Plant species containing tannins and their medicinal use.
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. 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Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69199",title:"Applications of Tannins in Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85984",slug:"applications-of-tannins-in-industry",body:'\nBiochemically, tannins are sort of secondary metabolites predominantly available in the plant-based foods and beverages. The name “tannin” is originated from the industrial process of “leather tanning,” in which animal hides are converted into leather through downstream processing. It is worthwhile to mention that tannins were used in this process from historic times. On the basis of their presence, various parts of plants such as bark, wood, leaves, seeds, roots, and even the plant galls are the major sources of tannin extractions used for various purposes (Table 1). Algae is also rich source of tannin-based compounds such as phlorotannins which comprise of antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor properties evaluated in the case of human [1, 2]. In addition to health benefits, phlorotannins isolated from brown seaweeds have been used in the cosmetics also [3]. Some researchers have defined tannins as “Any phenolic compound of sufficiently high molecular weight containing sufficient hydroxyls and other suitable groups (i.e., carboxyls) to form effectively strong complexes with protein and other macromolecules under the particular environmental conditions being studied” [4].
\nS. no. | \nName of plant species | \nPlant parts | \nMajor components | \nMedicinal use | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nRoot | \nTannic acid, rhataniatannic acid, peculiar acid principle, krameric acid, phlobaphene, phloroglucin, and proanthocyanidins | \nChronic diarrhea, menorrhagia, urinary diseases, bleeding from the bowels, bad throat, and antibacterial agents for the eyes, nose, and gums | \n|
2. | \nRoots | \nPentadigalloylglucose, pedunculagin, epigallocatechin, catechins, and proanthocyanidins | \nInflammations, wound healings, diarrhea, inflammation of bowel bacterial, fungal, and viral infections | \n|
3. | \nRoot | \nSanguiin H-6 | \nDysentery and insect bites | \n|
4. | \nAerial parts | \nAgrimoniin and potentillin | \nDiarrhea, cough, lymphadenitis, and hepatitis | \n|
5. | \nBark | \nCorilagin and related ellagitannins | \nBad throat, asthma, dysentery, and ulcers | \n|
6. | \nBark | \nGrandinin, castalagin, and glucogallin | \nDiarrhea, itching, and burning | \n|
7. | \nLeaves, stem, and bark | \nGeraniin, phenazine derivative of geraniin, Corilagin, and furosin. | \nWound healing | \n|
8. | \nLeaves | \nGeraniin | \nIntestinal disorders | \n|
9. | \nLeaves | \nCatechins and other condensed tannins | \nGastritis and ulcers | \n|
10. | \nPod | \nGallocatechin-gallate, methyl gallate, catechin, catechin gallate, galloylglucose, and epicatechin | \nFever, diabetes, and gum diseases | \n|
11. | \nFruit | \nProanthocyanidin oligomers based on catechin, gallocatechin, catechin-3-O-gallate, and gallocatechin-3-O-gallate | \nAntiseptic and cardiovascular diseases | \n|
12. | \nGall | \nTannic acid | \nBacterial, fungal, and viral infection | \n
Plant species containing tannins and their medicinal use.
Note: Table indicates that tannin and its components are present in most of the parts of the plants which offered great level of medicinal sources or pharmaceutical agents [59].
Plant tannins are a large group of natural phenolic compounds which contain a range of molecular weight between 500 and 3000 Da. Currently, they have been divided into three main subgroups: (1) hydrolysable tannins, (2) condensed tannins, and (3) phlorotannins. Hydrolysable tannins are highly soluble in water; biochemically, they consist of a central core of a carbohydrate (D-glucose) with its hydroxyl groups or polyol esterified with phenolic compounds such as gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) or hexahydroxydiphenic acid, which also known as ellagic acid (ellagitannin). Hydrolysable tannins mainly originated from Pentagalloylglucose (2-O-digalloyl-1, 3, 4, 6-tetra-O-galoyl-α-D-glucopyranose), which is a basic structural unit of hydrolysable tannins. The main source of structural diversity among the hydrolysable tannins is the presence of diverse types of oxidative linkages that give rise to oligomeric compounds with molecular weight between 2000 and 5000 Da [5]. Characteristic examples of hydrolysable tannins are (1) gallic acid; (2) hexahydroxydiphenic acid; (3) ellagic acid; and (4) pentagalloylglucose, which contain a central glucose molecule as the core attached with multiple gallic acid units, while ellagitannins are associated to hexahydroxydiphenic acid. Hydrolysable tannins are mainly present in angiosperm and dicotyledons. Both gallotannins and ellagitannins may synthesize individually or in the form of a mixture in plants. Gallic acid has been extracted from plant families, for example, Ericaceae, Geraniaceae, or Fagaceae; whereas, ellagic acid is available in Hamamelidae, Dilleniidae, and Rosidae species [6].
\nNaturally occurring condensed tannins are polyphenolic bioflavonoids, are polymers of polyhydroxy flavan-3-ol units, for example, (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin-2, (+)-gallocatechin, and flavan-3, 4-diols. They are also known as proanthocyanidins (PA) that ascribed to their hydrolysis to anthocyanidins in heated ethanol treatment. Due to presence of stereoisomerisms in hydroxylation patterns at three chiral centers, bond positions, and type of interflavan bond; proanthocyanidins are present in variety of active forms, for example, (1) (+)-catechin; (2) (−)-epicatechin; (3) (+)-gallocatechin; (4) (−)-epigallocatechin; and (5) (−)-epigallocatechin gallate. Among them, (+) catechin and (−) epicatechin are predominantly present in nature [7]. There are several plant species which offer rich source of proanthocyanidins (see Table 1). Proanthocyanidins can be obtained from red wine, green tea, cocoa, and chocolate. However, condensed tannins can further be classified on the basis of reaction rate like, slow reacting tannins like quebracho and mimosa and fast reacting tannins like pine and pecan (
After the industrial revolution, most of the synthetic chemicals were used in the diverse types of industries including food, pharma, beverage, leather, and other industries. But prolonged applications of synthetic chemicals in the area of health and other industries left a myriad of adverse effects on environment and human health. Therefore, current focus has been shifted on alternative natural compounds like tannins that can be exploited in the form of functional food, nutraceutical, cosmetology, and pharmaceutical industries.
\nThe global tannin market is expanding very rapidly; according to estimation, 1076.3 kilotons tannin was required in 2015 which expected to rise with CAGR of 5.8% from 2016 to 2025. The demand was mainly in the wine, leather, pharmaceuticals, and wood industries. In case of USA, approximately 282.4 kilotons tannins were produced; its 62.3% is used in leather industries alone. Europe is another emerging market for tannins and tannin-based products. It is due to large scale wine production, which is accounted for 38% revenue generations in Europe. Hence, global market size for tannin related industries may increase up to $3.3 billion by 2025. The applications of condensed tannins are expected to increase up to 424.8 kilotons by 2025 in comparison of 242.9 kilotons in 2015 [9].
\nBut, there are several unresolved issues linked with applications of tannins such as antinutrient effect, resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis, and lack of complete information about their interactions with other biomolecules and mode of actions in human and animals. The aim of this chapter is to present a brief discussion on the application of tannins in modern industries and to review their positive and negative aspects. It also shows that tannins are being used as sustainable raw material with other green materials in new emerging industries.
\nCurrently, hydrocarbon-based raw materials are exploited in different petrochemical industries ranging from fuel to cosmetology. It leads to the widespread deficiency of raw material eventually that creates high inflations, environmental degradation, and adverse effects on human and animal health. This necessitates to explore new alternative natural biopolymers such as polylactic acid, chitosan, lignin, and tannins for replacing with currently used hydrocarbon based polymers. Tannins can be the best natural raw material for emerging and traditional industries. This is attributed to tannin’s unique natural properties, chemical structure, and commercial properties [10]. Tannins provide several advantages like being as good biomaterial, antimicrobial, antioxidant, pharmaceutical, biopesticide, and nutraceutical agent. Tannins can be tapped for their applications in food, wood, leather, pharma, and other industries as possible raw material, as given below.
\nTannins are the secondary metabolites present in a substantial amount in plant-based food products. Due to their positive effects on the food as antibacterial and antioxidants, they are the major constituent of foods. Tannins are used as food preservatives, packaging materials, and food enhancements which owe to their protective nature.
\nCurrently, most of the food items available in the market are wrapped in the packing materials which are plastic, polyethylene, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) due to their lightness, inertness, and easy availability. In fact, packaging increases the shelf-life and prevents physical damage, contamination, and deterioration in view of environmental contaminants. But these synthetic materials pose great level of environmental and health hazards. Hence, the concept of natural and active packaging has been introduced and there being continuous efforts to make packing materials from biological sources like, chitosan, starch, gelatin, tannins, and methylcellulose [11, 12]. In view of consumer awareness and knowledge, it becomes essential to develop new wrapping material for food items. However, nitrocellulose-based package are already in use in food industry, but currently the “active packaging” also introduced. Active packaging is a better option which protects the food material, simultaneously it also acts as an additive to improve antioxidant properties of foods and absorb unwanted substances such as heavy-metals or exhausted oils and to protect against oxidation, UV, and moisture-based degradation.
\nRecently, a packaging material was prepared by introducing tannins into cellulose nanofibrils in a single step process of mechanical fibrillation. This newly developed packaging film offers high density, and enhanced surface hydrophobicity which resulted in almost six times improvement in air-barrier and antioxidants properties. Simultaneously, nanocellulose-tannin-based films are active packaging materials which also provide a green, sustainable, nontoxic packaging source for food and pharmaceutical products [11, 12].
\nTwo perishable food items, Cherry tomatoes (
Generally, chitin is used as packing material, but its poor antibacterial and antioxidant abilities make it unsuitable for food packaging; therefore, tannic acid was introduced in the chitin film via single step process of interfacial assembly. Tannins addition to packaging has significantly improved the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of chitin-based packaging film. Improved quality of chitin-based film is mainly attributed to hydrogen and hydrophobic bond formation between chitin and tannins [14].
\nProtein is a major component of food, and its protection is of utmost significance in packed foods. So far, tannin- and carbohydrate-based packaging films were prepared. But, a soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and tannin-based nanocluster assembly is prepared by introducing calcium ions that creates a cross-linking nucleus in membrane. Linkage between nanoassembly and proteins offer additional advantages such as high level of antimicrobial properties and excellent cell biocompatibility which was proved by FT-IR, XRD, and DSC tests [15]. Tannin-based packing materials thus offer green, sustainable, and ecofriendly alternative that can be used in the food preservation and biomedical fields.
\nMicroorganism, fungus, yeasts, virus, pollens, and chemicals are the biggest threat to food’s shelf-life in home as well as in food markets. Biochemically, proanthocyanidins and gallic acid are flavonoid monomers by nature and are major food constituents isolated from pomegranate, strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, walnuts, almonds, and seeds. Various studies have proved that tannins prevent growth of microorganisms. Tannins are quite effective against the resistant methicillin-resistant
Food-based viral infection is another major health problem in human and animals. Currently, blueberry proanthocyanidins were tested against human norovirus growth in apple juice (AJ) and milk with 2% fat tannin-rich fraction from pomegranate rind (TFPR) inhibited the growth of human norovirus [18]. Hence, hydrolysable tannins are potential antiviral agents that used can be used in the food preservation to make food items more safe and preserve for prolonged period by using natural compounds.
\nGuava is a major tropical fruit which is also considered as a model system to study climacteric and non-climacteric fruit ripening process. Hence, it provides enough opportunities to understand post-harvest management of perishable fruits. In order to improve the shelf-life of fruits, various types of wax films, coating, and chemical treatments are used for long time. Tannins isolated from various natural sources act as preservatives due to their antibacterial and antioxidant properties. A coating material of tannic acid cross-linked with zein protein was used for coating on the guava fruit. Actually, zein is a prolamin (protein) isolated from aqueous alcohol-soluble fraction of corn (
Normal food components mainly provide the energy and essential nutrients for the growth and development for animals including human, but food also consist of bioactive molecules or phytochemicals and their inclusion in the appropriate quantity can act as possible therapeutically active agents also known as nutraceuticals, for example, (poly) phenol-rich tannins [20]. Currently, study of molecular mechanisms and pathways such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, inflammation, differentiation, angiogenesis, DNA repair pathway, and carcinogens activation offer new therapeutic targets. The application of tannins has great potential as a nutraceuticals in order to prevent various diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular, kidney diseases, and diabetes. Major sources of tannins are fruits, vegetables, bark, wood, leaves, and seeds such as green tea, apples, cocoa, chocolate, grapes, apricots, and cherries. Among them, role of tannins present in the tea and coffee to prevent the cancers have been studied by large number of scientists. The green tea contains condensed tannin namely epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and epicatechin gallate (ECG), which have shown anticancerous activity in terms of inflammatory and antioxidant properties both in vivo and in vitro experimental systems [21]. Actually, EGCG decrease activation of NF-kB and (AP-1) TNF-α pathways simultaneously which ultimately reduced the production of IFN-γ. It can also enhance the apoptosis process through suppression of COX-2 enzyme that leads to the production of PGE2 (prostaglandins) in various types of cell lines of colon cancer cells, such as SW837, HT-29, and HCA-7 cells. Being a polyphenol, EGCG is a strong antioxidant that reduces the activity of nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and conversely increases superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in case of colonic mucosa. Hence, EGCG can improve the effect of cancer chemopreventive potency by preventing the cell proliferation, migration, and invasion of tumor in cancer patients [20].
\nIn last two decades, a great interest has been emerged in the protective role of tannins against free radicals and reactive oxygen species produced inside cells, which caused degenerations and diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular ailments. Proanthocyanidins have cardiovascular protective effect due to their antioxidant activity, inhibition of LDL oxidation, ability of vasodilation, antiplatelet activity, and protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury. Another tannin-based compound, gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid), a naturally occurring with low molecular weight, plays very important in the protection of cardiovascular health through rejuvenating the antioxidant system which include large number of enzymes such as SOD, CAT, GPx, GRx, and GST which constitutes a scavenging system against the free radicals [22].
\nDiabetes mellitus, associated with high level of glucose concentration in the blood, is harmful for whole tissues in human body. Several investigations have shown that it can be reduced or managed by adding the appropriate amount of tannins in the nutrition or supplements of patients [23]. Because, tannins improve the glucose uptakes in body cell and simultaneously reduce the synthesis of adipocytes, hence act as the potential therapeutic agents. In a highly significant study, it shows that epigallocatechin gallate increases the glucose uptake by regulating insulin-signaling pathways, such as PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) and p38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) activation and GLUT-4 translocation [24]. Tannins help reduction of blood glucose levels and offer antioxidants effects [23]. Therefore, it can be concluded that tannin-based foods are potential agents used as either nutraceutical or supplementary agents in food or medicine. A dimer of proanthocyanidin acts against the hyperglycemia that was created by sucrose feeding and by inhibiting the activity of α-glucosidase enzyme. The efficacy of proanthocyanidin has also been proved by molecular docking and strong inhibitory activity experiments.
\nIt is already mentioned that nutraceuticals or functional foods have the health promoting effect on the human and animal health. Several epidemiological studies have clearly established a relationship between (poly) phenol-rich food items and human health. It has substantially enhanced consumer awareness about the tannin-rich diet, and their disease prevention capability; therefore, there is high demand of functional foods. A large number of tannin-based compounds are isolated and characterized from fruits and vegetables (Table 1). But, despite high cost incurred on extraction and separation of tannin, it offer only low yield which is a major cause of concern [25]. Additionally, it does not provide the pure content which hindered to test the efficacy and absorption of tannin-based foods in human subject. Grape-seed proanthocyanidins (GSP) were lyophilized to improve their in vivo absorbability. It was achieved by esterification of the water-soluble GSP and immobilized lipase. Lipophilicity was tested by 1-octanol/water partition coefficient as the absorbability parameter. Further, it was observed that GSP derivatives, 3′,5′-2-O-lauroyl epigallocatechin, 3′-O-lauroyl catechin, 3′-O-lauroyl epicatechin, and 3′,3″,5″-3-O-lauroyl epicatechin gallate show high level of radical scavenging activity; hence, it can be used as the strong antioxidant in food to prevent the major degenerative diseases and aging, which are generally caused by the free radicals in the tissues [25]. Recently, B-type proanthocyanidins were isolated and purified from fruits of elephant apple (
Wood is the inseparable part of the furniture and several important industries. Wood contains organic acids, tannins, and lignocellulosic material which are most susceptible to biological, chemical, and physical decaying agents. Therefore, wood requires a large number of synthetic adhesives, glues, antitermite chemicals, and other coating materials in order to protect it. However, these materials have tremendously benefitted the wood industry, but they adversely affect the environment conditions. Because synthetic phenolics, amino resins, and formaldehyde used in wood industries are generally carcinogenic in nature. To overcome this problem, scientists are investigating natural materials of herbal or animal origins, such as tannins, that can be the best option or alternative material to be used in the wood industries [27].
\nIn recent years, a lot of attempts have been made to improve the bio-durability and commercial properties of wood and wood-based furniture by using tannin-based preservatives. Although both condensed and hydrolysable tannins are used as adhesive, but mimosa tannin is proved to be the most effective wood glue, which attributed to good cross-linking, auto-condensation, poly condensations reactions, and hyper activity. Tannin-based adhesive is proved to be harder than pure synthetic adhesive due to great level of bonding with other aldehydes or different non aldehyde hardeners (glyoxal, furfuryl alcohol, hexamine, etc.) and lignocellulosic materials. Several industries in South Africa and America are using the mimosa and quebracho-based tannins that could reduce the formaldehyde-based emission from the industries. A similar technology has been used to produce the interior and exterior grade particle board largely used in the furniture industry [28]. Apart from this, catechin and gallic acid-based epoxide adhesives and starch-based adhesives from tannins were also produced. Epoxy adhesives are produced by reactions between catechin and epichloridrin via alkylation in the presence of unsaturated halogenated compound that leads to the oxidation. Tannin-based adhesives have been used for grinding wheels, angle grinder disks, and automotive brake pads matrices also.
\nCoating material is extremely useful to prevent wood surface from biotic and abiotic adversities like, rain, winter, and summer, and insects and microorganisms. Generally, coating material comprises of polyurethane and isocyanates. The urethane-based coating material is prepared by using the lignin and lignosulfonate/hydroxypropylate. Recently, Pinus tannins and di-isocyanates were used to prepare more effective coating material by exploiting hydroxypropylation and hydroxybutylation reactions which enhanced the bonding patterns between hydroxyl groups provided by tannins (flavonoids) and isocyanates [29]. However, tannins and isocyanate-based adhesives are good and environmental friendly, but these should be replaced with more bio-based material like tannins because they are naturally designed to protect wood against fungal attacks and natural decaying process of wood.
\nAfter the industrial revolution, large numbers of synthetic chemicals were used as drug molecules to treat numerous diseases but they left several adverse effects on the human and environment. Therefore, attention has been shifted to identify new alternative natural compounds that are to be clinically effective and create minimum adverse effects. A large number of natural compounds such as polyphenolic-based secondary metabolites, for example, tannins, are isolated and characterized as preventive therapeutic agents, which can be isolated from fruits, vegetables, or plants or expressed in the microorganism by metabolic engineering. Many studies have clearly shown that tannins are natural antioxidants linked with the prevention of degenerative diseases such as atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and certain types of cancers by acting as antioxidants and antibacterial.
\nReactive oxygen species such as, hydroxyl radical (HO•), superoxide anion (O2•−), and peroxyl radical (ROO•) and the non-radicals like, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) are produced in biological systems. They adversely affect cellular protective systems which are responsible for many degenerative diseases in human. In order to overcome toxic effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS), tannins can be used as ROS scavenging agents. Actually, tannins have the ability to donate electron to a free radical or ROS and make them more stable compounds therefore, render less harmful effects on cellular environment [22, 30, 31]. Tannins also help by supporting antioxidant enzymes involved in the ROS scavenging activities, simultaneously inactivating the metal ions produced by free radicals. Many tannin-based products such as gallic acid (GA) (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid), proanthocyanidins, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and ellagic acid-4-O-α-D-xylopyranoside have been tested and found highly effective as antioxidants. Gallic acid, isolated from many plant extracts, shows strong antioxidant properties responsible for the antioxidant and anticancer activities. Moreover, gallic acid derivatives (GADs) are present in large number of herbal medicines and formulations used for variety of diseases. Tannin derivatives like mucic acid gallate, mucic acid lactone gallate, monogalloylglucose, gallic acid, digalloylglucose, putranjivain A, galloyl-HHDP-glucose, elaeocarpusin, and chebulagic acid isolated from fruits of
Synthetic antibiotics are being used as antibacterial agents for a long time in medical and animal sciences. But prolonged application of antibiotics lead to the development of resistance against the antimicrobial agents among the bacterial species attributed to selective evolutionary processes, a problem being faced by researcher world over. Nowadays, methicillin-resistant
However, many antibiotic resistance mechanisms are prevailed in the resilient microbial strains, but the mechanisms studied in
Tannins have been used against the ATCC 43300 and MRSA clinical strains as membrane pump inhibitors and their mode of action was studied by using next-generation sequencing (NGS) in order to get deep understanding of antibacterial mechanisms at genome, transcriptome, and protein synthesis level. This investigation indicates that tannins mainly disrupt protein synthesis mechanisms by bringing major changes in ribosome pathways, which further caused a change in the translation processes in MRSA cells eventually leading to reduction in bacterial growth. Hence, tannins can be used as potential tools against the anti-MRSA agents in clinical application particularly, in antiseptic body solutions and antibacterial cream [31]. More recently, three ellagitannin-based tannins and isorugosin-A extracted in acetone from the fresh leaves of
Tannin and its derivatives show great antibacterial properties which are used against a large number of bacterial species such as
The antibacterial properties of tannins are not only studied in animals but in plants too. Several microorganisms cause the substantial loss in the fruit, vegetable, and plant species resulting in great economic loss. After the green revolution, huge amount of pesticides were used to prevent the bacterial and insect attacks in crops which lead to the environmental pollution and soil contamination. But bio-based pesticides or natural products can be the best option of chemical-based antibacterial agents. Recently, crude methanol extract of
The growth of fungi such as
Immune system plays a very significant role to cope up with infectious agents like bacteria, virus, fungus, pollens, and parasites. Some experiments show that tannins modulate human immune system in a highly positive manner, thus tannins act as immunomodulatory agents in the battle against infectious diseases. Leishmaniosis, a disease that caused by parasitic protozoan’s complex, comprise of more than 20 different species of
Bacterial and fungal infection is also a threat to the poultry, livestock, and animal husbandry which is responsible for high level of mortality. To overcome this problem, several antibiotics have been used for decades that proved to be very effective; consequently, it improves animal and poultry production in the world. But it is well known that extreme application of antibiotics promotes the antibiotic-resistant among the microorganisms in cattle [37, 38, 39]. Therefore, in-feed antibiotics and plant-based antibacterial agents, such as phytogenic compounds (e.g., tannin), have been discovered and promoted, which have great promises in future. In recent past, great attention has been given to antibacterial activities of tannins and their effects as dietary source in animal [37]. It has been concluded that tannins with saponins and essential oils can be used as in-feed antibiotics against bacteria, fungi, and yeasts. Because, tannins are toxic to bacteria and potentially inhibit growth of
Tannins can also act as the antinutrients in rumens of livestock due to their binding to vital biomolecules in biological systems. Several adverse effects such as availability of nutrients, metal ions chelation, binding with proteins and hinder the growth of beneficial microflora have been observed in the cattle gut. To test the adverse effect of tannin as diet component on lamb gut microflora and fermentation was studied. Both types of tannins, that is, hydrolysable and condensed with 4% extract of chestnut (
Cancer is a fatal disease and its occurrence in the human population is the major cause of concern. However, the role of tannins as chemopreservants in the cure of cancer has been widely discussed by many researchers [42]. The chemoprevention “is a means of cancer management by which the occurrence of the disease can be entirely prevented, slowed, or reversed via administration of one or more naturally occurring and/or synthetic compounds” [43]. Currently, target-based delivery of anticancer agents to the site of cancer or tumor is major challenge. In order to target tumor at nanolevel, cancer nanotechnology has made tremendous progress in last one decade. It is assumed that, if drug is delivered at nanolevel at site of tumor with a high level of specificity so that cancer can be better managed. Nanoparticles of various tannin-based compounds are also prepared but their toxicity to normal body cells left major side effects. Therefore, encapsulation of many types of tannin like, epigallocatechin-3-gallate in chitosan-tripolyphosphate nanoparticles was investigated for target-based delivery to tumor. It is well known that (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate, (−)-epigallocatechin, (−)-epicatechin-3-gallate and (−)-epicatechin act as anticancer and antioxidant agents. The nanoemulsions and liposomes of tannins have proven highly effective in target-based delivery of anticancer drugs in case of HepG2 cells [44]. So far, nanoencapsulation method is proved only in in vitro studies and animal models but it is rarely proved effective in normal and cancerous cells.
\nIn current era, viral infection is the major threat to the human and animal population. Tannins also show antiviral activity in case of several diseases such as HIV, herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2). In case of herpes simplex virus 2 silver nanoparticles with tannic acid (TA-AgNPs) act as microbicide by preventing adsorption of viral particle in the body. Additionally, tannins also provide the better adjutant properties for example, substantial improvement of production of IFN-gamma+ CD8+ T-cells, activated B cells, and plasma cells. In case of spleen also, tannins promotes production of higher amount of IFN-gamma+ NK cells and effector-memory CD8+ T-cells particularly, in case of second challenge against HSV-2 immune response [45].
\nFree-living protozoa species of
In leather industry, tannins are generally used to convert animal hide into leather. Here, the main role of tannins is to protect leather from microorganism and heat related deterioration [47]. Tanning industry is thought to be the oldest industry and was started in north western regions of Europe after the Roman conquest [48]. Tannins bind with the skin proteins and protect it from petrification, which is owed to the antibacterial property of tannins. This is due to the chemical bonds established between collagen, the main constitutive protein of skin, for example, collagens, and the tannins present in the vegetable materials. It is estimated that about 15–45% tannins binds with collagens per dry weight. After the industrial revolution, chromium-based tanning was introduced to achieve fast and speedy leather production. But chromium is a potentially carcinogenic and creates high level of pollution and soil contamination. Additionally, it limits recovery and reuse of wastes from leather industries. Water from leather industry creates more pollution, and increase biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) in polluted water. In order to overcome this problem, plant-based tannins can be substitute for chromium in leather processing. It is already mentioned that vegetable tannins were used in the leather industry since historical times. But now, tannins from different parts of plants have been utilized in leather productions [49]. Plant tannins offer many benefits such as high quality and thermal stable leather products.
\nIn addition to above mentioned applications, tannins are also used in diverse types of industries, such as paper industry where high pressure mimosa tannin impregnated alpha cellulose paper is prepared. This impregnated paper offer more abrasive resistance, adhesion properties, water vapor resistance, and staining properties [50]. Recently, natural tannin-based foam without any formaldehyde is prepared that used as acoustic absorbers, metal ion adsorption, panels crash protection, packaging, etc., but low mechanical strength of tannin foams is major impediment in its further applications [51].
\nBeverage industry is well known for tannins applications particularly, in case of the wine making. Like leather industry, wine making is also very old industry since historic time. Tannins are used in wine to provide color formations, antioxidants, aroma, proteins precipitations, and flavor development. The source of tannins in the wine is grapes skin, seeds, and addition of oak flakes which add market values to wine [52].
\nTannins are phenolic-based secondary metabolites that are present in the plant kingdom, including algae. Actually, tannins produced in the plant body and involved in the plant protections and act as antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anthelmintic, antiviral, antioxidant, and deferred cattle. Hence, they help plants to fight various types’ infections. In addition to biological roles, they also play very important roles in industrial sector, animal feeding, mining, chemical industry, and tanning industry. But there are several limitations associated with the tannins. The main negative effect of tannins as food is their absorptions and binding with various types of biomolecules such as proteins, starch, and metal ions in the digestive system, hence hinders their nutritional availability to human and animals, for example, proanthocyanidins. Some experiments show that complex of tannins and proteins are resistant to various types of proteases in animal digestive system that make proteins unavailable for livestock nutrition. Dietary tannins bind with the proline-rich proteins and as result two types of soluble and insoluble complexes formed which is responsible for astringent sensation [53]. The astringency feeling is perceived by the tongue in the form of diffuse feeling associated with extreme dryness and roughness in mouth [54]. Some experiments also show that tannins also decrease activities of intestinal microflora, consequently less absorption of organic matter and soluble fiber that attributed to damage the mucosal lining of the digestive system. Moreover, high dose of tannins like catechin used in supplements can cause renal failure, hepatitis, fever, hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and skin disorders. Due to the structural complexities, tannins are also considered as potential pollutants in industries, where tannins are used as the major substrate.
\nSingle-meal bioavailability studies have shown major antinutrient activity of tannins is metal ions chelation that cause severe deficiency of essential minerals in human. In this series iron deficiency is most prevalent in population particularly in the developing countries. Recently, single-meal studies in case of hydrolysable and oligomeric catechin and epicatechin tannins (tea and tannic acid) have conducted. It shows reduced iron bioavailability in diet particularly in long term, but it needs more investigation by using appropriate animal model systems in order to study antinutritional role of tannins [55]. Moreover, tannins not only affect iron availability, but also iron metabolism; the ferritin, an iron transport protein, is adversely affected by tannin binding in soybean seed ferritin (SSF) and consequently changes the tertiary/quaternary structure of the protein.
\nIn view of current scientific investigation, it has now become possible that tannins can be exploited in a better way because they are major sustainable raw materials for green chemistry in future. Recently, several tannase or tannin acyl hydrolase enzymes have isolated, characterized, and classified from microorganism and fungi, hence toxic effect of tannins is reduced through hydrolysis and oxidation [56, 57]. Various species of filamentous fungi that produced tannase are used for bioremediation in leather tannin industries.
\nSeveral studies have been conducted to overcome the adverse effect of tannins in the food item like, fruit and vegetable. In a major breakthrough, lactic acid bacteria fermentation-like incubation is exploited in
Tannins are phenolic-based secondary metabolites that are present in the plant kingdom, including algae. Actually, tannins produced in the plant body involved in the plant protections and act as antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anthelmintic, antiviral, antioxidant, and deferred cattle. Hence, they help plants to fight various types of infections. In addition to biological roles, they also play very important roles in industrial sector, animal feeding, mining, chemical industry, and tanning industry. But there are several limitations associated with the tannins applications. The main negative effect of tannins as food are their absorptions and binding with various types of biomolecules such as, proteins, starch, and metal ions in the digestive system; hence, they hinder their nutritional availability to human and animals.
\nI would like to thank to my Institution, GGD SD College (Panjab University) India, for providing me all the facilities and support for preparation of this manuscript.
\nAuthors declare no conflict of interest.
Authors also acknowledge the contribution of publications which could not be included in the reference section due to lack of space.
\nproanthocyanidins
\npolyethylene and low-density polyethylene
\nlinear low-density polyethylene
\nwater vapor permeability
\nsoluble dietary fiber
\nmethicillin-resistant
tannin-rich fraction from pomegranate rind
\nepigallocatechin gallate
\nelectron spray ionization and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass
\nsilver nanoparticles with tannic acid
\nherpes simplex virus 2
\nGraphene belongs to the group of carbon comprising of a single layer of atoms organized in a 2D honeycomb structure [1]. Pristine graphene usage is limited due to its difficulty in bottom-up synthesis [2], lesser solubility [3], and the lower tendency of accumulation due to had proved challenging due to difficult van der Waals interactions [4]. To overcome the above limitations, alternative compounds may be derived from graphite or other carbon sources through top-down approaches, which can also incorporate functionalized oxygen groups on its surface. The protonated solvents has the tendency to form multi-layered graphene oxide by the process of graphene oxidation, which contains hexagraphene oxidenal based graphene structure. These derivatives are proven as efficient fillers in several polymer nanocomposite materials because of their uniform distribution across the polymer matrices [5]. This property has increased the functionality of graphene derivatives in paints, efficient and precise sensors, flexible displays, efficient solar panels, packing materials [6], sensitive electronic devices prevention [7], for resisting the corrosion on different materials [8] and in bio-imaging, biosensors, antibacterial agents, 3D bio printing, photo thermal therapy, drug delivery, gene therapy, and tissue engineering (Figure 1) [9].
Role of graphene in the area of bio-imaging, biosensors, antibacterial agents, 3D bio printing, photo thermal therapy, drug delivery, gene therapy and tissue engineering. Reprinted with the permission from [
Palmeri and Papi [10] studied different ways of interactions between various graphene-based materials and the viruses, which reveals that the graphene-based materials, can help in killing or blocking the viruses. Several recent studies have also revealed that graphene derivatives can be considered as a potential material for protecting from the COVID-19 virus [10, 11].
Earlier research suggests that graphene has a great viral hindrance limit. In 2012, the primary proof of graphene antiviral impacts was realized when fine layers of reduced graphene oxide -Tungsten oxide were misrepresented for photo inactivation of virus infecting bacteria under obvious light illumination [12]. Recent studies exhibited how the coronavirus spike S1 protein receptor-restricting area can cooperate with heparin and alternated compliance. It has suggestions for the advancement of initial remedial by adapting heparin and glycosamminoglycans-based antivirals [13], including treatment of graphene oxide based surface with sulfuric acid or sulfate. Sulfur reacted NPs functionalized with reduced graphene oxide had been effectively used to collect and photo thermally pulverize herpes simplex infection type 1 utilizing near-infrared (NIR) light [14]. This information brings up how graphene oxide detention could be combined with NIR medicines of lungs. As Gr and GrO absorbers fall under the NIR tissue transparency window, they allow the incident light deep into the body. The combination of carbon dots and natural antimicrobial polyphenol curcumin is proved to be an efficient model for preventing COVID-19 [15]. The respiratory syncytial infection is treated through the combination of Cyclodextrins-functionalized sulfonated graphene and curcumin-stacked cyclodextrins functionalized sulfonated graphene, GSCC. The sulfonate clusters on the GSCC can simulate the cell exterior and restrain RSV disease by an economical inhibition mechanism, recreating cell receptors utilized for infection connection. GSCC NPs impacts are because of a twofold component, by curcumin-intervened viral inactivation and by the self-consciousness of the infection connection to the host cell layers [16].
Revealed in December 2019, another lethal SAR-CoV-2 infection begins circling among the people [17] and spreads through the respiratory beds [18]. Additionally, an individual can likewise get in contact with this infection by interacting with the debased articles or exteriors and afterward getting in touch with mouth, nose, or eyes. A new report states that SAR-CoV-2 has a variable life span on different surfaces [19]. In comparison with Cu and cardboard, the adherence of coronavirus is estimated to be greater on the surfaces of plastic and tempered steel. Besides, the infection is affirmed to be steadier on smooth surfaces compared with uneven surfaces like printing/tissue papers, wood, and materials. Much more problematic is the discernible degree of the infection on the outside film of the surgical masks, which is 7 days [16]. These virus-infected touch surfaces, which can retain the virus for longer periods can spread the virus at a faster rate. In the current epidemic circumstance, where the coronavirus infections are dramatically expanding every day worldwide, improvement of the effective enemy of coronavirus protecting surfaces or coatings can be a potential solution for minimizing the spread of the virus through any source [20, 21]. Graphene or graphene derivatives are suitable for their antibacterial properties [22] and the study by Sametband [23] revealed the antiviral characteristics of graphene oxide and slightly reduced sulfuirnc acid treated graphene oxide against herpes simplex virus Type-1 by a specified unique mechanism. Comparable to receptor heparin sulfate cell surface, graphene oxide and its derivatives contain groups of negative charge elements and so the two moieties challenging each other in connection with HSV-1 as shown in Figure 2. Nanomaterials can be considered as main inhibitor in defending the Vero cell from the disease. The viral reduction effectiveness of graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene oxide-polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) composite, graphene oxide poly (diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride) composite with forerunners graphite and graphite oxide was analyzed by Ye et al. [24]. This research has opened a huge antiviral tendency of graphene oxide against Pseudorabies infection and porcine pestilence looseness of the bowels infection. He concludes that antiviral characteristics of graphene oxide are ascribed to its adversely charged, high-pitched structure. The graphene oxide formed with PVP, non-ionic polymer demonstrated intense antiviral movement, nonetheless, PDDA (cationic polymer) bound graphene oxide uncovered no infection hindrance, proposing negative charge as an essential for antiviral characteristics. Song and other authors [25] has revealed the graphene oxide based label-free technique to identify and sterilize natural infections, for example, Enterovirus 71 and endemic gastrointestinal avian flu an infection, which have incredible ecological strength and less affectability for carbon-based purifiers and detergents. Redox reactions between the graphene oxide layer and the viruses due to the physico-chemical process will act as an important parameter in destroying the viruses. Under higher temperature environment, the antiviral efficiency of the graphene oxide sheet will be improved. Chen and the co-authors [26] revealed that graphene oxide sheets are accounted for to display critical antiviral restraint possibilities towards covered feline COVID and connecting silver particles into graphene oxide structure widens its antiviral capability in the direction of non-enveloped infectious bursal disease virus. Yang et al. [27] synthesized curcumin stacked β-CD functionalized sulfonated graphene composite and researched its antiviral competence beside negative sense respiratory syncytial infection (RSV). The results demonstrated that GSCC could thwart RSV from tainting the host cells by deactivating the contamination clearly and blocking the association of the disease and have prophylactic and medicinal effects towards the contamination. Du et al. [28] researched the antiviral effect of graphene oxide - Silver nanoparticles composite as an afterthought impacts of porcine regenerative and respiratory problem disease. The outcomes propose that the presentation of infection with graphene oxide -Ag NPs composite block the infection to enter the host cell with a accuracy of 59.2% and advances the creation of IFN-invigorating qualities and interferon-α which hinders the infection expansion. Accordingly, Graphene-based surfaces have enormous probability in the improvement of antiviral surfaces and coatings for keeping fouling from harmful and infectious infections including corona virus, and could control the illness transmission [29]. Especially, for coronavirus infection, structures with higher carboxyl groups and less endurance of this infection on Cu surfaces, graphene oxide/reduced graphene oxide -SO3 coatings enhanced with Cu nanoparticles/Cu particles could be a inspiring possibility for the advancement of hostile to coronavirus surfaces. These materials are important in successfully catching and destabilizing the infection structures and limiting their endurance time on different covered surfaces [30]. The schematic representation of the viral restriction process from the graphene or graphene derivative based coatings is understandable from Figure 3.
(a) COVID-19 structure [
Sequential representation of the graphene or graphene derivative based coatings in repelling various viruses including coronavirus. Adapted image [
Zhong et al. [31] fabricated graphene layer-based superhydrophobic low-melting temperature nonwoven surgical masks through dual-mode laser-induced forward transfer method with excellent self-cleaning and photo thermal property. These functional masks are reusable after sunlight sterilization because the surface temperature can quickly increase to 80 °C under sunlight. In addition, these functional masks show the tendency of salt-rejection, which increases its usage lifetime. The superhydrophobic surgical masks, which are, produced through roll-to-roll production, give efficient protection against viruses. SEM image of pristine surgical mask reveals that the melt-blown fibers of 20 μm were smooth and exhibiting non-super hydrophobic properties. The wetting tendency of this mask is estimated through a static contact angle, which is observed to be 110o, representing a hydrophobic surface. The disadvantage observed with this mask is that the droplets are attaching to the surface. After using dual-mode laser-induced forward transfer method, it was observed that nanostructured flakes were seen on the mask surface varying its size from 100 nm to few micrometers and the contact was observed to be 141o, which represents its superhydrophobicity (Figure 4).
Contact angle measurement and SEM images on uncoated and coated graphene nonwoven fiber surgical mask Reprinted with the permission from [
The multi-layered masks for combatting COVID-19 need to be designed as per World Health Organization guidelines i.e. the innermost layer should behave like a hydrophilic surface and the rest two layers i.e. middle and outside layers are to be in hydrophobic nature. There are several combinations of different materials and fabrics, which have a greater tendency to increase the efficiency of filtration and breathability. As the porosity of the layer increases from the 3rd layer to the 1st layer, the extent of droplet filtration will also increase (Figure 5). He also reveals that tightly woven fabric in the third layer will attain 80% particle filtration efficiency and enhances breathability. The filtration effectiveness of any mas depends on the most penetrating particle size, which is in the range of 0.04–0.4 μm. The extent of MPPS filtration varies with the velocity at which filtration is done, fiber porosity & diameter, and particle size distribution [32].
Multi-layered masks with varying porosity from hydrophilicity to superhydrophobicity. Reprinted with the permission from [
Cytotoxicity valuation of nanomaterials is important and beneficial for real understanding of their biological action. The
Graphene and graphene derived materials have excellent antimicrobial, anti-viral and self-cleaning properties and found application in various industries. Graphene and graphene-based material have recently received enormous attention due to their applicability in tacking lethal SAR-CoV-2 infection. The study suggests that the graphene-based coating on different surfaces tend to neutralize viruses and bacteria, to a varying degree, due to their antiviral and antimicrobial activity. The graphene coated surgical masks could control the transmission of virus and protection from the lethal covid-19 virus. It is to strengthen the research in this field to evaluate the effectiveness of graphene and graphene-based material for their applicability in fighting the Covid-19 virus.
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Marine eutrophication has a negative impact on food security, ecosystem health and economy through disruptions in tourism, fisheries and health industries. Both N and P have known point and non-point sources. Control of point sources has been easier than non-point sources particularly agricultural sources for both N and P as well as fossil fuel combustion for N, which remains a major challenge. Implementing mitigation strategies for N has been reported to be effective for P mitigation; however, the converse is not true due to mobility and volatility of N. Excessive N and P cause algae blooms, anoxic conditions, and ocean acidification with these conditions leading to dead zones, fish kill, toxin production, altered plant species diversity, food web disruption, tourism disruption and health issues. Management of N and P pollution includes reduction of leaching from farms through crop selection, timely and precise application of fertilizer and building artificial wetlands, proper management of animal waste, reduction of fossil fuel N emission, mitigating N and P from urban sources and restoration of aquatic ecosystem. Mitigation measures need to focus on dual nutrient strategy for successful N and P reduction.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Lucy Ngatia, Johnny M. 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Increasing concerns about pollution levels in the oceans and coastal regions have led to multiple approaches for measuring and mitigating marine pollution, in order to achieve sustainable marine water quality. Satellite remote sensing, covering large and remote areas, is considered useful for detecting and monitoring marine pollution. Recent developments in sensor technologies have transformed remote sensing into an effective means of monitoring marine areas. Different remote sensing platforms and sensors have their own capabilities for mapping and monitoring water pollution of different types, characteristics, and concentrations. 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Increasing concerns about pollution levels in the oceans and coastal regions have led to multiple approaches for measuring and mitigating marine pollution, in order to achieve sustainable marine water quality. Satellite remote sensing, covering large and remote areas, is considered useful for detecting and monitoring marine pollution. Recent developments in sensor technologies have transformed remote sensing into an effective means of monitoring marine areas. Different remote sensing platforms and sensors have their own capabilities for mapping and monitoring water pollution of different types, characteristics, and concentrations. 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In this chapter, a broad overview of recent empirical statistical and machine learning techniques for modelling PM10 is presented. This includes the instrumentation used to measure particulate matter, data preprocessing, the selection of explanatory variables and modelling methods. Key features of some PM10 prediction models developed in the last 10 years are described, and current work modelling and predicting PM10 trends in New Zealand—a remote country of islands in the South Pacific Ocean—are examined. 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The air pollution is because of a complex interaction of dispersion and emission of toxic pollutants from manufactories. Air pollution caused due to the introduction of dust particles, gases, and smoke into the atmosphere exceeds the air quality levels. Air pollutants are the precursor of photochemical smog and acid rain that causes the asthmatic problems leading into serious illness of lung cancer, depletes the stratospheric ozone, and contributes in global warming. In the present industrial economy era, air pollution is an unavoidable product that cannot be completely removed but stern actions can reduce it. Pollution can be reduced through collective as well as individual contributions. There are multiple sources of air pollution, which are industries, fossil fuels, agro waste, and vehicular emissions. Industrial processes upgradation, energy efficiency, agricultural waste burning control, and fuel conversion are important aspects to reducing pollutants which create the industrial air pollution. Mitigations are necessary to reduce the threat of air pollution using the various applicable technologies like CO2 sequestering, industrial energy efficiency, improving the combustion processes of the vehicular engines, and reducing the gas production from agriculture cultivations.",book:{id:"10178",slug:"environmental-emissions",title:"Environmental Emissions",fullTitle:"Environmental Emissions"},signatures:"Rabia Munsif, Muhammad Zubair, Ayesha Aziz and Muhammad Nadeem Zafar",authors:[{id:"251787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"318519",title:"Ms.",name:"Rabia",middleName:"Jathol",surname:"Munsif",slug:"rabia-munsif",fullName:"Rabia Munsif"},{id:"320637",title:"Ms.",name:"Ayesha",middleName:null,surname:"Aziz",slug:"ayesha-aziz",fullName:"Ayesha Aziz"},{id:"320675",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"muhammad-nadeem-zafar",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem Zafar"}]},{id:"48090",title:"Biological Contamination of Air in Indoor Spaces",slug:"biological-contamination-of-air-in-indoor-spaces",totalDownloads:2784,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"4572",slug:"current-air-quality-issues",title:"Current Air Quality Issues",fullTitle:"Current Air Quality Issues"},signatures:"Anca Maria Moldoveanu",authors:[{id:"25924",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"anca-moldoveanu",fullName:"Anca Moldoveanu"}]},{id:"64537",title:"Degradation Pathways of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Environment",slug:"degradation-pathways-of-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-in-the-environment",totalDownloads:2111,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are resistant to most of the known environmental degradation processes. 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Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",signatures:"Ricardo O. 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