Herein, we discuss the current methods of biologics manufacturing and its limitations. We also review current practices for integrating and automating cell manufacturing facilities. Finally, we propose how to integrate multi-step cell processing in a single bioreactor to make the cell manufacturing practices more direct.",signatures:"Suman C. Nath and Derrick E. Rancourt",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65234",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65234",authors:[{id:"62721",title:"Dr.",name:"Derrick E.",surname:"Rancourt",slug:"derrick-e.-rancourt",fullName:"Derrick E. Rancourt"},{id:"272287",title:"Dr.",name:"Suman",surname:"Nath",slug:"suman-nath",fullName:"Suman Nath"}],corrections:null},{id:"64780",title:"A Simple Way to Produce Gold Nanoshells for Cancer Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82495",slug:"a-simple-way-to-produce-gold-nanoshells-for-cancer-therapy",totalDownloads:1072,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gold nanoshells (GNSs), formed by a silica core surrounded by a gold shell, present a shift on their surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to the near-infrared (NIR) part of the electromagnetic spectrum when synthesized with specific dimensions. This chapter presents a simple method to prepare the nanoshells, a step-by-step characterization, as well as their absorbance spectrum. For the synthesis, silica spheres, with approximately 190 ± 5 nm in diameter, were prepared using the Stöber method and then functionalized with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES). The gold nanoparticles (GNPs), with a diameter of 7 ± 3 nm, were produced by the reduction of chloroauric acid. Then, the silica was seeded with the GNPs to later grow a gold shell with the help of Au(OH)4¯ ions and formaldehyde. UV-Vis spectroscopy results showed an increase of absorbance starting at 520 nm. It reached its maximum around 600 nm and kept absorbing all through 1200 nm. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images suggest that the absorption peak movement coincided with the completion of the shell. Furthermore, when the sample was irradiated with an 820 nm wavelength/3.1 mW laser, its temperatures increased by 6.3°C in 2 min, showing its absorbance in the NIR.",signatures:"Rosa Isela Ruvalcaba Ontiveros, José Alberto Duarte Moller, Anel Rocío Carrasco Hernandez, Hilda Esperanza Esparza-Ponce, Erasmo Orrantia Borunda, Cynthia Deisy Gómez Esparza and Juan Manuel Olivares Ramírez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64780",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64780",authors:[{id:"34191",title:"Prof.",name:"Erasmo",surname:"Orrantia-Borunda",slug:"erasmo-orrantia-borunda",fullName:"Erasmo Orrantia-Borunda"},{id:"101380",title:"Dr.",name:"José Alberto",surname:"Duarte-Moller",slug:"jose-alberto-duarte-moller",fullName:"José Alberto Duarte-Moller"},{id:"283383",title:"MSc.",name:"Rosa Isela",surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"rosa-isela-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Rosa Isela Ruvalcaba"},{id:"283384",title:"MSc.",name:"Anel Rocio",surname:"Carrasco",slug:"anel-rocio-carrasco",fullName:"Anel Rocio Carrasco"},{id:"283385",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilda Esperanza",surname:"Esparza Ponce",slug:"hilda-esperanza-esparza-ponce",fullName:"Hilda Esperanza Esparza Ponce"}],corrections:null},{id:"65340",title:"Engineering of Surface Proteins in Extracellular Vesicles for Tissue-Specific Targeting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83537",slug:"engineering-of-surface-proteins-in-extracellular-vesicles-for-tissue-specific-targeting",totalDownloads:1670,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have in the recent decades gained an important stand as vehicles enabling cell-to-cell transport and communication. With the advanced development towards their clinical use and increasing versatility of potential applications, improving their tissue-specific targeting in order to enhance their functionality in drug delivery opened as a challenging engineering field. In the past, the question of specific intercellular contact has been addressed by decoration of the EV surface with agents able of specific target recognition. An attractive possibility here is the modification of strongly overexpressed EV surface marker proteins towards recognition of target cells. As these proteins are involved in a plethora of biological functions in EV biogenesis, cargo targeting and intercellular transfer, a minimal impact on protein architecture upon modifications is desirable, which would also increase the stability of the exosomal preparation intended for therapeutic use. This chapter focuses on the possibilities of engineering of the EV marker proteins towards antigen-recognition units broadly applicable to endow EVs with tissue-targeting functionality.",signatures:"Stefan Vogt, Gerhard Stadlmayr, Johannes Grillari, Florian Rüker and Gordana Wozniak-Knopp",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65340",authors:[{id:"273010",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Wozniak-Knopp",slug:"gordana-wozniak-knopp",fullName:"Gordana Wozniak-Knopp"},{id:"273012",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Vogt",slug:"stefan-vogt",fullName:"Stefan Vogt"},{id:"273013",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerhard",surname:"Stadlmayr",slug:"gerhard-stadlmayr",fullName:"Gerhard Stadlmayr"},{id:"273014",title:"Prof.",name:"Florian",surname:"Rüker",slug:"florian-ruker",fullName:"Florian Rüker"},{id:"273015",title:"Prof.",name:"Johannes",surname:"Grillari",slug:"johannes-grillari",fullName:"Johannes Grillari"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5701",title:"Superfood and Functional Food",subtitle:"The Development of Superfoods and Their Roles as Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0c3c4e9924a0f6c2fe2df43d5dfc50fb",slug:"superfood-and-functional-food-the-development-of-superfoods-and-their-roles-as-medicine",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi and Viduranga Waisundara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4602",title:"Advances in Bioremediation of Wastewater and Polluted Soil",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b879725924ff3e5b59fb2f8cc12c562",slug:"advances-in-bioremediation-of-wastewater-and-polluted-soil",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4602.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6062",title:"Advances in Bioremediation and Phytoremediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7b537906414bbdbbe7a318c5702ef67e",slug:"advances-in-bioremediation-and-phytoremediation",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6538",title:"Current Topics on Superfoods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42525eaf5a539bc1e2318f4eb8dfea5a",slug:"current-topics-on-superfoods",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6538.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5258",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fd825c8a444ab91728c15f350df7b5ea",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-the-aging-process-and-rejuvenation",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5258.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5951",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4ff8af6190bb48a5857450c9c2612d7",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",bookSignature:"Leszek A. 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\r\n\tIn mathematics, operator theory is the study of linear operators on function spaces, beginning with differential operators and integral operators. The operators may be presented abstractly by their characteristics, such as bounded linear operators or closed operators and consideration may be given to nonlinear operators. The study, which depends heavily on the topology of function spaces, is a branch of functional analysis. If a collection of operators forms an algebra over a field, then it is an operator algebra. The description of operator algebras is part of operator theory. Single operator theory deals with the properties and classification of operators, considered one at a time. For example, the classification of normal operators in terms of their spectra falls into this category.
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\r\n\tThe theory of operator algebras brings algebras of operators such as C*-algebras to the fore. Many operators that are studied are operators on Hilbert spaces of holomorphic functions, and the study of the operator is intimately linked to questions in function theory. For example, Beurling's theorem describes the invariant subspaces of the unilateral shift in terms of inner functions, which are bounded holomorphic functions on the unit disk with unimodular boundary values almost everywhere on the circle. Beurling interpreted the unilateral shift as multiplication by the independent variable on the Hardy space. The success in studying multiplication operators, and more generally Toeplitz operators (which are multiplication, followed by projection onto the Hardy space) has inspired the study of similar questions in other spaces, such as the Bergman space. Hence, operator theory has a connection with complex analysis. Additionally, this book will be intended to be an illustration of the use of operator theory when applied to solve specific problems in pure and applied mathematics, engineering, physics, or science in general. \r\n\t
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1. Introduction
Crustaceans are cladocerans if they have 4–6 pairs of (thoracic) legs, lack any paired eyes, swim with their second pair of antennae, and have at least the head not covered by a carapace [1]. Crustaceans are some of the most important marine life to humans—crabs, lobsters, and shrimp are widely fished and consumed around the world.
There are more than 52,000 species of crustaceans in the world, which include popular marine animals like lobsters, crabs, shrimp, crayfish, and barnacles. Smaller crustaceans breathe through their bodies and larger ones breathe through gills. Most crustaceans are dioecious, meaning individuals are male or female. Reproduction varies among species. Most of them are the most important marine animals. Humans rely heavily on crustaceans for food; and crustaceans are also an important prey source for marine life in the ocean food chain for a variety of animals, including whales, fish, and pinnipeds; more diverse than any group of arthropods, crustaceans are second or third in abundance of all categories of animal life after insects and vertebrates. They live in inland and ocean waters from the Arctic to the Antarctic as well as from elevations in the Himalayas up to 16,000 feet to well below the sea level. All crustaceans have a hard exoskeleton which protects the animal from predators and prevents water loss. However, exoskeletons do not grow as the animal inside them grows, so crustaceans are forced to molt as they grow larger. The molting process takes between a few minutes to several hours. During molting, a soft exoskeleton forms underneath the old one and the old exoskeleton is shed. Since the new exoskeleton is soft, this is a vulnerable time for the crustacean until the new exoskeleton hardens. After molting, crustaceans typically expand their bodies almost immediately, increasing by 40–80%. Most crustaceans reproduce sexually with a separate male and female.
Cosmopolitan in distribution is found in aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial forms.
Body has jointed appendages or legs.
Body is triploblastic.
Bilaterally symmetrical.
Organ system level of organization.
Body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen.
Segmented.
Jointed appendages.
Hard external skeleton.
Three parts (head, thorax, and abdomen).
Exoskeleton composed of chitineous materials.
Growth type is by molting which sheds old skeleton and secretes a large one.
They are either oviparous or ovoviviparous.
3. Classification of phylum Arthropoda
Phylum Arthropoda have different views concerning their phylogeny. So there is no absolute system of classification for this phylum. The below given classification is the most accepted one. Arthropoda classified into subphylums and classes three subphyla namely Trilobita, Chelicerata, and Mandibulata are definitively arthropods, classes Trilobita, Xiphosura, Arachinida, Crustacea, Cheliopoda, Diplopoda, and Hexapoda [3] (Table 1).
Phylum
Arthropoda
Subphylum
Trilobata Ex. Trithurus
Chelicerata
Mandibulata
Class
Xiphosura Ex. Limulus
Crustacea Ex. Palaemon
Arachinida Ex. Palamnaeous
Cheliopoda Ex. Scolopendra
—
Diplopoda Ex. Spirobolus
—
Hexapoda Ex. Musca
Table 1.
Classification of phylum Arthropoda.
4. Classification of the crustaceans
Crustaceans have been known to humans since ancient times and have provided us with sources of both food and legend. The classification of crustaceans has been quite variable; the system used by [4] presented an overview of crustacean classification, and readers are referred to that publication for a window into the labyrinthine history of this subphylum. This classification was recognized in [5, 6] (Table 2).
5. General characters of class Crustacea (Crusta = shell)
Class Crustacea head, or cephalon (plus the acron), thorax and abjedium (Figure 2).
They are found in marine, fresh water and terrestrial habitats.
Possess jaw, like appendages called mandibles.
Crustaceans have two pairs of antennae and two pair of maxillae.
Some of appendages are biramous.
6. Origin and application and crustacean
Crustaceans have important economic, ecological, and esthetic values and also can be appreciated from the perspective of bi-level functionality. Some larger crustaceans, including shrimp, lobsters, and crabs, are a major food commodity, while smaller crustaceans in their own way are integral to many food webs, sometimes considered a class or superclass rather than a subphylum. The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology. Other names for carcinology are malacostracology, crustaceology, and crustalogy, and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist, crustaceologist, or crustalogist. The origin crustacean differs according to the order, suborder, or other taxons of the crustacean [7]. The earliest crustaceans are known from Cambrian sediments including the well-known Burgess Shale fauna. These primitive crustaceans are essentially worm-like in shape, but they do have many of the key features of crustaceans visible even on modern types such as shrimps [8]. So, the origin is based on the age of the genera and species. The small planktonic and free-swilling crustaceans were common in the Paleozoic era. It is relatively rare to find their skeletons entirely except in those places, like the Burgess Shale, where some catastrophic events smothered them quickly enough trevent their decay [9]. The crustaceans colonized mud firm grounds, which were formed by erosion during a rapid sea-level fall; thus, the burrows occur in direct association with erosional regressive surfaces and therefore are good stratigraphic indicators of abrupt paleoenvironmental change.
7. Ecology
The ecology of the crustacean differs from one type to another. They live in aquatic and terrestrial environments, and all are marine but a few groups have adapted to life on land, such as terrestrial crabs and terrestrial hermit crabs. They are also found as burrowed in the sand of beaches will near access of water. Some freshwater crustaceans are crawfish and fairy shrimp. Crawfish live in lakes and rivers hidden under rocks and sand. Fairy shrimp are found in vernal ponds which are temporary puddles made by rain water. Various species have occupied almost every conceivable niche within the aquatic environment. An enormous abundance of free-swimming (planktonic) species occupies the open waters of lakes and oceans. Other species live at the bottom of the sea, where they may crawl over the sediment or burrow into it. Different species are found in rocky, sandy, and muddy areas. Some species are so small that they live in the spaces between sand grains. Others tunnel in the fronds of seaweeds or into man-made wooden structures. Some members of the orders Isopoda and Amphipoda extend down to the greatest depths in the sea and have been found in oceanic trenches at depths of up to 10,000 m. Crustaceans colonize lakes and rivers throughout the world, even high mountain lakes at altitudes of 5000 m. They range widely in latitude as well: in the high Arctic, some crustaceans use the short summer to develop quickly through a generation, leaving dormant stages to overwinter [10].
8. Life cycle
The life cycle for different crustaceans may be different or they are similarities between one crustacean and the next when it comes to their lifecycles. The Crustacean class is the largest group of arthropods of a marine nature, and there are approximately 30,000 different species in this group alone. The life cycle for different crustaceans is going to have unique qualities, but there are also similarities between one crustacean and the next when it comes to their life cycles.
Nauplius stage—this stage of crustacean life cycle is perceived as being a defining link among all crustaceans. This is the first larval stage of crustaceans and consists only of crustacean head and telson as neither the abdomen nor the thorax has developed [11].
Zoea larval stage—the crustacean life cycle involves a larval stage that is known as a zoea. When the zoea name was given to the crustacean, naturalists believed that it was an entirely separate species.
Mysis or megalopa stage—the stage of growth following the zoea stage of growth is either the Mysis or megalopa stage development on what crustacean group is involved.
The crustacean is going will being to look more like to its adult form. This is also the stage of growth where the crustacean will depend more on foraging and grazing to feed.
Adult growth stage—the adult growth stage is reached by 1 year of age for the most crustacean. After a year has passed, most crustacean varieties will be capable of mating and reproducing [12].
8.1 Mating system
Crustacean produced by sexually: a small number is hermaphrodites, including Barnacles, Remipedes, and Cephalocarida. Some may even change sex during the course of their life. Parthenogenesis is also widespread among crustaceans, where viable eggs are produced by a female without needing fertilization by a male. This occurs in many branchiopods, some ostracods, some isopods, and certain “higher” crustaceans, such as the Marmorkrebs crayfish [13].
8.2 Eggs
The fertilized eggs are simply released into the water column, while others have developed a number of mechanisms for holding on to the eggs until they are ready to hatch. Most decapods carry the eggs attached to the pleopods, while peracarids, notostracans, anostracans, and many isopods form a brood pouch from the carapace and thoracic limbs. Female Branchiura do not carry eggs in external ovisacs but attach them in rows to rocks and other objects. Most leptostracans and krill carry the eggs between their thoracic limbs; some copepods carry their eggs in special thin-walled sacs, while others have them attached together in long, tangled strings [14] (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1.
Eggs of Potamon fluviatile, a freshwater crab.
Figure 2.
Zoea larva of the European lobster, Homarus gammarus.
8.3 Larvae
The visual systems of crustacean larvae concentrate on the compound eyes of decapod and stomatopod larvae as well as the functional and behavioral aspects of their vision. Larval compound eyes of these macrurans are all built on fundamentally the same optical plan, the transparent apposition eye, which is eminently suitable for modification into the abundantly diverse optical systems of the adults. Many of these eyes contain a layer of reflective structures overlying the retina that produces a counter illuminating eye shine, so they are unique in being camouflaged both by their transparency and by their reflection of light spectrally similar to background light to conceal the opaque retina. Besides the pair of compound eyes, at least some crustacean larvae have a non-imaging photoreceptor system based on a naupliar eye and possibly other frontal eyes. Larval compound eye photoreceptors send axons to a large and well-developed optic lobe consisting of a series of neuropils that are similar to those of adult crustaceans and insects, implying sophisticated analysis of visual stimuli. The visual system fosters a number of advanced and flexible behaviors that permit crustacean larvae to survive extended periods in the plankton and allow them to reach acceptable adult habitats, within which to metamorphose [15].
9. Crustacean burrow
Crustaceans are mainly males, excavate burrows largely in carbonate substrates, and are therefore referred to as the burrowing barnacles. While their greatest diversity is found in shallow tropical seas, the most generalized or primitive members are found for the most part in deep water (between 1000 and 3000 m). Trace fossils, ranging back to the Devonian if not the Ordovician [16], reveal that species once occupied relatively high latitudes in Northern Europe and Gondwanaland, and at least one extant species is known from Antarctic waters today. Interpretation of the crustacean burrows from Mallorca makes them very comparable to some modern and fossil thalassinidean burrow systems [17, 18], and it is a direct consequence of the versatile behavior of fossorial shrimps. The helical burrows described herein were very likely part of complex burrow systems produced by thalassinideans. From an ichnotaxonomic point of view, these would be compound structures composed of pellet-lined (Ophiomorpha) and unlined (Thalassinoides) branching tunnels, sometimes with spreiten due to vertical shifting (Teichichnus), or double (Lapispira) helical elements. Such double helix elements (Lapispira) were previously known only from the Jurassic as isolated burrows, also assigned to crustaceans [13]. Despite the lesser geometric regularity of the Mallorcan burrows, the presence of a knobby lining and the fact that these may be connected to branching systems. The new occurrence of this unusual ichnogenus may record a case of behavioral convergence expressed in burrow architecture [19] (Figures 3–6). While most crustaceans are marine, a large number of crayfish live in freshwater, including crayfish (Figure 7). Etyus martini is one of the more common crabs in the Gault Clay (Figure 8). Spiny lobsters are among the larger crustaceans. Big specimens can weigh several kilograms and make very good eating (Figure 9).
Figure 3.
Helical burrows. (a) and (b) Different parallel-to-bedding sections showing their architectural variability.
Figure 4.
Chthamalus stellatus (Sessilia).
Figure 5.
Cylindroleberididae.
Figure 6.
Fossil remains of a barnacle (Cirripedia—left) and a crab (Decapoda—right) found in the UCMP teaching collection (images by Karen Osborn). Fossil stomatopod, center (image by Dr. Cees Hof, used with permission).
Figure 7.
Crayfish.
Figure 8.
Etyus martini.
Figure 9.
Spiny lobsters.
10. Geological history
The crustaceans, such as crabs and lobsters, that have hard exoskeletons reinforced with calcium carbonate tend to preserve well as fossils, but many crustaceans have only thin exoskeletons. Most of the crustacean fossils known are from coral reef or shallow sea-floor environments, but many crustaceans live in open seas, on deep sea floors, or in burrows. Crustaceans tend, therefore, to be rare in the fossil record than trilobites. Some crustaceans are reasonably common in Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks, but barnacles have a particularly poor fossil record, with very few specimens from before the Mesozoic era. The Late Jurassic lithographic limestones of Solnhofen, Bavaria, which are famous as the home of Archaeopteryx, are relatively rich in decapod crustaceans (five pairs of legs), such as Eryon (an eryonoid), Aeger (a prawn), or Pseudastacus (a lobster). The “lobster bed” of the Greensand formation from the Cretaceous period, which occurs at Atherfield on the Isle of Wight, contains many well preserved examples of the small glypheoid lobster Mecochirus magna. Crabs have been found at a number of sites, such as the Cretacoues Gault clay and the Eocene London clay.
11. Crustacean example: ostracods
Ostracods are tiny crustaceans, typically about one to two millimeters in length, with a well-documented fossil record beginning in the early Ordovician (e.g., [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]). During the Ordovician period, ostracods already possessed a global biogeographical distribution from high southern latitudes to the palaeo-tropics [26]. Crustacean ostracods are variously represented in washing residue and thin sections, two valves (left and right valves), the two valves being joined together along the hinge line. The body covered by external shell called Carapace is composed of two valves connected in the Dorsal side. Two valves are equal in the genus Amphisites or overlapping in Cytherella. Ovoid shape or semi ovoid, 0.5–4 mmlength to about 30 mm. Articulation along the dorsal margin is further characterized by development of teeth, socket, ridges, and grooves all together called hinge element (hinge elements: teeth, socket, grooves, and ridge-bar). The body is subdivided into Cephalon, Thorax, and Posterior, seven pairs appendages (antenna, antennule, mandible, maxilla, 1st thoracic leg, 2nd thoracic leg, and 3rd thoracic leg), one eye center, and two lateral calcareous part—internal and outer lamella with the valves are hard calcareous part, Carapace—right and left valve connected with hinge (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Ostracoda shell.
11.1 Important part in the general shape of ostracods, on the external surface of the test
Marginal denticulation: most of the species in Ostracoda have more denticulations (resemble to tooth) accumulated on the external margin of the valves; the number and shape of these denticulation differ from one sp. to another sp. and these denticulation are more accumulated on the anteroventral and posteroventral of the test.
Caudal process: some of the species in Ostracoda are characterized by having elongated end that is long and narrow and ended by anus. This caudal process is on the mid-posterior or on the posterodorsal side or posteroventral side.
Hinge ears: some species of Ostracoda have protuberance on anterior side of the hinge line which is formed by addition of calcareous materials.
Posteroventral spine: it is an calcareous spine on the posteroventral side, usually to the posterior side.
Eye tubercle: it is a protuberance on the anterior side which is the position of eye.
Anteroventral beak-rostrum (Cypridea): some genera of Ostracoda are characterized by having protuberance resembling to beak, which is most abundant in the genus Cypridea.
11.2 Ornamentation
Is shown in the carapace view. The outer surfaces of the ostracod valves can be smooth or ornamented with pits, striations, reticulations, spines, sulci, tubercles, and wing-shaped (alae) (Figure 11) [22].
Figure 11.
Ornamentation in some species of Ostracoda.
11.3 Pores in ostracods
Normal pores (open normal pores and sieve normal pores) and open normal pores: these pores penetrated the carapace, but sieve normal pores penetrated the wall. Marginal pores: these pores penetrated the test wall vertically and are distributed on the external surface; the number of the pores differ from family, genus species, and important in classification. Marginal pore canal: long pores distributed on the marginal zone; more pores on the anterior part than the other parts are also important in the classification. Test in ostracods is composed of calcareous material with chitineous test around them which helps to fix the hinge. Hinge elements are (Hinge elements: teeth, socket, grooves, ridge-bar) (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Important parts in Ostracoda. (a) Caudal process and alae structure (b) Side view showing right and left valves (c) Merodont hinge and alae structure, reticulation.
11.4 Teeth
The teeth in crustacean differ from one taxon to another; for example, ostracods have Adont hinge which is the simplest, without teeth or sockets, and often form part of a contact groove on the larger valve and a corresponding ridge on the smaller valve. The Merodont hinge is composed of a tooth and socket at each end of a groove or ridge structure (complementary negative and positive structures in left and right valves). The Entomodont hinge differs from the merodont hinge style by having a coarsely crenulated anterior portion of the median groove/ridge element. The Amphidont hinge has a more complex median structure with an anterior tooth and socket (Figure 13).
Figure 13.
Teeth types in Ostracoda.
11.5 Distribution and ecology of ostracods
Ostracods as a mode of life are pelagic (planktonic) by using organic-walled shell (less CaCO3) or by producing oil droplets. Pelagic ostracods are not preserved in the sediments, or benthic on/in the sea floor. They can burrow, swim near the sea-bed, or crawl on or through the sediment. Benthic forms occur in all the aquatic environments from the abyss to the shoreline. They also occur in estuaries, lagoons, freshwater lakes, ponds and streams, salt lakes, hot springs, and damp vegetation (Figure 14).
Figure 14.
Psychrospheric and thermospheric ostracods.
Ostracods can be influenced ecologically by various factors such as [27]:
Type of the substrate: swimmers have smooth, thin, bean-shaped carapace; fine-grained (mud) dwellers have flattened ventral, wing-shaped carapace; coarse-grained (sand) dwellers have thick carapace with coarse ornamentation; and interstitial ostracods are small, long, and robust.
Salinity: ostracods carapace morphology tends to vary according to variation in salinity. They occur in fresh water (0.0–0.5‰) of rivers and estuaries, brackish water (0.5–30‰) of lagoons and marshes, normal sea water (35–45‰), and hypersaline water bodies (up to 57‰) of the closed seas, lakes, lagoons, and marginal bays.
Fresh water ostracods—simple morphology, hinge adont, thin carapace, no marginal pores, and other weakly developed variable abundance and diversity.
Most shelf seas ostracods: low abundance, high diversity, stenohaline Cytheropteron.
Brackish lagoon and estuaries ostracods: thick shell, weakly ornamented, marginal pore canal, amphidont hinge. High abundance, low diversity, euryhaline, Cyprideis with tubecles.
Hypersaline lagoons ostracods, high abundance, low diversity, euryhaline, Cyprideis.
Marine ostracods-continental shelf: strongly calcified carapace, strongly ornamented, hinge well developed (Figure 15).
Figure 15.
The ecological distribution of recent Ostarcoda with some tropical represented, Brassier. 2004.
11.6 Application
They occur in the sedimentary column since the early Ordovician; hence, they can be used as: stratigraphic markers, paleo-salinity indicators, paleo-depth indicators, biostratigraphy, biostratigraphic correlation, and in paleoecology.
They are used as:
Tools for biozonation of marine strata, as they occur from Cambrian to the present.
Indicators of ancient marine shorelines salinity, relative sea-floor depth.
Ostracods are used for ecostratigraphy. Ecostratigraphy is the study of the occurrence and development of fossil communities throughout geologic time, as evidenced by biofacies, with particular reference to its relevance in stratigraphic correlation and other fields, such as biogeography and basin analysis. Ecostratigraphic studies by ostracods are based on their morphological changes and ornamentations, which are divided into different biozones and as environmental zone based on, diversity, community, and species abundant, range of the species and environment.
11.7 Ostracods and sedimentology
The genera Karsteneis karsteni and Cythereis longaeva shows that the ratio of closed valves that the ratio of closed valves (carapace) of high percent and thick in the center of the cretaceous basin (rapid rate of deposition) in bohemia than the other deposits along the sides which are thin sediment and of low rate of deposition.
Example no. 1. Some ostracods in the Garagu Formation, Dhouck City, Kurdistan Region, North Iraq (Figure 16) [28].
Example no. 2. The biostratigraphic distribution of Late Ordovician ostracod faunas from the Ellis Bay Formation on western Anticosti Island are described. Some 62 species are recorded. The EllisBay Formation can be subdivided into three ostracod biozones (these being partial range zones) and an interregnum, in ascending stratigraphical order these being the Longiscula subcylindrica biozone, the Eurychilina erugoface biozone, the Tetradella anticostiensis biozone and an interregnum in the uppermost part of the succession, marked by the local extinction of several taxa at the terminus of the T. anticostiensis biozone. These intervals are only locally developed, and are not useful for inter-regional correlation. A small number of the Ellis Bay Formation ostracod species are recorded elsewhere, from Sandbian and Katian age successions. These include Aechmina richmondensis, Aechmina maccormicki, Baltonotella parsispinosa, Macrocyproides trentonensis, Microcheilinella lubrica and Spinigerites unicornis [29].
12. Conclusions
This chapter has the following conclusions:
Crustaceans (Arthropods) are a group of animals with an armored external skeleton (called an exoskeleton),
The hard exoskeleton is the part that is preserved as a fossil. Arthropod comes from the Greek words “arthro” meaning joint and “poda” meaning foot or leg.
Arthropoda is the largest phylum of Animal Kingdom. It includes about 11,340,000 species in all habitats.
Arthropoda is characterized by heteronomous metamerism, chitinous exoskeleton, and joined appendages.
In very small crustaceans, exchange of the respiratory gases occurs through the general body surface.
Large aquatic arthropods respire through gills and book gills, whereas terrestrial forms respire through trachea and book lungs.
The earliest crustaceans are known from Cambrian sediments.
A majority of crustaceans habitats are aquatic and they live in either marine or freshwater environments, but a few groups have adapted to life on land, such as terrestrial crabs, terrestrial hermit crabs, and marine environments.
The life cycle for different crustaceans starts from the nauplius stage, followed by the zoea larval stage and post-larval stage, and finally ends with the adult growth stage.
Ostracoda is an important example in crustacean.
\n',keywords:"Arthropoda, exoskeleton, crustacean: burrow, sedimentology, Ostracoda",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70062.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70062.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70062",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70062",totalDownloads:1205,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:58,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 1st 2019",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 26th 2020",dateFinished:"November 15th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Crustaceans include all the animals of the phylum Arthropoda Crustacea; the word comes from the Latin crusta, which means shell. Crustaceans are a very diverse group of invertebrate animals which includes active animals such as the crabs, lobsters, shrimp, krill, copepods, amphipods, and more sessile creatures like barnacles. Arthropoda is the largest phylum of Animal Kingdom. It includes about 11,340,000 species in all habitats. This constitutes about 83% of all the known animal species on earth. Arthropoda includes spider, scorpions, prawns, crabs, millipedes, centipedes, and many other insects. Arthropoda is characterized by heteronomous metamerism, chitinous exoskeleton, and joined appendages. The evolutionary acquisition of these traits is known as arthropodization. In very small crustaceans, exchange of the respiratory gases occurs through the general body surface. Large aquatic arthropods respire through gills and book gills, whereas terrestrial forms respire through trachea and book lungs.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70062",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70062",book:{id:"8159",slug:"crustacea"},signatures:"Imad Mahmood Ghafor",authors:[{id:"274240",title:"Prof.",name:"Imad",middleName:"Mahmood",surname:"Ghafor",fullName:"Imad Ghafor",slug:"imad-ghafor",email:"imad.gafor@univsul.edu.iq",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. General characters of phylum Arthropoda",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Classification of phylum Arthropoda",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Classification of the crustaceans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. General characters of class Crustacea (Crusta = shell)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Origin and application and crustacean",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Ecology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Life cycle",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"8.1 Mating system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"8.2 Eggs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"8.3 Larvae",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"9. Crustacean burrow",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"10. Geological history",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"11. Crustacean example: ostracods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"11.1 Important part in the general shape of ostracods, on the external surface of the test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"11.2 Ornamentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"11.3 Pores in ostracods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"11.4 Teeth",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"11.5 Distribution and ecology of ostracods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"11.6 Application",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"11.7 Ostracods and sedimentology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"12. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ortega-Hernández J. Making sense of ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ stem-group Euarthropoda, with comments on the strict use of the name Arthropoda von Siebold, 1848. Biological Reviews. 2016;91(1):255-273'},{id:"B2",body:'Chandra PP. Assessment of plant diversity in homegardens of three ecological zones of Nepal. Ecoprint; 2015;22:63-74'},{id:"B3",body:'Asvin P. Torres Ferran Palero Antonina Dos Santos Pere Abelló Edurne Blanco lexandra Boné and Guillermo Guerao: Larval stages of the deep-sea lobster Polycheles typhlops (Decapoda, Polychelida) identified by DNA analysis: Morphology, systematic, distribution and ecology. Helgoland Marine Research; September 2014;68(3):379-397'},{id:"B4",body:'Martin JW, Davis GE. An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; 2001'},{id:"B5",body:'Jose J, Pillai L. Taxonomy and identification of commerciall important crustacean of india. Indian Council of Agriculture Journal. 2013. 169 p'},{id:"B6",body:'Martin RF, Randriandraisana A, Boulvais P. Ampandrandava and similar phlogopite deposits in southern Madagascar: Derivation from a silicocarbonatitic melt of crustal origin. Journal of Afrivan Earthscience. 2014;2'},{id:"B7",body:'Emerson MJ, Schram FR. The origin of crustacean biramous appendages and the evolution of arthropoda. Science. 1990;4:667'},{id:"B8",body:'Schram F, Vaupel K. Treatise On Zoology–Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology the Crustacea Complementary to the Volumes Translated from the French of the Traité De Zoologie. Part B, Brill Leiden Boston: Koninklijke Brill NV; 2012;9:349'},{id:"B9",body:'Chen JY, Zhou GQ, Edgecombe GD, Ramsköld L. Head segmentation in early cambrian fuxianhuia: Implications for arthropod evolution. Science. 1995;268(5215):1339-1343'},{id:"B10",body:'Emmett Duffy J, Thiel M. Evolutionary Ecology of Social and Sexual Systems: Crustaceans as Model Organisms. Oxford; 2007'},{id:"B11",body:'Olesen J. Crustacean life cycles—developmental strategies and environmental adaptations. The Natural History of the Crustacea: Life Histories. Oxford University Press; 2018'},{id:"B12",body:'Jennifer Uhl has been writing professionally since 2005. She writes primarily for the web and has been published as a ghostwriter in “Tropical Fish Magazine” and “Entrepreneur.” She is pursuing a Bachelor of Science in health care from Mira Costa College'},{id:"B13",body:'Gurney R. Larvae of DECAPOD Crustacea (PDF). London: Ray Society; 1942. pp. 1-306'},{id:"B14",body:'Mauchline J. Egg and brood sizes of oceanic pelagic crustaceans. Dunstaffnage Marine Research Laboratory. Scottish Marine Biological. Marine Ecology–Progress. 1988;43:251-258'},{id:"B15",body:'Torres AP, Santos AD, Alemany F, Massutí E. Larval stages of crustacean species of interest for conservation and fishing exploitation in the western Mediterranean. 2013'},{id:"B16",body:'Taylor PD, Wilson MA. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews. 2003;62:1-103'},{id:"B17",body:'Dworschak PC, Rodrigues SA. A modern analogue for the trace fossil Gyrolithes: Burrows of the thalassinidean shrimp Axianassa australis. Lethaia. 1997;30(1):41-52'},{id:"B18",body:'Mayoral E, Mun F. Nuevosi datos icnotaxnomicos sobre Gyrolithes del Pliocene inferior de la Cuenca del Guadalquiver (Lepi, Huelva, Espana). Rivista Espanola de Paleontologia. 1998;13:61-69'},{id:"B19",body:'Lanés S, Manceñido M, Damborenea S. Lapispira: A double helicoidal burrow from Jurassic marine nearshore environments. In: Bromley RG, Buatois LA, Mángano MG, Genise J, Melchor R, editors. Sediment-Organism Interactions: A Multifaceted Ichnology. Tulsa: SEPM; 2007. pp. 59-78'},{id:"B20",body:'Gibert A. Toleration, Diversity and Global Justics. University of Pennsylvania; 2003. 233 p'},{id:"B21",body:'Haq BU, Boersma AB. Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology. North Holland: Elsevier; 1978. 376 p'},{id:"B22",body:'Brassier MD. Microfossils. In: Blackwell Publling Publishing. 1980'},{id:"B23",body:'Tinn O, Meidla T. Phylogenetic relationships of early middle Ordovician ostracods of Baltoscandia. Palaeontology. 2004;47:199-221'},{id:"B24",body:'Williams M, Floyd JD, Salas MJ, Siveter DJ, Stone P, Vannier JMC. Patterns of ostracod migration for the “North Atlantic” region during the Ordovician. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 2003;195:193-228'},{id:"B25",body:'Siveter DJ, Vannier JM, Palmer D. Silurian Myodocopes: Pioneer pelagic ostracods and the chronology of an ecological shift. Journal of Micropalaeontology. UK: University of Leicester; 1991;10(2):151-173'},{id:"B26",body:'Bennett CE, Williams M, Leng MJ, Siveter DJ, Davies SJ, Sloane SH, et al. Diagensis of fossil ostracods: Implications for stable isotope based palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. Cambridge University Press; 2011;305:150-161'},{id:"B27",body:'Benson RH. The origin of the psychrosphere as recorded in changes of deep-sea ostracode assemblages. Lethaia. Wiley Online; 1975;8(1):69-83'},{id:"B28",body:'Ghafor IM, Mohialdeen IMJ. Early cretaceous microfossils associations (foraminifera, ostracoda, calcareous algae, and coral) from the Garagu Formation, Duhok Area, Kurdistan Region, Northern Iraq. Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 2018;11(15):1-206'},{id:"B29",body:'Taha ZA. The taxonomic, biogeographical, palaeogeographical and palaeoecological significance of the late ordovician Ostracod fauna of the Ellis Bay Formation, Anticosti Island, Eastern Canada [Ph.D. thesis]. United kingdom: Department of Geology University of Leicester; 2018'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Imad Mahmood Ghafor",address:"imad.gafor@univsul.edu.iq",affiliation:'
Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq
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1. Introduction
All types of volcanism known until now are in the solar system. All considerations and models for volcanism in other stellar systems are built upon our knowledge from our own system. New types of volcanism still unthought of, might be a challenging research topic but may not be considered here.
The main aim of this chapter is to consider cryovolcanism powered by tidal heating and its potential in exosystems. As an introduction, for reference and to characterize the main features as a base for better comparison, a rough overview of its counterpart silicate volcanism as well as underlying types of energy sources in the solar system are given.
The most prominent objects in our solar system harboring active volcanoes are both an example of what may be named high-temperature range volcanism as rocks are molten and are apparent in the form of glowing liquid lava on Earth and on the moon Io. This is generally better known under silicious-based/silicate volcanism because silicate is the most dominating component in liquid rocks. The known temperatures rise to about 1600 K on Io in the volcanoes on the surface [1], while on Earth about 1000 K to 1550 K temperature in the lava is reached [2] depending on the composition of the rocks. The temperature of magma below the surface may have still higher temperatures.
These two objects already show us also the main energy categories on which volcanism, as we know it, relies on. For the Earth, it is mainly based on the conserved accretion/contraction energy from its formation, decay of radioactive elements pulled into the mantle and center of the planet by gravity-induced differentiation, and also on friction rising from the resulting tectonic activity [3]. For Io, it is mainly based on tidal heating from the huge tidal forces raised by the gas giant it is orbiting in its crust and upper mantle [3]. Both may gain also energy from friction that is arising from the resulting tectonic activity. Some of the following general considerations may also apply to forms of energy resources. The energy retention behavior (and so also the duration of volcanic activity) is among other factors strongly depending on surface-to-volume ratios regardless of energy source. Bigger objects with lower surface-to-volume ratios are tending to stay hotter for a longer period and are able to sustain volcanism longer. For Earth and Moon during the assumed collision of their precursor bodies Theia and Gaia, a transfer of the core of Theia into the forming core of the Earth may have increased also the amount of heavier and so radioactive elements, increasing the power for volcanism on Earth and by this decreasing it on the Moon. Also during this early phase, tidal heating may have played a much bigger role for both objects, as they have been much closer together [4].
Regarding ancient evolution steps in the solar system, it is important stressing that even much tinier impacts than Theia with Gaia were much more common and have played a stronger role in melting parts of a planet, asteroid, or moon, especially during the late heavy bombardment (LHB). As it may be perceived as an external energy source and is now of little relevance, volcanism by bombardment will not be discussed further.
Considering the long-term evolution of heating sources also leads us to inactive silicate volcanism as the bodies considered are too tiny to have been able to sustain volcanism until now, as on the Moon, Mercury [5], Venus, and Mars. They are covered with lava plains and show also volcanoes, for example, the highest of the solar system, Olympus Mons on Mars. Still, for all these objects, signs for stronger or lesser still ongoing or very recent volcanic/tectonic activity have been found or are discussed (Moon: [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; Mercury: [11, 12, 13]; Venus: [14, 15, 16, 17]; Mars: [18, 19]). On Mars also a connection to a known type of lower temperature volcanism may already be found as the melting of ice and/or its remnants under a volcano may have been found as well [20, 21, 22, 23].
In the case of Venus, a relatively young surface [24] and its own type of tectonics [25] may also indicate a presence of modifying influences on silicate volcanism that are not well known until now. If the missing of water or other solvents (on Venus probably mostly after entering into a runaway greenhouse effect) is a cause for a changed plate tectonic and so volcanism [26, 27, 28], also availability and abundance of water, NH3 or CH4 have to be considered for modifying silicate volcanism, showing again a link to material and substances beyond rock.
Also, a discussed inhomogeneous distribution of radionuclides as a cause for volcanic activities, for example, on the Moon [6] further highlights a need for deep consideration of how volcanism may be sustained and be modified in behavior.
Moving on outward in the solar system brings us into ranges of asteroids, all of them being tinier than the aforementioned planets and so obviously have cooled and are not maintaining volcanism now. Accretion and radioactive energy seem to be nowadays not important for any type of volcanism in the asteroids. Still, ancient traces of volcanism may be found. The importance of meteorite impacts for melting gets relatively bigger on tinier objects. But also a differing composition of radioactive elements seems to play a bigger role as Al26 [29] and Fe60 [30] seem to have molten these tiny objects and given rise to silicate volcanism. This peroid has made a huge influence on these objects, even though this period may not have been very long, regarding the relatively short half-life of these isotopes.
Entering the realm of the gas giants opens new perspectives. The rocky objects that can show volcanism are now mainly moons, tinier in size but are orbiting much larger gas giants or maybe very close double systems orbiting each other, for example, some TNOs. These conditions open the possibility for tidal heating as the main energy source for volcanoes. Accretion and radioactive energy seem to be nowadays of lesser importance for any type of volcanism in the asteroids, gas giant moons, and beyond in the solar system.
Considering Io as an exception in this range, as we also will show, we encounter two other known examples of volcanism around gas giants that are based on tidal heating, but are now in the lower temperature ranges of cryovolcanism. The moons Enceladus and also Triton have been identified as cryovolcanic worlds [31, 32]. Others show signs of active geology and tectonics, for example, on Europa [33] or Ganymede [34], and are believed to have liquid layers or even oceans of solvents, such as water or NH3, in their depths and even deeper a basic silicate volcanism.
Regarding this, it becomes easily obvious that a real stable definition of cryovolcanism is not as easy. The aim is mostly trying to focus on volatiles, for example, molten water or methane are thrown out on the surface in an environment colder than their own melting temperature, also even if in greater depths rocks might be quite hot. Earth itself is mostly not being considered as a planet harboring cryovolcanism, even though any volcano under ice known (Iceland) or assumed (Antarctica) and geysers all over the world would fulfill such definitions in winter. Also, mud volcanism (also called “cold” volcanism) being based on mud diapirs and being generally associated with (silicate) volcanism [35, 36], is normally not considered under cryovolcanism.
All these ambiguities in defining cryovolcanism may result from a bias in detecting cryovolcanism on foreign worlds in astronomy or astrophysics. Big eruptions are much easier to observe by optic sensors (on or close to Earth or even on probes) as well as by mass analyzing probes in the proximity of these objects than by constant release of volatiles by tectonics of slowly moving ice shields covering deeper-lying liquids or even silicate volcanism. Also, old remnant structures of previous volcanism may still cover deeper active processes, which is much more problematic to investigate. If we improve our detection capabilities, also our definitions will evolve. Regarding detection and research on cryovolcanic worlds, this all illustrates the strong necessity of modeling based on easier accessible observations, either to understand where we might find such objects with cryovolcanism or what kind of cryovolcanism we might expect. This leads apart from the known active volcanic and cryovolcanic worlds to a huge list of strongly assumed, mainly cryovolcanic, active as well as inactive worlds (see Figure 1 and Table 1).
Figure 1.
Overview of types of volcanism identified or assumed on celestial bodies in the solar system (right panel) and the extrasolar planetary system TRAPPIST-1 (left panel). The horizontal axis corresponds to the mean semi-major axis of the orbits as distance to the sun (right panel) and the vertical axis corresponds to the mean semi-major axis of the orbits of moons or exoplanets as the distance from their central object (hosting planet or star TRAPPIST-1) [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43]. The radii of the circles depicting each object are scaled logarithmically to the actual radii of the celestial bodies [37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Please note that close to the dwarf planets Pluto and Haumea the two further dwarf planets Orcus and Quaoar exist. These are shown in the zoomed-in inset panel. Charon is a moon of Pluto, and Namaka and Hi’iaka are moons of Haumea. The dwarf planet Sedna on the right side of the right panel orbits the sun at a mean distance of 506 au, so further away as it is shown here, which is indicated with an arrow. Color-coded is the types of volcanism known or assumed on the objects. Table 1 Provides an overview of the respective references. The hollow cross marks objects in the solar system for which ongoing volcanic eruptions or geysers are known. The filled plus marks objects in the solar system for which at least former volcanic eruptions, geysers, or domes (remnants of extinct volcanic activity) are known or strongly assumed. Please note that only on Pluto at least former volcanic eruptions are assumed, but not on Orcus. An asterisk (*) at the end of an object’s name marks when one or several moons are present but not shown here.
Celestial objects in the solar system on which different types of volcanism are present or strongly assumed. The last column gives the respective references. References given here were also used to categorize the types of volcanism given in Figure 1. For each object, its orbited primary and the types of known or strongly assumed volcanism and eruptions (active or extinct) are listed.
All these models are strongly based on energy resources and energy transport. Reconsidering some basic parameters in these models may illuminate some specific aspects of cryovolcanic worlds and offers an insight into basic principles to find general concepts for application in far exoplanetary systems.
2. Volcanism present in the solar system and the extrasolar planetary system TRAPPIST-1
The types of active and inactive volcanism in our own neighborhood are various. Figure 1 gives an overview of the different types of volcanism found or strongly assumed on celestial objects in the solar system. To classify the different types of (cryo-)volcanism found on objects in the solar system, we distinguish between the case when the respective type of volcanism is active right now and verified (e.g., by measurements of space probes) or strongly assumed due to observations, measurements or theoretical models, and the case when signs of at least former volcanic activity were identified. We also include the (at least former) presence of a liquid subsurface ocean as part of cryovolcanism.
The melting up of a subsurface ocean requires a strong energy source. This is either powered from the interior of the body hinting at the presence of silicate volcanism in its core. Another or even simultaneously occurring energy source can be the deformation by tidal forces of nearby objects, which can liquify silicates or ice and heats up potentially present silicate magma and/or a (subsurface) ocean further. This might result in icy objects in cryovolcanic activity, for example, in the form of geysers penetrating through the ice crust of Saturn’s ice-moon Enceladus [31]. By cracking up the ice crust a cryo-form of plate tectonics could be initiated, for example, on Jupiter’s ice-moon Europa [33].
In addition, we identify several objects that should be considered as potential candidates for re-evaluation of the potential of tidal-based volcanism based on recent studies. For example, the presence of crystalline water ice and/or ammonia ice on the surface hints at the presence of a mechanism that actively redeposits new material, as crystalline water ice and/or ammonia ice is not stable in the long term in these environments due to destruction by energetic particles (see, e.g., [92, 93, 94]).
Domes, which are mountains and bulges in the crust of a celestial object, could be remnants of extinct eruptive volcanoes or could be plumes that do/did not penetrate fully through the crust. We see the identification of domes on the surface of a celestial object as an indicator for at least former eruptive volcanic activity.
Moreover, we included the objects resulting from our recent study [95], which we identified as new and (in the case of the solar system) not yet elsewhere considered candidates for tidal-based volcanism.
3. Considerations on energy from tidal heating
For cryovolcanism, an indispensable prerequisite must be an energy source. In principle, energy could be gained from accretion and contraction during the formation of the planetary object. This process is among other parameters depending on the size of the object (with R being the radius of the object, roughly ∼R3). As radioactive material is incorporated along with this process, equivalent considerations may be done here. Higher volume-to-surface ratios (∼R) minimize cooling effects and allow longer stable heating from inside. Rearrangement of material (e.g., impacts as in LHB, Theia-Gaia events, seeding with Al26) may change the occurrence, intensity, and also duration of volcanic active phases; inhomogeneities in deposition of material may give rise to local volcanism. The starting composition of radioactive material during formation may differ along with, for example, age of the stellar population. These processes will be complete in the very early phase of a stellar system (roughly 0.5 Gy after formation) and any volcanic activity based on this will evolve based on the then built-up conditions for heating and cooling. Models over several Gys imply significant effects for the heating of liquid volatiles in bigger objects of several hundreds of km radius [96].
This “standard” energy production process might not work in smaller objects where other heating sources are required, for instance, tidal heating, a process occurring in planetary systems with masses closely associated and thus impacting each other. The general principles for tidal heating may be considered as based on many more parameters as for accretion/radioactivity. Aspects of volume-to-surface ratios (∼R) are the same as for accretion and radioactivity, many other parameters differ.
The tidal acceleration A acting on an object’s surface is
A=GMr211±Rr2−1,E1
G as gravitational constant, M as mass of the influencing object, R as radius of the influenced object, and r as distance between the objects. This can be approximated by a Taylor series expansion to
A=∓2GMRr3.E2
Therefore, the tidal force will go with ∼R (for details and elaborated calculations see [95]). The energy transfer and average dissipation rate gets based on even more parameters and may mostly be assumed by ∼R5 [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103].
Ė=−212k2Qn5R5G∗e2,E3
Ė as rate for tidal energy dissipating, G∗ as gravitational constant, k2 as Love number, and Q dissipation function of the satellite. k2Q is telling how “effectively“energy is transferred on the satellite and how this leads to heating. Models with k2 are mainly used, but also models with “higher” Love numbers as k3, k4, or k6 may be considered reasonable for special systems [97, 104, 105, 106].
Q is in the range from 10 to 500 are found for the terrestrial planets and satellites of the major planets. On the other hand, Q for the major planets is always larger than 6·104 [106].
Trying to figure out further principles for tidal heating we may approach this by considering when tidal heating may really be minimized.
A body that is tidally locked on an orbit with eccentricity e=0 will not have any type of tidal energy dissipating. Locking will occur in ranges of
tlock=ωa6IQ3G∗mp2R5k2,E4
G∗,k2,Q,R as above, ω as initial spin rate, a for the semi-major axis of the orbit of the satellite around the planet/partner, ms as mass of the satellite, mp as mass of the planet/partner, and I as momentum of inertia [107] (see pages 169–170 of this article; Formula (9) is quoted here, which comes from ref. [108]), with I≈0.4msR2:
Apart from ω resulting from the formation process, Qk2 and ρ, as parameters for interior composition and “behavior” in heating, mp and especially a seem to strongly influence the period in which tidal heating may be possible.
The moon Io is actually tidally locked and would be on a far bigger orbit with eccentricity e=0 and so no volcanism at all would occur, if its accompanying moons would not have been influencing it and are distracting it from a round orbit [109, 110].
But a may also change over longer periods “on its own” and may so become important regarding the period for tidal heating and so volcanism. This results from an effect of energy transfer by tidal forces beyond heating, yielding a change of orbital velocity because of tidal acceleration or tidal deceleration.
As the energy transfer resulting in heating is not the only effect, tidal acceleration and also tidal deceleration may occur and by changes in velocity, change the orbit of the objects. For tidal acceleration this will bring objects to farther orbits, moving them out of the possible zone for tidal heating, for tidal deceleration, this will lower the orbits and so either crushing the objects when crossing the Roche limit or crashing them on the body which they are orbiting, as it is assumed for Triton [111, 112, 113]. These effects have also an impact via changes in the semi-major axis a on tlock . The changes by tidal acceleration/deceleration are still tiny in our system and so changes in tlock maybe on larger scales [111, 112, 113].
All these aspects make it obvious how variable volcanism based on tidal heating may be. The discovery of so powered cryovolcanism on the moons Enceladus and also Triton has been quite surprising and many proofs or hints for active or inactive volcanism, of any kind, may have still not been found in the region of the asteroid belt and beyond. A general overview of both silicate volcanism and cryovolcanism is given in Figure 2. All sketches of phases given may be powered by both accretion and radioactivity or by tidal heating. Especially if objects are big or young enough, we may also consider overlap of both power types. Known objects in our own system cover only some of these sketches, but still, we do not have proof of volcanism on all objects being considered and, as discussed, some may be cryovolcanic worlds but may have yet not been even put on a list of assumed objects.
Figure 2.
Schematic overview of general types of volcanism (1–3) and how silicate and cryovolcanism are linked (2). Remnants of both silicate and cryovolcanism as signs of inactive volcanism in (4). Earth is a known example of silicate volcanism powered by accretion and radioactivity, as well as Io is also known example of silicate volcanism powered by tidal heating, may be both sketched in (1). Both known icy moons with cryovolcanism powered by tidal heating, Enceladus, and also triton may be found in (2) or in some parts may be in (3). Inactive remnants (4) as discussed may be found on many objects, for example, Vesta or the moon.
Considering this, we may, when looking out of our own solar system, get aware of how problematic identifications of volcanic worlds may get in these faraway systems. Also, some aspects may get stronger influence. Many systems with close orbits, favoring stronger tidal forces, especially around K- and M-stars, have been found and modeled (e.g., [114, 115, 116, 117, 118]). But many parameters of these systems being necessary for modeling are barely known and may need even stronger efforts in measuring and obtaining them. First attempts in reconsidering some constraints of these models have been done (as in e.g., [95]) and first assumptions based on reduced parameter sets for the evaluation of state and kind of volcanic worlds have been made. The approach aims at assessing the potential for volcanic worlds on easier than other observable parameters and has been verified in our own system, yielding all known and many assumed volcanic objects, plus hints for further bodies harboring volcanoes. Thus, it may be considered as a pre-scan before deeper and more intensive modeling. The first application in the system of TRAPPIST-1 gave rise to a higher volcanic potential on all planets, not only by forces of the central star but also by mutual tidal influences of the orbiting bodies [95].
4. Considerations for astrobiology
Regarding the phenomena of silicate and cryovolcanism, all of them may be powered by the energy sources discussed, but conditions for and evolution of these power sources are differing. Considering constraints for life as we know it, new aspects arise. Water in liquid form would be assumed as a requirement, in some alternative chemistry also ammonia or methane are discussed as possible solvents, liquid silicate/rock is less considered as being favorable for life. Also, a longer period of stability of these solvents is seen as favorable.
As accretion/radioactivity powered volcanism is high after formation and presumably gives rise to liquid silicates, it is a narrow gap of parameters depending on the size of the object and seeding of elements, which would allow a long and stable period of solvents as water. Bigger objects (starting already with radii just below 1000 km) might keep the heat over Gys too high, for example, water to rain down on the surface. Objects with sizes of several hundred kilometers and below may cool down very fast, allowing liquid water on the surface or in layers deeper in the crust for short periods of some 10 or 100 Mys [96]. Volcanism by tidal heating seems to be, if special conditions are met, more stable, as may be seen from all moons in our system with known active volcanism or tectonics, for example, Europa, Ganymede, or Enceladus. Even if becoming presumably unstable as Triton, it is after many Gys.
Considering the distribution of stable (e.g., considered from formation until now) volcanism powered by accretion/radioactivity or by tidal heating in our system, only Earth may be considered as accretion/radioactivity powered and many tens of objects powered by tidal heating confirmed or strongly assumed. If not for the power of the sun, habitable biotopes on Earth would be pretty much the same as the assumed ones on the moons discussed, that is, around vents deep in the liquid oceans below an ice crust covering (nearly) the whole surface. If we postulate such black smokers as life forging and maintaining harbors, in general, all over the universe, tidal heating may stably sustain such sources over many Gys, independent of a central stellar object even (and especially) on tiny objects. The requirements for tidal heating to power the cryovolcanism and rendering solvents liquid maybe not easily met, but considering the vast number of tiny objects (in contrast with bigger ones), the overall abundance of the self-powered systems may be seen as relatively high.
5. Conclusions
Silicate and cryovolcanism both occur in a broad spectrum considering the proofs, traces, and remnants in our own system. The constraints and challenges for detecting any volcanic activity beyond our system are huge. Some parameters maybe even far more difficult for measuring than others. Bigger objects with volcanism probably based mainly on accretion energy or radioactivity may still be easier for far distance observation, detection, and measurement. Still, an accompanying approach by modeling, for objects in our own system as well as beyond, based on measurable or other feasible attempts seems reasonable.
Considering the models and also the underlying energy sources and evolution, tidal heating as an energy source can be highly variable. It may have a broader spectrum in occurrence than heating by stored accretion energy or radioactivity. Tinier objects may get energy for significant heating from tidal heating and less from accretion and radioactivity. Objects may start in conditions for tidal heating, move out or in these conditions, and may be stabilized by accompanying partners. The real spectrum of possible sets of moons, asteroids, and planets will be probably even much broader. Considering the fact of much larger amounts of tiny objects, the implications for the probability of worlds with volcanic activity of any kind powered by tidal heating are huge.
Being aware of possible long stable periods for liquid solvents on such volcanic worlds powered by tidal heating and also considering known volcanic structures as deep ocean vents serving as harbors for genesis and maintenance of life, the relevance of tidal heating for cryovolcanism/low-temperature geological activity becomes even more prominent.
By a combination of observational systems and models, by their improvement and mutual influence, description and measurement of volcanic worlds, as well as possible biotopes for life beyond our own system, seems to be achievable.
\n',keywords:"volcanism, cryovolcanism, tidal forces, radioactivity, low-temperature biotopes, black smoker equivalents",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81911.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81911.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81911",totalDownloads:13,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 25th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 26th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 23rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Volcanism based on melting rocks (silicate volcanism) is long known on Earth and has also been found on Jupiter’s moon Io. Remnants of this type of volcanism have been identified also on other bodies in the solar system. Energy sources powered by accretion and the decay of radioactive isotopes seem to be dominant mainly inside larger bodies, which have enough volume to accumulate and retain this energy in significant amounts. On the other hand, the impact of tidal forces allows even tiny bodies to melt up and pass into the stage of cryovolcanism. The dependence of tidal heating on the size of the object is minor, but the masses of and the distances to accompanying bodies as well as the inner compositions of the heated body are central factors. Even though Io as an example of a body supporting silicate volcanism is striking, the physics of tidal forces might suggest a relatively high probability for cryovolcanism. This chapter aims at considering the parameters known and objects found so far in our solar system to give insights into where in our system and other planetary systems cryovolcanism might be expected.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81911",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81911",signatures:"Georg Hildenbrand, Klaus Paschek, Myriam Schäfer and Michael Hausmann",book:{id:"11737",type:"book",title:"Astronomy",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Astronomy",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yann H. Chemin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11737.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-120-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-119-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-121-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:"H.",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Volcanism present in the solar system and the extrasolar planetary system TRAPPIST-1",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Considerations on energy from tidal heating",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Considerations for astrobiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Williams DA, Howell RR. Active volcanis Effusive eruptions. In: Lopes RMC, Spencer JR, editors. 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Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2018;613:A37. DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/201731992'},{id:"B116",body:'Dobos V, Barr AC, Kiss LL. Tidal heating and the habitability of the TRAPPIST-1 exoplanets. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2019;624:A2. DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/201834254'},{id:"B117",body:'Bolmont E, Breton SN, Tobie G, Dumoulin C, Mathis S, Grasset O. Solid tidal friction in multi-layer planets: Application to earth, Venus, a super earth and the TRAPPIST-1 planets - potential approximation of a multi-layer planet as a homogeneous body. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2020;644:A165. DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202038204'},{id:"B118",body:'Bolmont E, Selsis F, Raymond SN, Leconte J, Hersant F, Maurin A-S, et al. Tidal dissipation and eccentricity pumping: Implications for the depth of the secondary eclipse of 55 Cancri e. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2013;556:A17. 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Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, Kirchhoff-Institute for Physics, Germany
Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, Kirchhoff-Institute for Physics, Germany
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If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"57717",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71923",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:14761,totalCrossrefCites:74,totalDimensionsCites:144,abstract:"Cytotoxicity is one of the most important indicators for biological evaluation in vitro studies. In vitro, chemicals such as drugs and pesticides have different cytotoxicity mechanisms such as destruction of cell membranes, prevention of protein synthesis, irreversible binding to receptors etc. In order to determine the cell death caused by these damages, there is a need for cheap, reliable and reproducible short-term cytotoxicity and cell viability assays. Cytotoxicity and cell viability assays are based on various cell functions. A broad spectrum of cytotoxicity assays is currently used in the fields of toxicology and pharmacology. There are different classifications for these assays: (i) dye exclusion assays; (ii) colorimetric assays; (iii) fluorometric assays; and (iv) luminometric assays. Choosing the appropriate method among these assays is important for obtaining accurate and reliable results. When selecting the cytotoxicity and cell viability assays to be used in the study, different parameters have to be considered such as the availability in the laboratory where the study is to be performed, test compounds, detection mechanism, specificity, and sensitivity. In this chapter, information will be given about in vitro cytotoxicity and viability assays, these assays will be classified and their advantages and disadvantages will be emphasized. The aim of this chapter is to guide the researcher interested in this subject to select the appropriate assay for their study.",book:{id:"6310",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]},{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7489,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:135,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"40253",doi:"10.5772/50486",title:"Lipid Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems: A Revolution in Dosage Form Design and Development",slug:"lipid-nanoparticulate-drug-delivery-systems-a-revolution-in-dosage-form-design-and-development",totalDownloads:11245,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:103,abstract:null,book:{id:"2509",slug:"recent-advances-in-novel-drug-carrier-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems"},signatures:"Anthony A. 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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"49459",title:"Pharmacokinetics of Drugs Following IV Bolus, IV Infusion, and Oral Administration",slug:"pharmacokinetics-of-drugs-following-iv-bolus-iv-infusion-and-oral-administration",totalDownloads:15401,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:null,book:{id:"4491",slug:"basic-pharmacokinetic-concepts-and-some-clinical-applications",title:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Tarek A. 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Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"66742",title:"Introductory Chapter: Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and for Human Life",slug:"introductory-chapter-alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-for-human-life",totalDownloads:4035,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"6828",slug:"alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-human-life",title:"Alkaloids",fullTitle:"Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and Human Life"},signatures:"Joanna Kurek",authors:[{id:"214632",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Kurek",slug:"joanna-kurek",fullName:"Joanna Kurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"19",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82439",title:"Cellular Cytotoxicity and Multiple Sclerosis",slug:"cellular-cytotoxicity-and-multiple-sclerosis",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105681",abstract:"Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease in which discrete central nervous system lesions result from perivascular immune cell infiltration associated with damage to myelin (demyelination), oligodendrocytes and neurons. This culminates in debilitating neurological symptoms, primarily affecting women in their child-bearing years. Both the innate and adaptive branches of the immune system have been implicated in disease initiation and progression, and although the underlying cause remains elusive, there is compelling evidence for a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, leading to inflammation and neurodegeneration. Both direct cellular toxicity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) involving several cell types have been identified in playing major roles. These cells and their interactions in the pathogenesis of MS will be discussed.",book:{id:"11678",title:"Cytotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11678.jpg"},signatures:"Annie M.L. Willson and Margaret A. Jordan"},{id:"82226",title:"Early Signal Detection: Data Mining of Mental Disorders with Statins",slug:"early-signal-detection-data-mining-of-mental-disorders-with-statins",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105504",abstract:"Statins are widely prescribed to treat dyslipidemias. It is well-known adverse reaction of these active ingredients related to rhabdomyolysis and myalgia, but there are other signals to be aware of, such as mental disorders. Pharmacovigilance tools help to trace known risks and detect early other unknown effects that appear over time. Data of all the reported suspected adverse drug reactions for statins from the international World Health Organization (WHO) repository Vigibase were analyzed with an adaptation of data mining Bayesian methodology to search for positive signals, threshold of false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05, and listed candidates for priority clinical investigation. Among positive mental signals observed, some were currently stated as adverse reactions in technical factsheets as insomnia, depression, dementia, and nightmares, but others have not reached this condition as bipolar, psychotic, and emotional disorders or symptoms and suicide. Other diverse central positive signals that can be confounded with mental conditions obtained and not stated were senses impairment, such as blindness, deafness, balance disorder, and events related to suicide. Worrying positive signals proposed as candidates to further investigation are insomnia for pitavastatin, pravastatin, and simvastatin; dementia for atorvastatin and rosuvastatin; and suicide and psychotic disorders for atorvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin.",book:{id:"11679",title:"Pharmacovigilance and Regulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11679.jpg"},signatures:"Maria-Isabel Jimenez-Serrania"},{id:"82398",title:"Computer-Aided Drug Design and Development: An Integrated Approach",slug:"computer-aided-drug-design-and-development-an-integrated-approach",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105003",abstract:"Drug discovery and development is a very time- and resource-consuming process. Comprehensive knowledge of chemistry has been integrated with information technology to streamline drug discovery, design, development, and optimization. Computer-aided drug design is being utilized to expedite and facilitate hit identification, hit-to-lead selection, and optimize the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity profile. Regulatory organizations and the pharmaceutical industry are continuously involved in the development of computational techniques that will improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the drug discovery process while decreasing the use of animals, cost, and time and increasing predictability. The present chapter will provide an overview of computational tools, such as structure-based and receptor-based drug designing, and how the coupling of these tools with a rational drug design process has led to the discovery of small molecules as therapeutic agents for numerous human disease conditions duly approved by the Food and Drug Administration. It is expected that the power of CADD will grow as the technology continues to evolve.",book:{id:"11091",title:"Drug Development Life Cycle",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11091.jpg"},signatures:"Neelima Dhingra"},{id:"81186",title:"Germicidal and Antineoplastic Activities of Curcumin and Curcumin-Derived Nanoparticles",slug:"germicidal-and-antineoplastic-activities-of-curcumin-and-curcumin-derived-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103076",abstract:"Curcumin is a major constituent of turmeric and has been shown to have a plethora of health benefits, which include, among many, antimicrobial, anticancer, and reduction of cholesterol. However, it has also been reported that curcumin has less bioaccumulation and is quickly metabolized and cleared from the body. Nanoparticle formulations are known to increase curcumin biocompatibility and targeting. Additionally, the antimicrobial activity of curcumin has been extensively studied and the mechanism of action provides clues for the development of new drugs for drug-resistant microbes. Thus, this chapter will review the biomedical application of curcumin and its nanoformulations against different microbes and other diseases, including cancer.",book:{id:"11323",title:"Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Aspects of Curcumin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11323.jpg"},signatures:"Lilian Makgoo and Zukile Mbita"},{id:"82304",title:"Nonbiodegradable Hospital Waste Burden and Implications",slug:"nonbiodegradable-hospital-waste-burden-and-implications",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105009",abstract:"Hospitals and other healthcare facilities are very essential for the cure and care of persons suffering from health issues and also to promote health in society. As the health care services are improving and increasing their reach even in underdeveloped countries, so is the problem of health care waste (HCW) as hospitals generate a relatively huge amount of HCW, which consists of general as well as hazardous waste. The persons handling HCW are at immediate risk, followed by persons residing near HCW dumping/processing areas and the general public. Infectious HCW is a major threat to the health of humans and animals as it has the potential to spread various infectious diseases to the human and animal population. Due to the uncontrolled use of disposable nonbiodegradable materials by healthcare systems and their processing or lack of it, the HCW has emerged as one of the major sources of environmental pollution including the emission of the significant amount of greenhouse gases, which stands from 3 to 10% of total emissions of nations. 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