FDA and EU aflatoxin regulatory guidance for feed and feed ingredients.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"869",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Olive Oil - Constituents, Quality, Health Properties and Bioconversions",title:"Olive Oil",subtitle:"Constituents, Quality, Health Properties and Bioconversions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The health-promoting effects attributed to olive oil, and the development of the olive oil industry have intensified the quest for new information, stimulating wide areas of research. This book is a source of recently accumulated information. It covers a broad range of topics from chemistry, technology, and quality assessment, to bioavailability and function of important molecules, recovery of bioactive compounds, preparation of olive oil-based functional products, and identification of novel pharmacological targets for the prevention and treatment of certain diseases.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-921-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4368-0",doi:"10.5772/1378",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"olive-oil-constituents-quality-health-properties-and-bioconversions",numberOfPages:524,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"b26e27a335ddfd64f9583593dbd8ceb5",bookSignature:"Boskou Dimitrios",publishedDate:"February 1st 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/869.jpg",numberOfDownloads:143575,numberOfWosCitations:256,numberOfCrossrefCitations:66,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:280,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:17,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:602,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 22nd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 22nd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 27th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 26th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 24th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"77212",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Boskou",slug:"dimitrios-boskou",fullName:"Dimitrios Boskou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/77212/images/3142_n.jpg",biography:"Dimitrios Boskou received his diploma in chemistry from the School of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Hellas; his Philosophy Doctor degree from the University of London, UK; and his degree of Doctor of Science from the School of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Hellas. He served as an assistant, lecturer, assistant professor, associate professor, professor and head of the Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (1970–2006). From 1986 to 1998, he was a member of the IUPAC Commission on Oils, Fats, and Derivatives. In the years 1995–2005, he served as a member of the Supreme Chemical Council, Athens. From 1995 to 2012, he was a member of the Scientific Committee for Food of the European Commission and a member and expert of the Food Additives Panel of the European Food Safety Authority. His achievements are: over 90 published papers and reviews; author and editor of 8 books; author of 22 chapters in books related to major and minor constituents of fats, natural antioxidants, olive oil and frying of food; and contributor to international scientific encyclopedias and the Lexicon of Lipid Nutrition, a joint IUPAC/IUNS work.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"327",title:"Food Safety",slug:"food-safety"}],chapters:[{id:"27024",title:"Volatile and Non-Volatile Compounds of Single Cultivar Virgin Olive Oils Produced in Italy and Tunisia with Regard to Different Extraction Systems and Storage Conditions",doi:"10.5772/28699",slug:"volatile-and-non-volatile-compounds-of-single-cultivar-virgin-olive-oils-produced-in-italy-and-tunis",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Cinzia Benincasa, Kaouther Ben Hassine,Naziha Grati Kammoun and Enzo Perri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/27024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/27024",authors:[{id:"75035",title:"Dr.",name:"Enzo",surname:"Perri",slug:"enzo-perri",fullName:"Enzo Perri"},{id:"83499",title:"Dr.",name:"Cinzia",surname:"Benincasa",slug:"cinzia-benincasa",fullName:"Cinzia Benincasa"},{id:"124199",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaouther",surname:"Ben Hassine",slug:"kaouther-ben-hassine",fullName:"Kaouther Ben Hassine"},{id:"124200",title:"Dr.",name:"Naziha Grati",surname:"Kammoun",slug:"naziha-grati-kammoun",fullName:"Naziha Grati Kammoun"}],corrections:null},{id:"27025",title:"Olive Oil Composition: Volatile Compounds",doi:"10.5772/28512",slug:"oil-composition-volatiles",totalDownloads:6988,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Marco D.R. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight natural products (i.e., small molecules) produced as secondary metabolites by filamentous fungi. Diseases produced by these means are collectively called mycotoxicoses. As with other toxicological syndromes, exposure to mycotoxins may be acute or chronic, veterinary health problems associated with mycotoxin exposure are usually the result of prolonged contact. This review chapter focuses specifically on aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are a group of biochemical substances produced especially by
Aflatoxin contamination associated with food or feed is a global problem especially in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, where warm temperatures and humidity favor the growth of the fungi [2]. Considering its economic and health relevance, we will discuss certain aspects of the relationship of the contaminant with feeds and feed ingredients. Emphasis will be on the fact that animal feed, and ingredients thereof, are situated at the start the food chain and contaminated feed will, therefore, have an adverse impact on the rest of the alimentary web. Animal feedingstuffs quality directly affect animal productivity, health and can have drastic effects on food that is later consumed by humans as final products [3, 4]. Within the context of aflatoxins, we will discuss food chain safety, prevalence in animal feed and regulations. We will also mention risk factors and health effects of aflatoxins on animals, and control and management approaches to reduce them.
Aflatoxins can be found worldwide in a variety of food and feed commodities especially cereals; the contamination with aflatoxin-producing fungi and the production of the toxin in the products can occur in the field, during storage, transportation at almost all stages of the production chain. In finished animal feed, the contamination of an ingredient could cause the contamination of an entire feed batch [5]. Furthermore, the introduction of a feedstuff contaminated with aflatoxin-producing fungi could lead to the spoilage of other feed shipments and serves as a fungi source in the feed industry environment difficult to eliminate. This deterioration effect has a significant repercussion in association with the global trade and the international exchange of animal feed and feed ingredients [6]. Co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in finished feed could have profound negative effects on animal and human health, due to the synergistic or additive effect among toxins [6]. The global production of animal feed reached 964 million tons in 2014 [7]. Cereal grains, primarily corn, are widely used as energy source in animal feed for different species. These raw materials represent 50–80% of the animal diet in America and Europe. USA and Brazil are the major corn exporter countries, and Japan and Mexico are the largest importer countries [8]. For example, most of the ingredients used in Malaysia for the production of animal feeds such as cereal grains, soybean meal, corn gluten meal, and soybean meal are imported from Thailand, China, India, Argentina, USA, Australia, and Canada. Mycotoxin contamination of feed caused by poor storage conditions during production and transportation are frequent [9]. In Costa Rica, the animal feed produced is based on corn products and only during 2015 over 764 254 tons of corn products were imported [10]. These are only examples of the importance of global trade for the animal feed industry; in this scenario, the origin of the ingredients and the place and length of storage must be taken into account to make a conclusion about mycotoxin contamination in a region. Furthermore, frequently agricultural commodities (peanuts, corn, and rice) used as feed ingredients originating from tropical and subtropical regions contain high amounts of aflatoxins [6, 11].
As already mentioned above, the contamination of animal feedstuff could take place at different stages throughout the entire food chain. Mycotoxins in feedstuff and finished feed should be monitored from farm-to-fork to assure a safety product for animal and humans. The contamination of cereal grains and other agricultural commodities used in animal feed could occur in the field during the pre-harvest phase during harvest, or in processing stages (postharvest).
In the pre-harvest period, the presence of aflatoxin-producing fungi (and then the production of the toxin) could be influenced and potentiated by different factors such as the plant genetics, e.g. the use of corn germplasm not adapted to local conditions [12]. After that, during the growing and harvesting stages, toxin evolution is predisposed by agricultural practices, including the use of fungicides and pesticides, the use of open-pollinated varieties [13], the contact with aflatoxin-producing fungi or its spores, weather conditions and climate during planting and growing and, finally, insect damage.
Moisture and temperature play a significant role in fungi growth and the production of aflatoxins. Mycotoxin-producing fungi frequently need higher moisture levels (20.0–25.0 g/100 g) for infection during the pre-harvest phase in the field than fungi that proliferate during storage (13.0–18.0 g/100 g) [14]. Agricultural practices that have bearing over crop susceptibility toward infection and contamination include the variety of crops that are planted, the planting date, crop rotation (e.g., avoiding corn as a pre-crop for wheat), and tillage (plowing reduces inoculum from plant residues) [15].
It is worth clarifying that the presence of aflatoxin-producing fungi such as
Climate plays a relevant role in fungal development and aflatoxin production in crops in the field and during storage [16]. However, in an epidemiological study conducted in our laboratory, 968 samples of animal feed and feed ingredients produced or stored (imported products) in Costa Rica were analyzed for aflatoxins (AFs), in the period 2010–2016. We did not found a direct correlation between aflatoxin concentration and the mean temperature, relative humidity, average rain precipitation, and the number of rainy days for a specific month during the same period in this country [17]. These findings together with the descriptions made by others authors [18] show how difficult it is to predict aflatoxin contamination starting from weather conditions only. The substrate or the ingredient that comprises an animal feed is the most important factor in the fungi growth and mycotoxin production mainly due to its nutritional composition [19].
The fungi growth in cereals and animal feeds after harvest during transportation or storage are also influenced by the temperature, humidity, water activity (aw), the integrity of the grain, insect damage, and the quantity and type of the mycobiota [16]. The increase of the humidity in cereals and feeds during transportation and storage could favor an increment of aflatoxin concentration in these products [2]. Furthermore, the geographic origin, the transportation route, and the area where the feedstuff is stored, and the length of storage together with particular climate conditions will have a significant impact on aflatoxins concentration and animal exposure to this toxin. Due to this, conditions such as geographic region, temperature, humidity, and duration should be taken into account when comparing mycotoxins analysis from raw feed ingredients or in the prediction of aflatoxins contamination in finished feed [19].
Not only cereals
Worldwide many countries have regulations concerning the maximum concentration of mycotoxins that could be present in food and feed. However, there are no regulations or guidance levels for all mycotoxins known so far. Aflatoxins, some type A and B trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, and ochratoxin, compounded the mycotoxins with regulatory or guidance levels, due to their demonstrated toxic effects on animals and humans.
Many aflatoxin regulatory levels are set depending on the particular agricultural commodity or compound feed/food, the type, and age of animal which will consume it and the intended use. Many countries base their regulations on the guidelines established by the European Union (EU) (Table 1) or by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Table 1). Guidelines sometimes differ from each other; in most of the cases, the maximum allowed content of aflatoxins is lower in the regulations given by the EU than in those granted by the FDA. For example, the limit for aflatoxin in dairy feed is set by de EU in 5 μg kg−1 and by the FDA in 20 μg kg−1.
US FDA | ||
---|---|---|
Immature animals | Corn, peanut products, and other animal feeds and ingredients, excluding cottonseed meal | 20 |
Dairy animals, animals not listed above, or unknown use | Corn, peanut products, cottonseed, and other animal feeds and ingredients | 20 |
Breeding cattle, breeding swine and mature poultry | Corn and peanut products | 100 |
Finishing swine 100 pounds or greater in weight | Corn and peanut products | 200 |
Finishing (i.e., feedlot) beef cattle | Corn and peanut products | 300 |
Beef, cattle, swine or poultry, regardless of age or breeding status | Cottonseed meal | 300 |
European Commonwealth | ||
---|---|---|
All feed materials | 20 | |
Complete feedingstuffs for cattle, sheep and goats (except dairy animals) | 20 | |
Complete feedingstuffs for dairy animals | 5 | |
Complete feedingstuffs for calves and lambs | 10 | |
Complete feedingstuffs for pigs and poultry (except young animals) | 20 | |
Other complete feedingstuffs | 10 | |
Complementary feedingstuffs for cattle, sheep, and goats (except complementary feedingstuffs dairy animals, calves, and lambs) | 20 | |
Complementary feedingstuffs for pigs and poultry (except young animals) | 20 | |
Other complementary feedingstuffs | 5 |
FDA and EU aflatoxin regulatory guidance for feed and feed ingredients.
Finally, other international standards have been implemented by several organizations such as Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). There is no CAC standard dealing with aflatoxins in animal feeds but three main policies are included in this matrix including Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed (CODEX STAN 193-1995) concerned with hazards in feeds, CAC Codes of Practice for Reduction of Aflatoxins for Milk-producing Animals (CAC/RCP 45-1997), and CAC Codes of Practice for Good Animal Feeding (CAC/RCP 54-2004).
On the other hand, regional legal limits for aflatoxins have also been established; for example, the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) and Australia/New Zealand have harmonized maximum limits. Other regional bodies such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) are in the process of harmonizing legal thresholds.
In the analyses of the aflatoxin prevalence in finished feed, the difference in the raw material available in the diverse world regions, the difference in the nutritional requirements (energy, proteins, mineral, and vitamins) of each animal species, and the global trade of feedstuff should be taken into account. Ingredient diversity in a feed formulation is crucial for the livestock industry. Feed costs account for two-thirds or more of total live costs in pig and poultry production [19, 26, 27].
There are highly sensitive methods for the analysis of aflatoxins; this could lead to the observation of a high percentage of aflatoxin positive samples in surveys that are not always directly related with a high risk for animals and human health. However, the synergistic/additive effect of some mycotoxins should be taken into account even in the case of low aflatoxin concentrations. Table 2 shows a summary of aflatoxin surveys data worldwide in feed and feed ingredients published between January 2012 and February 2017.
Country | Commodity | Number of samples | Total AF incidence, % (AFB1) | Total AF mean concentration, μg kg−1 (AFB1) | Maximum, μg kg−1 (AFB1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Global survey (America/Europa/Asia) | Corn, soybean, wheat and finished feed | 4627 | 33 | 21 | 6105 | [28] |
Global survey (Myanmar) | Various feed | 11,967 | 26 | 57 | 6323 | [148] |
Global survey (Vietnam) | Corn | 10,172 | 27 | 16 | 6105 | [149] |
Africa (South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana) | Grains, feed | 177 | 47 | 42 | 556.4 | [150] |
Ethiopia | Dairy feed | 156 | (100) | – | (419) | [151] |
Jordan | Poultry feed ingredients | 105 | (19.04) | – | (17.06) | [40] |
Jordan | Poultry feed | 52 | (24) | – | (12.7) | [40] |
D.R. Congo | Corn | 50 | 32 (32) | 10.33–20.64 | 103.89 (51.23) | [152] |
Kenya | Dairy feed and forages | 74 | (56) | 47.84 | 147.86 | [153] |
Rwanda | Animal feed | 27 | – | 100.4–168.6 | 265 | [154] |
South-Western Nigeria | Fish feed | 94 | (92) | – | (826.98) | [155] |
South Africa | Compound feeds | 92 | 30 | 9.0 | (71.8) | [156] |
Malawi | Corn | 90 | 20.1 | 8.3 | 140 | [157] |
North America | Finished feed | 21 | 24 | 7 | 56 | [28] |
South America | Finished feed | 203 | 26 | 2 | 83 | [28] |
Argentina | Poultry feed | 49 | 86 | 2.68 | 37.67 | [158] |
Argentina | Fish feed | 28 | 50 | 2.82 | 8.91 | [159] |
Brazil | Corn | 148 | 4–23 | 3.1–16.37 | 49.9 | [160] |
Brazil | Corn | 74 | (16) | (<0.8) | (3) | [161] |
Brazil | Poultry feed | 36 | (0) | (<0.8) | (<0.8) | [161] |
Brazil | Fish feed, soybean bran, corn bran, other cereals | 54 | 16.7–60 | 1.1–7.4 | 19.1 | [162] |
Costa Rica | Feed and feed ingredients | 968 | 23.9 | – | 290.4 | [36] |
Costa Rica | Dairy feed | 112 | 21 | 20.6 | 439.2 | [17] |
Venezuela | Pig feed | 23 | 65 (26) | – | 6.84 | [163] |
North Asia | Finished feed | 622 | 20 | 5 | 225 | [150] |
South-East Asia | Finished feed | 465 | 81 | 23 | 431 | [150] |
South Asia | Finished feed | 127 | 95 | 91 | 2454 | [150] |
China | Feed and feed ingredients | 127 | (63–100) | 3.4–20 | 18.1 | [164] |
India | Livestock feed | 48 | (33.3) | 32 | 60 | [165] |
India | Feed ingredients | 49 | (24.5) | 62 | – | [165] |
Korea | Poultry feed | 20 | 100 (100) | 0.56 (0.38) | 1.86 (1.70) | [81] |
Pakistan | Poultry feed ingredients | 77 | (60) | (37.62) | (56) | [166] |
Pakistan | Poultry feed | 410 | (44.39) | (23.75) | (78) | [166] |
Pakistan | Poultry feed | |||||
Central Europe | Finished feed | 45 | 2 | 0 | 1 | [28] |
Southern Europe | Finished feed | 47 | 66 | 3 | 103 | [28] |
Turkey | Feedstuff | 76 | (26.32) | (1.02) | (11.37) | [33] |
Turkey | Feed | 30 | (56.66) | (0.26) | (3.31) | [33] |
Turkey | Dairy cow feed | 76 | 26.3 (26.3) | 2.74 (2.25) | 8.43 (6.90) | [29] |
Turkey | Cattle and lamb-calf feed | 180 | 60 | 10.72 | 116.83 | [30] |
Oceania | Finished feed | 75 | 9 | 0 | 9 | [28] |
Oceania | Wheat | 109 | 5 | 2.0 | 30 | [28] |
Oceania | Corn | 11 | 18 | 3.0 | 5 | [28] |
Aflatoxin occurrence in feed and feed ingredients worldwide (data published 2012–2017).
Between January 2009 and December 2011, Rodrigues and Naehrer carried out a survey on mycotoxins occurrence worldwide in which 4 627 samples of corn, soybean meal, wheat, and finished feed were analyzed [28]. The global prevalence of aflatoxin positive samples and the mean concentration in this survey were 33% and 21 μg/kg, respectively; some of the results of this study are shown in Table 2. In this review, the major percentage of positive samples in finished feed found in South Asia and South-East Asia were 95 and 81% with a mean concentration of 91 and 23 μg kg−1, respectively. Furthermore, in finished feed in South Asia, an extremely high level of aflatoxin (2 454 μg kg−1) was found. In addition, in some regions of Asia the presence of aflatoxins in corn has been found to be as high as 82% of positive samples. Soybean meal showed a relatively minor susceptibility to aflatoxin contamination.
Another example of a global mycotoxins survey was carried out by Kovalsky et al., between 2012 and 2015, in which 1 113 samples of finished feed, corn, and corn silage were analyzed [6]. The authors found that the majority of samples showed an aflatoxin concentration below established guidelines for animal feed, and only a few samples from Africa and Europe presented levels exceeding the 20 μg kg−1 limit.
There also a few recent national surveys in regards to mycotoxins occurrence in animal feed; some of their most relevant results are summarized here and in Table 2. A recent study in Turkey by Sahin et al. found that from
In another study, AFB1 was detected in 34.9% (
Elevated levels of contamination can be achieved if wrong management of feed ingredients has happened at any point during harvesting, storing, or processing. For example, when Kana et al. analyzed corn and feeds in central Africa, in this study, corn was found to be a relevant source of aflatoxins and the mean values of moisture (14.1 g/100 g) for this ingredient was significantly higher when compared to other commodities tested [2]. In the case of Costa Rica, for example,
Worldwide prevalence for aflatoxin, expressed as percentages. Based on scientific reports from each country.
Dietary aflatoxins have shown detrimental effects on animal health and production. The most common exposure route occurs by ingestion of contaminated food. For example, fungal growth under right conditions may carry the genetic battery for toxin production and can contaminate cereals (e.g., corn kernels) which are used as a feed ingredient and, in turn, reach animal farms (Figure 2A). Other exposition routes include dermal contact and inhalation. Aflatoxins can affect animals either individually or additively (in the presence of more than one mycotoxin) and may affect various organs and systems [42].
(A) Representation of the usual aflatoxin contamination route for grains and (B) several steps of aflatoxin metabolism.
Mycotoxins have a substantial economic impact because all participants of the production chain as farmers, cereals and grains producers, handlers and distributors, crop processors, and consumers suffer losses. Direct effects include increased veterinary care costs, reduced livestock production, and the continuous detriment of food and feed safety features. Also, public health should be another consideration because of the presence of dangerous and undesirable contaminants in animal products.
The disease called aflatoxicosis causes acute and chronic presentation in animals. Acute aflatoxicosis causes death and chronic aflatoxicosis results in cancer, toxicity, and immune suppression. The liver is the primary target organ. AFB1 is a potent carcinogen [43] by bioactivation of cytochrome P450 in the liver and AFB1-8,9-epoxide (AFBO) production. AFBO is needed for carcinogenic and toxic activity [44].
Aflatoxins susceptibility depends on species, age, gender, and nutrition; there are individualvariations in the rate of activation of aflatoxins in various species. Metabolism of AFB1 involves oxidative reactions by members of the CYP450 family of isoenzymes. There is a variety of metabolizing enzymes in animal species. In poultry species, CYP2A6, CYP3A37, CYP1A5, and CYP1A1 play a significant role in the biotransformation of AFB1 [45, 46]. In humans, CYP3A4 in the liver and CYP2A13 in the lung have significant activity in metabolizing AFB1 to AFBO (Figure 2B). The rate of AFBO formation and its conjugation with glutathione to reduce the toxicity by glutathione-S-transferase (Figure 2B), seem to be an important parameter in interspecies and individual differences [47, 48]. Hence, AFB1 can cause hepatocellular carcinomas (Figure 2B). Cytochrome P450 involvement, 1A2 (responsible for AFM1 biosynthesis) and 3A4 result in epoxide formation that leads to non-enzymatic oxidations which turn DNA into a mutagenic prone DNA adduct (encompassing mutations of p53 [activation of ras-protooncogenes], leading to mutagenicity) (Figure 2B). Ultimately, the DNA adduct is unstable and suffers renal elimination, for example, through conversion to aflatoxin
Rabbits are among the most sensitive animals to the toxic effects of this contaminant, followed by ducks, turkeys, and chickens which are still very sensitive, fish and swine are somewhat susceptible, and cattle and sheep are the most resistant. There are differences between genders, Lozano and Díaz reported male birds to produce more AFBO than females; turkey and duck yield more than chickens and quails [49]. Younger animals are more sensitive to AFB1 than older individuals [46].
Diet may have both positive and adverse effects on aflatoxin toxicity. Unfavorable results vary and depend on the frequency and source of the contaminated feed ingredients used, the inclusion percentage in the feed, the exposition period, animal species, gender, and age. Some diet components can act positively by exclusion, sorbent mechanisms, and reduction of AFB1 bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract [50]. Burkina et al. reported some phytochemicals in nutrition may act inhibiting the enzymes catalyzing AFBO synthesis [51].
The diagnosis of aflatoxins as etiological agents is trying even when mycotoxins are detected. Isolation and confirmation of mycotoxigenic fungal species in food and feeds do not, necessarily, indicate the presence of mycotoxins. Techniques for qualitative and quantitative analysis of mycotoxins vary in sensitivity and accuracy. Sampling could be complicated because there are myriad of factors affecting the production, distribution, or presence of mycotoxins; several products can be contaminated and sometimes it is not easy to identify which one is involved specifically. Also lesions and symptoms in acute and chronic aflatoxicosis are unspecific (immunosuppression, decreased weight gain, hepatic and kidney lesions, and death) and could be caused by other types of agents.
Appropriate diagnostic criteria, reliable sampling, and laboratory testing are still needed to select a correct approach. Prevention of mycotoxins contamination in animal feed is required to avoid losses in animal production and effects in public health.
Aflatoxins cause detrimental effects in health and production in swine. Reduction in weight gain and feed intake are among the first symptoms reported. Many researchers have also described diarrhea, bloody feces, and an increase in liver, kidney, spleen, and pancreas size [52–55].
Immune response to aflatoxins has been variable; intake between 120 and 180 μg of AFB1 kg−1 of feed in combination with deoxynivalenol may not result in altered immune health [54, 56]. However, altered serum globulin patterns were reported by Mok et al. [55]. Low level of AFB1 dysregulates the antigen-presenting capacity of porcine dendritic cells; it could explain the immunotoxicity of this mycotoxin [57].
Increased activities of liver-specific enzymes, abnormal histology, increased serum alkaline phosphatase, and γ-glutamyltransferase has been observed in exposed pigs [54, 55].
Pregnant sows treated with 1–3 mg kg−1 of AFB1 showed anorexia, jaundice, loss of body weight atrophied spleen, and depletion of lymphocytes in germinal epithelium area. Liver revealed hypertrophy of the bile duct epithelium, fibrosis, and adenoma, kidney showed intertubular hemorrhages and atrophy of the glomeruli [58]. A great review exploring the effects of aflatoxins on swine reproduction was written by Kanora and Maes [59].
Stojanac et al. reported acute intoxication in a commercial farm [60]. From Piglets of 21–23 days old, died in 7 days, researchers found 960 μg kg−1 of AFB1 in the compound feed and 870 μg kg−1 in sow’s milk. After removal of the contaminated feed, the number of deaths began to reduce; the clinical symptoms were apathy, depression, cachexia, move reluctance, and death.
Finally, Azevedo demonstrated that pigs fed 1.0 mg AFB1 kg−1 feed for 21 days had reduced growth performance associated with altered hepatic gene expression (specifically, cytochrome P450-2A19/CYP2A19 and glutathione S-transferase theta 1/GSTT1 [61]. Furthermore, the authors concluded that supplementation of 100 mg curcumin kg−1 to diets containing AFB1 had a protective effect on changes in gene expression in liver of pigs.
Ruminants are more resistant to the mycotoxins than non-ruminants animals because the rumen microbiota is capable of degrading toxins. However, aflatoxins are only partly degraded by ruminal flora resulting in a secondary toxic and carcinogenic metabolite called aflatoxicol.
In the case of cattle, sheep, goats, and deer, aflatoxins consumption cause reproductive problems, immune suppression, decrease on milk, beef or wool yield, and reduced feed utilization.
Aflatoxins have been shown reduced feed efficiency in cattle; growth can be altered when ruminants consume contaminated feed for extended periods of time. AFB1 (600 μg kg−1) was shown to depress feed efficiency and rate of gain in steers [56]. It has been attributed to compromise ruminal function by reducing cellulose digestion, volatile fatty acids production, and rumen motility. Acute exposure to aflatoxins causes inappetence and lethargy [62].
Aflatoxin levels between 100 and 1 000 μg kg−1 within the diet, cause a decrease in rumen motility, feed efficiency, growth inhibition, and an increase in liver and kidney weight. In lactating dairy cows, researchers report milk production decrease and reduced reproduction efficiency [5]. Embryotoxicity has been reported in animals consuming low dietary concentrations of mycotoxins [56].
In cattle, aflatoxins affect the immune system function by many mechanisms such as inhibition of lymphocyte blastogenesis; AFB1 suppress mitogen-induced stimulation of peripheral lymphocytes. Chronic exposure can interfere with vaccine-induced immunity [62].
Aflatoxins affect the milk quality. Cows metabolize AFB1 to form the monohydroxy derivative, aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), which is secreted into the cow’s milk. AFM1 is a potential human carcinogen very resistant to thermal treatments such as pasteurization and freezing. The European Commission Regulation 1881/2006 sets a maximum limit of 0.05 μg kg−1 for AFM1 in raw milk, heat-treated milk, and milk for the manufacture of milk-based products (EC 2006). Nevertheless, higher levels have been found [63], for example, Škrbić et al. detected the maximum AFM1 level of 1.44 μg kg−1 with a mean value of 0.30 μg kg−1 in commercial milk samples in Serbia [64].
In sheep, high levels of aflatoxins resulted in heptotoxicosis, nephritic lesions, and mineral metabolism alterations. In lambs, 2.5 mg kg−1AFB1/diet have been reported low feed intake, weight gain, and altered blood parameters [5].
Aflatoxin B1 has a high range of effects in poultry including acute hepatic toxicity, teratogenicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, hematological problems [65], and immunosuppression. Poultry is sensitive to low levels of AFB1, in order of sensitivity: ducks > turkeys > Japanese quail (
Exposure to aflatoxins has been demonstrated to suppress the immune response in poultry. Both, Rawal et al. and Xi Peng et al. have reported impaired T cell production, decreased phagocytosis and apoptosis in thymus, and bursa of fabricius and spleen [66, 67]. Kumar and Balachandran reported spleen lymphoid and erythroid depletion, enlargement, pallor or yellowish livers, crop and proventricular changes, enlarge, pale and congested kidneys in broiler fed with 1 mg kg−1 AFB1 [68].
Aflatoxins exposition could be a serious risk to animal health, increasing susceptibility to infections, or reducing vaccination efficacy. Epidemiological data indicate a high correlation between outbreaks of Newcastle disease and AF contamination of broiler rations [69].
Changed serum biochemical parameters, impaired hepatic antioxidant functions, and severe lesions in hepatic tissues were found by Yang et al. in broilers fed with 36.9–95.2 μg kg−1 ABF1 [70]. They also observed focal necrosis of hepatocytes, biliary hyperplasia, Kupffer cell hypertrophy, microvesicular fatty degeneration, and apoptosis.
Gross findings in broilers, include paralysis and lying down could be observed, the growth of affected birds is retarded. Additional findings include the yellowish to a yellow-earth color of the liver, the multiple hemorrhages, and a characteristic reticular appearance of the capsular surface. In severe intoxications, the kidneys are enlarged and filled with urates.
Our data also demonstrate abnormal fatty tissue accumulation and hepatic lesions including a suggestive increase in liver size, with the loss of usual color (dark brown), pallor, with visible areas of hemorrhage primarily on the left lobule without gallbladder distension (Figure 3A), when chickens were subjected to feeds contaminated with aflatoxin. On the other hand, chicks that were fed with an aflatoxin/T-2 toxin diet exhibited a reduced liver size, greater hepatic paleness, and nodular appearance, without bleeding, cholestatic pattern, or gallbladder distension (Figure 3B).
Chicken liver lesions when subjected to (A) 50 μg kg−1 aflatoxin diet and (B) 50 μg kg−1 aflatoxin plus T-2 toxin diet.
Clinical symptoms seen in poultry are diverse. Hussain et al. reported experimental birds intoxicated with 400–800 μg kg−1 AFB1 showed depression, ruffled feathers, watery feces, decrease in water and feed consumption, and nervous signs as torticollis and mortality [71].
Trebak et al. reported listlessness, anorexia [72]; other symptoms include poor feed utilization, stunted growth, decrease weight gain [73, 74]; reduced egg weight and production. High levels of aflatoxins in broilers and turkeys cause hepatomegaly, fatty degeneration, fatty liver, bile conduct proliferation, periportal fibrosis, renal petechiations, tubular nephrosis, interstitial nephritis, and splenic atrophy [67, 75].
Aflatoxins may cause blood coagulations disorders in broilers characterized by extensive hemorrhagic lesions in the stomach, heart, intestines, lungs, kidneys, and muscles resulting in death. Lesions are causal for condemnations in a slaughterhouse. Prothrombin time (PT) is an indicator of aflatoxin toxicity in chickens, the elongation of which is directly proportional to aflatoxin dose and exposure time. PT is an indicator of the activity of blood coagulations factor V, VII, IX, X, prothrombin, and fibrinogen can serve to diagnose liver lesions in poultry [76].
AFB1 also affect laying hens; losses are pronounced regarding reduced egg production and egg quality as a result of contamination with aflatoxin residues in eggs and muscles. Feed to egg AFB1 transmission ratio is approximately 5 000:1 [74]. A substantial percentage of the egg samples (28%) showed AFB1 levels (0.79 ± 0.45 μg kg−1) in commercial eggs [77]. Several authors, reported excretion of aflatoxin B1 residues in hen’s eggs might occur at relatively low concentrations under long-term exposure of laying hens to AFB1 at different levels up to 50 μg kg−1 in a naturally contaminated feed [78–80]. Interestingly, even though Lee et al. found the prevalence for mycotoxins to range from 85–100% in Korean poultry feed samples (n = 20), but they failed to find contaminated egg samples (n = 275) aflatoxins, ochratoxins, or zearalenone [81]. Thermal processing was not useful for detoxification of AFB1 in eggs [79, 82]. Some researchers have found a significant decrease in feed consumption, egg production, egg weight, shell weight, shell thickness, and feed conversion ratio value in laying hens fed with 15 μg kg−1 of AFB1 [78, 79]. Aflatoxins disrupt the hypothalamic regulation of neuropeptides involved in feeding behavior and contribute to the lower body weight and decreased weight gain [72]. Aflatoxins in the feed of laying hens may cause a relevant lesion in liver, kidneys, heart, and ovaries. The ovaries show follicular atresia, which has a detrimental effect on egg production [79].
Effects of AFB1 on the absorption of nutrients have had variable results. Mycotoxins can compromise different functions of the gastrointestinal tract such as decreased surface area available for nutrient absorption, modulation of nutrient transporters, loss of barrier function, and facilitating persistence of intestinal pathogens inflammation [83]. However, it is still unclear how the intestinal lesions affect growth and feed efficiency in poultry.
Kalpana et al. found enrofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin residues in liver, kidney, skin, and fat persisted for 10 days in mycotoxin-exposed broiler chickens, whereas it was detectable only in the liver of unexposed broiler chickens, indicating that subchronic AFB1 exposure markedly influences the residue levels of enrofloxacin in tissues of broiler chickens [84].
Finally, in an interesting report, Iheanacho tested the cytotoxic effect of cattle and poultry aflatoxin-contaminated compound feed extracts on human lymphocytes [85]. The authors observed that cell viability significantly decreased upon contact with feed extracts, especially those from poultry feed, after just 24 hours of exposure, demonstrating that a direct link may be found between human toxicity and feed.
Marine animals could be exposed to AFB1 contamination through feed chain [86]. The carcinogenic effect of AFB1 has been studied in fishes such as salmonids, rainbow trout, channel catfish, tilapia, guppy, and Nile tilapia. Consequences of mycotoxin toxicity in fish do not differ from other animal species. Effects are directly related to losses in production, reduced weight gain, feed conversion, and immune impairment. Kidney, liver, and muscles lesions and residues are found in different species of fish [87].
Cagauan et al. found varying levels of aflatoxin contamination did not significantly affect the final average length, weight, and gain in weight of Nile tilapia; aflatoxin negatively influenced percent survival of fingerlings [88]. External manifestations in fish were eye opacity leading to cataract and blindness, lesions on the body surface, fin and tail rot, yellowing of the body surface, abnormal swimming, feeble and stationary on one place, and reduced appetite. In common carp fingerling (
In horses, AFB1 in the contaminated feed (58.4 μg kg−1) cause jaundice, depression, lameness, anorexia, and death. Ponies have shown damage to the skeletal muscles and heart. Post-mortem lesions show enlarged livers, kidney damage, and bile duct hyperplasia [56]. An excellent review regarding equine health implications of the presence of aflatoxin in feed has been essayed by Caloni and Cortinovis [91].
Mycotoxins on companion animals could be severe and can lead to death. AFB1 in dogs cause hepatitis and severe depression, anorexia, and weakness. Aflatoxins and other mycotoxins have been found in the ingredients and final products of pet food. Gazzotti et al. found aflatoxins contamination in 88% of the dog food samples, showing concentrations of 5 g kg−1 [92]. Dog food contaminated with aflatoxins is of particular concern due to the bond companionship animals, or pets usually share with their owners. Frehse et al. not only found a high prevalence of aflatoxins in the commercial feed but also found that of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 associated positively with mammary tumor growth in female dogs and that neutering was a protective factor for mammary cancer [93].
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites that can contaminate various crops before or after harvesting. Aflatoxins are a problem also during storage, transport, processing, and handling steps such as manufacturing.
Prevention measurements are focused on the minimization of crop contamination before harvesting (plant breeding and good agronomic practices) and during storage or postharvest (detoxification). Several methods of prevention and control are available to reduce the contamination with aflatoxins. However, mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is unavoidable [94] mainly because they are ubiquitous nature and current standards are based on regulating the product, not the process. Available approaches are focused on minimizing and mitigating not to eliminate the contamination of both, fungus species and mycotoxins. None of the following methods reduces contamination in high-polluted feed ingredients and foods.
Pre-harvest management of aflatoxins in animal feeds requires an approach based on good agricultural practices by the producer, appropriate legislations and regulation enforcement, constant monitoring of aflatoxins in feeds and foods, and adequate management of contaminated feeds.
Agronomic practices have been shown to have a substantial effect on toxin contamination of crops. The primary strategy should be to prevent mycotoxin production by reducing mold proliferation during cultivation and storage. Practices such as selection of seeds and planting of more resistant varieties of cereals; healthy and vigorous plants capable of withstanding pest attack are required. Molecular techniques are now available as a possible strategy to select varieties on their ability to resist mold attack [95]. Ostrý et al. described that Bt corn showed significantly lower concentrations of aflatoxins than non-Bt corn hybrids [96].
Crop residues are often the primary inocula of mycotoxigenic fungi; removal of agricultural waste is effective in preventing the contamination of follow-on crops [97]. Furthermore, selection of harvest seasons could be a critical approach, showing date partly determine the flowering time, if it coincides with spore release, more frequent and more sever attacks are likely. Early harvesting of groundnuts resulted in lower aflatoxin levels and the higher gross return of 27% than in delayed harvesting [98]. Crop planting should be timed to avoid elevated temperatures and drought stress during the period of seed development and maturation [99].
Other practices such as weed control, crop rotation, plowing, avoiding high plant densities and correct fertilization limits mold contamination and mycotoxin production. Appropriate use of pesticides during the manufacturing process could help in minimizing the fungal infection or insect infestations of crops [56]. Insects can act as fungal spore vectors and attack the grain of external teguments of kernel facilitating colonization of mycotoxin-producing fungi [97]. Dorner and Cole reported soil treatment with non-toxigenic strains of
Containers (e.g., wagons and trucks) to be used for collecting and transporting the harvested grain from the field to drying facilities, and, thereafter, to storage facilities should be clean, dry, and free of insects, birds, rodents, and visible fungal growth before use and reuse [99].
Reduction of grain damage before and during storage is important to avoid fungal invasion. Cereals should be dried in such a manner that damage to the grain is minimized and moisture levels are lower than those required to support mold growth during storage [99, 101]. Mixing grains and a long-time storage should be avoided. Grain damaged by mold should be burnt or buried [101].
Quality check of grain and installation integrity before storage and adequate storage conditions (temperature, humidity, moisture, and insect control) are required and must be monitored. Grains should be stored in less than 15 g/100 g of moisture content, at low temperatures and a low oxygen concentration (< 1 mL/100 mL). In tropical and subtropical conditions, grains are more prone to contamination than temperate regions due to favorable humidity and temperature levels for mold growth (10–40°C, pH range of 4–8 and above, 70% relative humidity) [101]. For example, in Turrialba, Cartago, Costa Rica (9°54′00″N 83°41′00″W), reported a mean temperature and relative humidity of (22.0 ± 0.7)°C and (87.7 ± 2.2)%, respectively.
In storage, many insect species can attack the grain and moisture that can accumulate from their activities providing ideal conditions for fungal activity and management of insect infestations which is required. Prevention of insect pest is desirable but the intensive use of chemical compounds has resulted in the evolution of resistant populations. Phosphine gas is a common and toxic fumigant used for disinfection of storage grains. Essential oils, application of ozone, and use of diatomaceous earth are alternatives to phosphine gas to control insect pest in storage grains.
The addition of antifungal agents, preservatives, antioxidants, essential oils, and controlled atmospheres, may help to reduce fungal growth during storage. Antioxidants such as selenium, vitamins A, C, and E, ethoxyquin, and butylated hydroxytoluene [102] have been recognized as anti-aflatoxigenic agents. Food components (fructose, phenolic compounds, coumarins, and chlorophyll) and food additives (piperine, aspartame, cyproheptadine, and allyl sulfides) have shown toxicity reduction of several mycotoxins [103]. Weak acids are used in animal food and feed to prevent fungal spoilage; the most common are propionic, benzoic, and sorbic acid.
Some essential oils have fungicidal actions such as carvacol, α-p-cymene, terpinolene, anethole, and eugenol. Esper et al. described a considerable AFB1 reduction in corn, and their efficacy depended mainly on the essential oil concentrations and substrate water activity conditions, concentration, and incubation periods [104]. Hence, essential oils can find a practical and safe application in toxin control [105].
Modified atmospheres (low O2 and high CO2 concentrations) are used for fungal growth monitoring and mycotoxin production in stored grains. Silo-bags are also used. They are waterproof and have some level of gas-tightness (O2 and CO2). The use of ozone as a strategy to control toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins production needs further evaluations [102].
Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system has been increasingly and successfully applied by the grain and feed industry to prevent and control risks associated with potential contamination with toxins [106]. Mycotoxins can be classified as a biological or a chemical hazard [102]; they fit in an HACCP program at appropriate critical points, and their critical limits must be identified. For example, a critical control point could be at the end of the drying process, and one critical limit would be the water content/water activity [99]. Also, FAO recommends the application of an HACCP program for the systematic control of mycotoxins through the entire food chain from field to consumption including all pre-harvest, harvest, and postharvest stages in the production of animal feed and animal feed ingredients. Additionally, FAO has published a manual to make easier the application of this mycotoxin control program (http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1390S/Y1390S00.HTM).
The efficient and prompt drying of corn for medium- and long-term storage in hygienic silos free of insect pest and fungal populations and accurate and regular moisture content, water activity (aw), fungal growth, insect presence, bacterial level, the percentage of grain damage, storage time, storage temperature, and humidity measurements must be considered in an HACCP program [101, 102]. Pre- and postharvest measures are paramount to avoid the risk of contamination in both feeds and foods; new trends in the decontamination of aflatoxins [107] should be considered as complete absence of such toxins which is extremely difficult. Lastly, as a case study, we highlight the work of Kamala et al. [108]. The authors examined three agroecological zones of Tanzania and determined that local postharvest management practices such as drying corn on a raised platform, sorting (damaged, discolored, and molded grains) and application of synthetic insecticides during storage, associated with less contamination of corn with aflatoxins and fumonisins.
There are different approaches to decontaminate or detoxify a feed or food commodity containing mycotoxins, among them the use of mycotoxin binders in the feed, enzymatic, or microbial detoxification. Some chemical substances have been assayed to reduce aflatoxins, especially ammonia. However, chemical detoxification is expensive and though permitted in some countries, is not so in Europe. Hence, the most common postharvest approach in the feed industry is the inclusion of sorbent materials in the feed to obtain selective removal of toxins by sorption during passage through the gastrointestinal tract [97]. The mycotoxin binders are also called adsorbents, mycotoxin binders, sequestrants, interceptor molecules, trapping agents, or enterosorbents. There are inorganic sorbents principally clay minerals and organic sorbents of microbial origin [42]. In some cases, they have the ability to bind mycotoxins and reduce their absorption across the gastrointestinal tract [109].
Decontamination process should include inactive mycotoxins, generate no toxic products, and guarantee no modification of nutritional properties of the feed or food. The properties of adsorbents are important in the evaluation of their efficacy: physical structure, effectiveness at different gastrointestinal pH levels (acidic and neutral), total charge, distribution, pore size, and surface accessibility should be considered. However, the diversity of mycotoxins chemical structures makes difficult that a single method can decontaminate an animal feed [42].
Mycotoxin characteristics such as polarity, solubility, molecular size, shape, charge distribution, and dissociation constants must be evaluated. Sorbents have been tested using
Silicate binders are divided into subclasses according to their structure; one group is the phyllosilicate family characterized by the sheet-type framework [97]. Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates (HSCASs) are the most reported; they adsorb aflatoxin selectively during the digestive process, and it involves the formation of a complex by the β-keto-lactone or lactone system.
Other silicates studied are bentonites, zeolites, and clinoptilolites. Other mineral adsorbents include synthetic polymers such as cholestyramine and polyvinylpyrrolidone, indigestible dietary fibers also have absorbance effect. Mineral binders are efficacious against aflatoxins, but they are not very specific and can absorb other molecules such vitamins and others nutrients [110].
Organic substances such as humic acids have the ability to adhere mycotoxins, yeast, and yeast extracts are also able to reduce the aflatoxin effect. Parietal structures of some lactic acid bacteria have the potential to bind mycotoxins; the adsorption is reversible and could be performed with living or dead bacteria. Other biological materials such as fungal conidia have binder effect against AF, zearalenone, and ochratoxin A.
The inclusion of different types of adsorbents especially clay minerals has been widely used in the feed and farm industry to counteract the mycotoxins toxic effects in animals [42]. The easy management and low inclusion requirement in feed make the use of adsorbents a standard practice. There are some studies about the protective effect of these sorbents in different animal species especially food-producing animals such as pig, poultry, and cattle using different mycotoxins and different concentrations and testing the various health and productivity parameters. These trials have shown variable results with more or less successful depending on the adsorbent, the mycotoxin, the species, and the parameters tested.
Mitchell et al. have reported that calcium dioctahedral smectite clay has the capability to adsorb mycotoxins in the gastrointestinal tract decreasing toxin bioavailability reducing biomarkers of exposure for AFB1 as well as FB1 [111]. Furthermore, other studies have reported the ability of “dioctahedral smectite” clay surfaces to strongly adsorb aflatoxins [112]. This ability is not associated with other clay groups such as kaolinites, attapulgites, zeolites, mica, alumina, and sand [42].
Among the sorbents used by the farm and feed industry are smectite clays, zeolites, kaolinite, mica, silica, and charcoal. Smectite or zeolite minerals with natural or synthetic surfactants giving hydrophobic organoclays or organozeolites are also used [113–115]. There are also sorbents of biological nature such as chlorophyllins, yeast products, lactic acid bacteria, plant extracts, and algae [42].
The aflatoxins adsorbents should be carefully tested trough
Dos Anjos et al. investigated the efficacy of three different aflatoxins adsorbents: bentonite clay, diatomaceous earth, and turmeric powder in broiler chicks feeding aflatoxins contaminated diets [117]. They found that birds fed with turmeric (without aflatoxins) presented lower body weight gain than control animals. The birds fed with AFB1 and adsorbent bentonite clay did not experiment the decrease of feed intake and feed gain occurred in the birds fed with AFB1. Birds fed with diet containing AFB1, diatomaceous, and tumeric had poorer growth performance than those fed on AFB1 alone. The toxicity effects and lesions in liver were not counteracted by any of the adsorbent treatments [117].
Commercial products based on this rationale are available, for example, Alltech® Mycosorb A+®. Sun demonstrated that diets with Mycosorb A+® (2 g kg−1) could improve growth performance in swine by increasing average daily gain and average daily feed intake, whereas low-level aflatoxin (20 μg kg−1) had minor effects on hematology without affecting growth performance [118]. On another hand, aluminosilicates, zeolites, and other chemosorptive agents have been assayed against aflatoxins with relative success. In a recent publication, Wongtangtintan et al. demonstrated that thai bentonite exhibited an excellent binding capacity toward AFB1 surpassing commercial bentonite and activated charcoal
A study carry out by Neeff evaluated the efficacy of a HSCAS reducing aflatoxin residue in tissues of broiler chicks. The author found that with adding this adsorbent in the diet the concentration of aflatoxins residues in liver was lower than in birds consuming a diet contaminated with AFB1 without HSCAS [121]. Despite this, as in the study carried out by Dos Anjos et al. [117], this adsorbent could not avoid the lesions in the liver associated with aflatoxicosis in broilers [121]. On the other hand, Fowler et al. did observe an improvement in broilers incorporating 0.2 g/100 g calcium bentonite clay additive (TX4) [122]. The additive effectively reduced the accumulation of AFB1 in the liver, improving livability in birds fed aflatoxin.
In a previously study carry out by our research group, we evaluate three different mycotoxin adsorbents (HSCAS) in broiler chicken feed aflatoxins contaminated diet. We found little ameliorative effect of some parameters such as creatinine and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in broilers fed with contaminated diet and the adsorbents compared with broilers fed only aflatoxins diets. However, we found a significant higher liver weight in broilers getting AFB1 and two of the tested adsorbents in comparison with broilers getting only AFB1 [123]. From the feed technology standpoint, Maki et al. demonstrated that 6 g calcium montmorillonite clay (Novasil Plus, NSP)/kg feed, can significantly decrease AFM1 concentrations (up to 55% reduction) in milk without affecting dry matter intake (DMI), milk yield, milk composition, vitamin A, or riboflavin concentrations [124]. Similarly, Mugerva et al. demonstrated that 1 g/100 g of calcium bentonite and charcoal reduced AFM1 carry-over in goats fed with contaminated feed while DMI and daily milk yield were not altered with treatment [125].
Since sorbents have demonstrated a limited capability in toxin management and preventive measurements are difficult to apply, new tactics to control aflatoxins are continually being developed. For example, Wee et al. suggested that use of zinc chelators (e.g.,
Recently, our research group found that the milk proteins casein and the milk whey protein are capable to sequestrate aflatoxins M1
Yin et al. demonstrated, using poultry feed as a substrate, that carvacol and
Furthermore, there are other detoxification approaches based on the transformation of the mycotoxin compounds using microorganism or enzymes. Nowadays, approaches in ameliorating toxin burden have relied heavily on biological methods. An excellent review on the subject was made recently by Ji et al. [135]. An additional point regarding detoxification relies on the fact that they must demonstrate their binding capacity both
Finally, evidence suggests that the oxidative stress is a key factor in aflatoxin-related pathology, specifically the role of glutathione [140]. In fact, Jardon-Xicotencatl et al. using neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water demonstrated that lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage (based in glutathione modulation) are reduced when aflatoxin-contaminated corn is treated [141]. Hence, animal antioxidative balance is paramount to counter, detoxify, and ameliorate aflatoxin burden. Then, from the nutritional standpoint, there is room to improve diets and feed formulations using effective antioxidants, which are usually overlooked.
We already established that aflatoxin production is dependent on multiple environmental factors including temperature and humidity. Hence, climate change intrinsically forces a new dynamic in those naturally produced contaminants. Countries in the tropical fringe, such as Costa Rica, are experiencing an increase in sparing rains during dry seasons increasing relative humidity and rise in overall temperatures. Countries with more proximity to the poles are projecting unusual weather as well, dependant of the region. For example, in an interesting study carried in Southern Norway by Uhlig et al., the authors found
Conclusive diagnostics regarding aflatoxicosis is difficult, confounding symptoms can cause an animal with aflatoxicosis to be misdiagnosed. In-farm productivity issues caused by toxins can be easily overlooked. On the other hand, farmers may equivocally attribute productivity loss to toxin presence where none is found. Herein we presented several approaches to control toxin in feed production and evidence suggest that GMP, and HACCP should be mandatory as a preventive measure to control aflatoxin contamination. Independently of which countermeasures are selected and applied, they should be pragmatic and implemented in conjunction with those designed for prevention. Changing patterns in weather add hindrance in the prediction of aflatoxigenic fungi colonization and toxin production; hence, countries should increase vigilance and take further preventive and control measures to respond swiftly to an eventual increase in toxin incidence due to regional climate change. Finally, considering the relevance of feed in the food chain safety, countries should implement and improve monitoring programs for aflatoxin in foodstuffs; these programs should contemplate risk management to mitigate the economical and health burden aflatoxin contamination generate.
The authors would like to thank Kevin Leiva Gabriel for the consultation regarding several findings described in Figure 3. Astrid Leiva Gabriel and Geovanna Méndez Hernández for their help during drafting and preparation of Table 1. Vicerrectoría de Investigación is acknowledged for funding this work.
Each year, around 250,000 babies are born with some form of orofacial clefts [1]. Worldwide, the incidence of cleft is reported in one of every 600–800 newborns [2]. A vast majority of these babies are born in underdeveloped or developing countries. This already deplorable situation is aggravated by the fact that most of these cases are concentrated in rural areas where access to health care is severely inadequate or unavailable as compared to urban cities [3, 4].
In developed countries, cleft lip/palate (CL/P) is identified before birth by ultrasonography, which gives the parents much needed time for education and counselling regarding the additional care needed after birth. Consequently, due to the widespread access to medical care and scientific data, aetiology is scientifically understood to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. In contrast, in developing countries prenatal care is less advanced or limited, a CL/P is usually unexpected and families rely less on medical explanations for the cleft and rely more on religion and folklore to explain the deformity [5].
Veau [6] classified clefts into (Figure 1).
Veau’s classification.
Group I: Cleft involving the soft palate alone.
Group II: Cleft involving the hard and soft palate up to the incisive foramen.
Group III: Complete unilateral cleft involving the soft and hard palate, the lip and alveolar ridge on one side.
Group IV: Complete bilateral cleft involving the soft and hard palate, the lip and alveolar ridge on both sides.
Successful rehabilitation of all these cases requires a multidisciplinary approach. Patients with orofacial clefts need to be treated at the right time and age to achieve functional and aesthetic well-being. The management of the child born with a cleft lip and palate requires coordinated care provided by a cleft care team [7], comprising of different individuals belonging to several specialities in:
Dental specialities (orthodontics, oral surgery, paediatric dentistry and prosthodontics),
Medical specialities (genetics, otolaryngology, paediatrics, plastic surgery and psychiatry),
Allied health care fields (audiology, nursing, psychology, social work and speech pathology)
In many developing countries, there are several unrepaired cleft patients due to the mismatch between the volume of patients and resources. Furthermore, babies who are born underweight or anaemic are not suitable for surgery. There is also an acute shortage of qualified surgeons available to treat them [8]. This results in patients who cannot reach their full social and economic potential [9]. Surgical repair alone cannot address the multiple issues encountered in patients with cleft lip and palate. One specific task is the aesthetic recreation of the deficient columella. The earliest mention of presurgical infant orthopaedics was in the 1950s. This adjunctive therapy reduced the severity of the initial cleft deformity before surgery. This enabled the surgeon to enjoy the benefits associated with surgical repair in an infant with a minimal cleft deformity and reduced the need for a secondary surgery [10].
This chapter describes the technique of presurgical nasoalveolar moulding (PNAM), which was first described by Grayson et al. [11] in 1993 and had several modifications made over the years by Brecht et al. [12] in 1995, Grayson and Santiago [13] in 1997 and Cutting et al. [14] in 1998. This approach involves the active moulding and repositioning of the deformed nasal cartilages and alveolar process and lengthening the deficient columella, using the NAM appliance which consists of nasal stents attached to an intraoral moulding plate to aid in the moulding of the clefted alveolar ridge and nasal cartilage. The primary goal of PNAM is to achieve good arch form and eventually stabilisation.
The concept of NAM works on Matsuo’s principle that a high degree of plasticity is seen in the cartilages of infants in the first few months after birth. A high amount of circulating maternal oestrogen causes an increase in the amount of hyaluronic acid in the fetal cartilage, rendering it plastic. Hence, active soft tissue and cartilage moulding are most successful if initiated within the first 6 weeks of life [15].
Clinical examinations of babies born with unilateral cleft lip and palate often show significant nasal deformities. The lower lateral alar cartilage is concave and depressed in the alar rim and separated from the contralateral cartilage. This results in a depressed nasal tip and possibly an overhang of the apex of the nostril. The columella and nasal septum are deviated towards the cleft, and the base towards the non-cleft side. Furthermore, the orbicularis oris muscle in the lateral lip segments contracts into a bulge with some fibres running superiorly along the margins of the cleft towards the nasal tip (Figure 2) [16, 17].
Unilateral orofacial cleft lip and palate.
Babies born with bilateral cleft lip and palate often present a challenge to the cleft care team. In these cases, the alar cartilages have failed to migrate up into the nasal tip and stretch the columella. So, the cartilages are positioned along the alar margins and are stretched over the cleft as flaring alae. The prolabium also lacks muscle tissue and is positioned directly on the end of the shortened columella. In the complete bilateral cleft, the premaxilla is suspended from the tip of the nasal septum, while the clefted alveolar segments stay behind (Figure 3) [18, 19]. The primary issue in these cases is that the premaxilla is unattached laterally and is positioned far too anteriorly by the time lip surgery is scheduled. Secondly, in some cases, the lateral width of the premaxilla exceeds the anterior space between the two lateral maxillary segments. A combination of these two challenges may also exist.
Bilateral orofacial cleft lip and palate.
Before commencing any treatment procedures, the parents/caregivers are counselled about PNAM therapy. The procedure, goals, possible complications and their role is explained to them.
Several impression materials and techniques have been advocated for making the impression of the clefted alveolar segments. Grayson and Shetye [20] advised keeping the child nil orally for about 4 hours and making the impression while holding the baby upside down to prevent aspiration in the event of vomiting and asphyxia due to airway obstruction. A thick mix of tissue conditioning material was loaded onto the tray and inserted intraorally. The impression is allowed to set while the baby is making suckling actions in order to create the desired border seal and ensure the baby’s ability to perform nasal breathing. The baby’s oxygen level was monitored during the entire duration of impression making.
Retnakumari et al. [21] used heavy body silicone impression material with the baby in a supine position during the procedure. Dubey et al. [22] kept the baby in the mother’s lap with the head facing downward and her hands supporting the baby’s chest and lap region while making the impression. Yang et al. [23] advised alginate impressions using a beaded pretrimmed paediatric tray. Splengler et al. [24] made intraoral and extraoral alginate impressions with the baby under general anaesthesia. This method is generally not recommended as the patient is subjected to hospitalisation for an impression procedure.
Irrespective of the material and technique used, the sole objective of including all the available undercuts in the dental cast should be met. An ideal impression material must be rigid and set fairly quickly in the baby’s mouth. The baby is positioned in an upright position, fully awake on the caregiver’s lap. It is preferable if the baby is crying, as it allows better visuals of the extent of the cleft. The entire clefted palate should be recorded (Figure 4) and the size of the cleft should be determined on the resultant cast using a Vernier calliper.
Impression of the clefted segments in a unilateral cleft (A) and a bilateral cleft (B).
The moulding plate is fabricated on the dental stone cast obtained from the impression. All the undercuts and the cleft space are blocked with wax. The moulding plate is made up of clear acrylic. A 5 mm hole is incorporated to facilitate breathing in case of accidental dislodgement (Figure 5). The plate must be 2–3 mm in thickness to provide structural integrity and permit adjustments during the process of moulding.
On the obtained cast (A), cleft space is blocked out with wax (B) and the moulding plate is fabricated with a breathing hole (C).
A retentive acrylic arm is fabricated and positioned labially at an angle of 40 degrees to the plate. It should be placed at the junction of the upper and lower lip. The retentive arm adequately secures the moulding plate in the mouth with the help of orthodontic elastics and tapes. In bilateral cases, there is a need for two retentive arms (Figure 6) [13]. The appliance has to be finished and polished ensuring that no sharp borders are present.
Two retentive arms are incorporated in bilateral cases.
The NAM appliance was tried on the baby. The intaglio surface of the plate was then modified to allow for selective pressure on the two segments of the arch using tissue conditioner. There is selective removal of acrylic in the region into which the movement of alveolar bone is desired; and tissue conditioner was added to regions from which, the alveolar bone needed to be reduced. Selective pressure was applied on the greater and lesser alveolar segments to permit moulding. 1 mm thickness of tissue conditioner was applied onto the outer surface in the region of the greater segment and the inner surface was relieved by 1 mm. Tissue conditioner was also applied on the inner surface in the region of the lesser segment and the outer region was relieved by 1 mm (Figure 7). This caused a force that was directed inward on the greater segment and outward on the lesser segment that would cause approximation of alveolar tissue [25].
Selective pressure applied on the clefted alveolar segments.
The NAM appliance is secured extra orally to the cheeks and bilaterally by surgical tapes with orthodontic elastic bands at one end. A muslin head cap with Velcro strips at the side is tailor-made for the baby (Figure 8). The Velcro strips provided attachment of the elastic bands, as well as facilitated their placement and removal. The elastic band is looped on the retentive arm of the moulding plate and secured with tape to the cheeks. The elastics with an inner diameter of 0.25 inch, and heavy wall thickness, should be stretched to about twice their resting diameter in order to achieve an ideal activation force of about 100 g. The amount of force could vary depending on the clinical objective and the mucosal tolerance to ulceration. Additional tapes may be necessary to secure the horizontal tape to the cheeks.
A custom made muslin head cap used to secure the NAM appliance.
The infant may require time to adjust to feeding with the NAM appliance in the first few days. The baby is seen weekly to make adjustments to the moulding plate. These adjustments are made by selectively removing the hard acrylic and adding the soft tissue conditioner to the moulding plate. No more than 1 mm of modification of the moulding plate should be made per visit. The desired movement can usually be accomplished within 6 to 8 weeks.
The NAM appliance needs to be worn 24 hours a day and removed only for daily cleaning, and needs to be inserted back soon afterwards. Even after 3 weeks, most cases did not show any clinical evidence of tissue irritation or accumulation of debris.
The effectiveness of the selective moulding is enhanced by adequately supporting the appliance against the palatal tissues and taping the lip segments across the cheek. This tight apposition of the lip segments provides the same benefit of traditional lip adhesion, but without the consequent scarring. It also serves to improve the alignment of the nasal base by bringing the columella towards the midsagittal plane, thereby improving the symmetry of the nostrils. Lip adhesion in isolation produces an uncontrolled orthopaedic movement. However, if carried out along with the moulding plate, the movements can be more precise and controlled.
The nasal stent is added to the NAM appliance when the width of the cleft is reduced to a size of ≥6 mm. The reasoning behind delaying the addition of the nasal stent is that when the cleft size reduces, the alignment of the base of the nose and the lip segment also improves. The alar rim, which was initially stretched over the clefted segments at birth, will show some laxity, now that the cleft size has reduced and thus can be elevated into a symmetrical and convex form with the nasal stent. Any attempt to correct this deformity before reducing the cleft size may result in an undesirable increase in the lateral alar wall [26].
Matsuo and Hirose [27] suggested a silicone nasal conformer, which can be used for presurgical nasal moulding. The height of the conformer is adjusted by gradually adding some soft resin or flat silicone sheets on the domes. It can be used for presurgical elongation of the columella in incomplete clefts or postoperative maintenance of the nostril configuration. Blanching occurs at the nasal tip as infant suckles and activates the appliance. It also exerts a reciprocal intraoral moulding force against the clefted alveolar segments.
Grayson and Shetye [20] adapted nasal stent to extend from the anterior flange of an intraoral moulding plate. The greatest advantage of NAM is that it enables the practitioner to apply force skilfully to shape the nasal cartilage. Figueroa’s technique [28] involves the simultaneous moulding of the alveolar cleft and nasal cartilage using a rigid acrylic nasal extension attached to an acrylic plate. Elastics are attached to the acrylic plate to allow gentle retraction of the premaxilla. A soft resin ball may also be attached to the acrylic plate across the prolabium in order to maintain the nasolabial angle. In bilateral cases, there is a need for two retentive arms as well as two nasal stents which are similar in shape to the unilateral stent.
The nasal stent is made from 19 gauge (0.36 inch), round stainless-steel wire, in the shape of a ‘Swan Neck’ (Figure 9). The base of the stent should be located midway between the clefted lip segments. The superior loop is adjusted to fit passively in the nostril on the cleft side. The nasal portion of the wire is then covered with self-cure clear acrylic and then by a layer of the tissue conditioner until mild blanching is evident. This superior lobe gently lifts the nasal dome forward, while the lower lobe lifts the tip of the nose and defines the top of the columella.
Nasal stent.
Through gradual increments of tissue conditioner, the nostril on the cleft side is lifted to achieve acceptable elevation, and symmetry moulding continued until the desired nasal cartilage and alveolar shape is achieved.
Shetty et al [29] used the following protocol for presurgical NAM therapy:
Parent education and counselling: Use of audiovisual aids and live demonstrations
Interaction with parents of older NAM patients
Diet counselling
Detailed documentation: Photographs and Dentofacial impressions
Medical evaluation of patients
Demonstration of daily appliance care
Awareness and management of possible complications
Evaluation of patient and parent compliance
Detailed documentation
Evaluation of fit of the appliance and required modifications
About 8–10 mm gap between the clefted segments—aggressive alveolar moulding
Evaluation of patient and parent compliance
Detailed documentation
Comparison of dentofacial impressions recorded before treatment outcome and assessment.
Fit of the appliance and required modifications
Nasal moulding
Active alveolar moulding continued till completion
Passive alveolar moulding started once complete approximation of alveolar segment achieved
Fabrication of new appliance every 2 months
Parents participation in periodic NAM workshops
Washing of plate should be with warm water
Never use a brush to clean the plate that will damage the resin
Never drop the plate
Clean after every feeding to avoid fungal infection
Feed the baby at an upright position not sleeping
In case of rash – discontinue plate – apply cream – continue plate wearing
In case of gag inform doctor
In case of incessant crying—discontinue plate
In case of bleeding areas discontinue plate – inform the doctor
Gag—trim posterior ends
Bleeding—trim sharp ends
Bleeding from skin—stop wearing the plate—use soothing lotions
Plate gets dislodged—reduce force or change direction of tapes, change angulations of the handle
Baby dislodges the plate by tongue—flatten the palatal surface so that the tongue does not get a grip
The success of PNAM depends upon the surgical procedure and the treating surgeon’s skill. The surgical procedure, most commonly recommended is the modified gingivoperiosteoplasty (GPP), described by Millard and Lantham [30] carried out usually within 12–16 weeks of age. The surgery may be delayed in cases where additional weeks of PNAM therapy is needed. The surgical procedure involves a first stage primary lip nose repair to close the alveolar defect followed by one-stage palatal repair at 11–13 months of age when speech begins to develope (Figure 10) [31].
Lip and nose surgery.
Postsurgery, an additional external nasal stent can be given for 1 year to improve the nasal morphology if it did not resemble the unaffected side and also maintain the nasal correction if needed. The postsurgical external nasal stent is fabricated by making an impression of the unaffected nostril using tissue conditioner, and using it to mould the nasal contour on the cleft side [32].
The most common complication with the NAM therapy is irritation of the oral mucosa, gingival tissue and nasal mucosa. These issues arise due to the forces applied by the appliance [20]. They can be avoided by careful examination and modification of the extent and fit of the appliance. Fungal infection is another complication that can occur due to poor oral hygiene and continuous wear of the appliance. This can be avoided by following a meticulous oral hygiene routine and following the wash care instructions for the NAM plate. In severe cases, local nystatin or systemic amphotericin can be used [33].
Presurgical infant orthopaedics by means of nasoalveolar moulding enables the surgeon to carry out gingivoperiosteoplasty, which decreases the need for a second surgery. Bilateral cases, especially benefit as columella lengthening is carried out nonsurgically. It also minimises scar tissue formation and provides for more consistent outcomes. PNAM is most successful when initiated early and through meticulous planning and collaboration between the various disciplines.
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DL is implemented by deep neural network (DNN) which has multi-hidden layers. DNN is developed from traditional artificial neural network (ANN). However, in the training process of DL, it has certain inefficiency due to very long training time required. Meta-heuristic aims to find good or near-optimal solutions at a reasonable computational cost. In this article, meta-heuristic algorithms are reviewed, such as genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), for traditional neural network’s training and parameter optimization. Thereafter the possibilities of applying meta-heuristic algorithms on DL training and parameter optimization are discussed.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Zhonghuan Tian and Simon Fong",authors:[{id:"1952",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Fong",slug:"simon-fong",fullName:"Simon Fong"},{id:"186166",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhonghuan",middleName:null,surname:"Tien",slug:"zhonghuan-tien",fullName:"Zhonghuan Tien"}]},{id:"51209",doi:"10.5772/62472",title:"A Review and Comparative Study of Firefly Algorithm and its Modified Versions",slug:"a-review-and-comparative-study-of-firefly-algorithm-and-its-modified-versions",totalDownloads:2944,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Firefly algorithm is one of the well-known swarm-based algorithms which gained popularity within a short time and has different applications. It is easy to understand and implement. The existing studies show that it is prone to premature convergence and suggest the relaxation of having constant parameters. To boost the performance of the algorithm, different modifications are done by several researchers. In this chapter, we will review these modifications done on the standard firefly algorithm based on parameter modification, modified search strategy and change the solution space to make the search easy using different probability distributions. The modifications are done for continuous as well as non-continuous problems. Different studies including hybridization of firefly algorithm with other algorithms, extended firefly algorithm for multiobjective as well as multilevel optimization problems, for dynamic problems, constraint handling and convergence study will also be briefly reviewed. A simulation-based comparison will also be provided to analyse the performance of the standard as well as the modified versions of the algorithm.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Waqar A. Khan, Nawaf N. Hamadneh, Surafel L. Tilahun and Jean\nM. T. Ngnotchouye",authors:[{id:"180330",title:"Dr.",name:"Surafel",middleName:null,surname:"Tilahun",slug:"surafel-tilahun",fullName:"Surafel Tilahun"},{id:"180784",title:"Dr.",name:"Waqar Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"waqar-ahmed-khan",fullName:"Waqar Ahmed Khan"},{id:"185148",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hamadneh",slug:"nawaf-hamadneh",fullName:"Nawaf Hamadneh"},{id:"185149",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean M. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ngnotchouye",slug:"jean-m.-t.-ngnotchouye",fullName:"Jean M. T. 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While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6866,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1718,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"74032",title:"Wavelets for EEG Analysis",slug:"wavelets-for-eeg-analysis",totalDownloads:1263,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter introduces the applications of wavelet for Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. First, the overview of EEG signal is discussed to the recording of raw EEG and widely used frequency bands in EEG studies. The chapter then progresses to discuss the common artefacts that contaminate EEG signal while recording. With a short overview of wavelet analysis techniques, namely; Continues Wavelet Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD), the chapter demonstrates the richness of CWT over conventional time-frequency analysis technique e.g. Short-Time Fourier Transform. Lastly, artefact removal algorithms based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and wavelet are discussed and a comparative analysis is demonstrated. The techniques covered in this chapter show that wavelet analysis is well-suited for EEG signals for describing time-localised event. Due to similar nature, wavelet analysis is also suitable for other biomedical signals such as Electrocardiogram and Electromyogram.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Nikesh Bajaj",authors:[{id:"326400",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikesh",middleName:null,surname:"Bajaj",slug:"nikesh-bajaj",fullName:"Nikesh Bajaj"}]},{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2873,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"163",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. 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He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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