Nominal dimensions of rollers.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8679",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",title:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"A direct solution of the heat conduction equation with prescribed initial and boundary conditions yields temperature distribution inside a specimen. The direct solution is mathematically considered as a well-posed one because the solution exists, is unique, and continuously depends on input data. The estimation of unknown parameters from the measured temperature data is known as the inverse problem of heat conduction. An error in temperature measurement, thermal time lagging, thermocouple-cavity, or signal noise data makes stability a problem in the estimation of unknown parameters. The solution of the inverse problem can be obtained by employing the gradient or non-gradient based inverse algorithm. The aim of this book is to analyze the inverse problem and heat exchanger applications in the fields of aerospace, mechanical, applied mechanics, environment sciences, and engineering.",isbn:"978-1-78985-178-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-177-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-384-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80096",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"inverse-heat-conduction-and-heat-exchangers",numberOfPages:202,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a994b17ac471c6d414d63c74a7ab74de",bookSignature:"Suvanjan Bhattacharya, Mohammad Moghimi Ardekani, Ranjib Biswas and R. C. Mehta",publishedDate:"December 2nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8679.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7184,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233630/images/system/233630.png",biography:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, India. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his post-doctoral research at the Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India and with the collaboration of Duesseldorf University of Applied Sciences, Germany. He received his Master’s degree from the Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, India (Formerly known as Bengal Engineering and Science University), on Heat-Power Engineering.\nHis research interest lies in computational fluid dynamics in fluid flow and heat transfer, specializing on laminar, turbulent, transition, steady, unsteady separated flows and convective heat transfer, experimental heat transfer enhancement, solar energy and renewable energy. He is the author and co-author of 107 papers in high ranked journals and prestigious conference proceedings. He has bagged the best paper award in a number of international conferences as well. He is also in editorial boards of 15 Journals and reviewers of more than 40 prestigious Journals.",institutionString:"Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"56358",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mehta",slug:"rakhab-mehta",fullName:"Rakhab Mehta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/56358/images/system/56358.jpeg",biography:"R. C. Mehta obtained his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. He has worked as the Head of Aerodynamics\r\nDivision of Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre/Indian Space Research Organization and has participated in the design of launch and reentry vehicles. He has served as a Senior Fellow in the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He is the recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Flow Physics Society of India. He is a senior member of AIAA, has published over 120 papers in peer-reviewed national and international journals, five book chapters, and co-authored two books. He is a reviewer for many international journals and is presently Dean in the Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education, Kumaracoil, India.",institutionString:"Noorul Islam University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Noorul Islam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"284313",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Moghimi Ardekani",slug:"mohammad-moghimi-ardekani",fullName:"Mohammad Moghimi Ardekani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284313/images/system/284313.png",biography:"Currently, Dr. Moghimi Ardekani is working in the Department\nof Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering at the University\nof Pretoria, South Africa. His professional experience includes\nseveral roles in academics and industries since 2007. He has\nmore than three years of industrial experience in design of heat\nexchangers and pressure vessels for the oil, gas, and petrochemical industries. In addition, he is also interested in solar thermal\nplants. He is the author and co-author of 42 papers in high ranked journals and\nprestigious conference proceedings as well as a book on design of heat exchangers.\nHe is on the editorial boards of 4 international journals and a reviewer of 10 ISI\njournals. In addition, his research findings gained him the international prize of\nGreen Talent from the German Ministry of Research and Education in 2015. He has\ndone several collaborations and consultations with different research institutes and\ncompanies around the world. To name a few: DLR (Germany), SOLASTOR (Australia), University of Nottingham (UK), University of Clarkson (USA), Concordia\nuniversity (Canada).",institutionString:"University of Pretoria",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"284315",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjib",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"ranjib-biswas",fullName:"Ranjib Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284315/images/system/284315.png",biography:"Dr. Ranjib Biswas completed his B.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering from Kalyani Govt. Engineering College in 1999. Later\non he did his Masters and Ph.D. (Engineering) from Jadavpur\nUniversity. His area of interest includes additively manufactured,\n3D printed heat exchangers, layer-by-layer line welding, process\nintensification, laser beam machining, micromachining etc. He\nhas published several research papers in international journals\nof repute. Dr. Biswas joined the MCKV Institute of Engineering (MCKVIE) in\n2003 as Lecturer and is presently working as Associate Professor of the Mechanical \nEngineering Department. He is deeply involved in the assessment and accreditation\n(A&A) process of different programs of the institute as Coordinator of Internal\nQuality Assurance Cell (IQAC) of MCKVIE. Dr. Biswas has also organized several\nnational and internal conferences, workshops, seminars, FDPs etc.",institutionString:"MCKV Institute Of Engineering, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"223",title:"Engineering Physics",slug:"physics-engineering-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"72544",title:"Applications of Heat Transfer Enhancement Techniques: A State-of-the-Art Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92873",slug:"applications-of-heat-transfer-enhancement-techniques-a-state-of-the-art-review",totalDownloads:913,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The fundamentals of heat transfer and its applications, the classification of heat transfer technology and different heat transfer techniques, and the needs for augmentation and its benefits and the different combinations of two or more inserts and integral roughness elements for heat transfer augmentation purpose have been introduced and discussed in this chapter. It is shown that most of the compound techniques performed better than the individual inserts for heat transfer enhancement. This chapter has also been dedicated to understanding the basic concepts of vortex generators for heat transfer enhancement in plate-fin heat exchangers. The performance of transverse, longitudinal, and wing-type vortex generators has been discussed as well.",signatures:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya, Devendra K. Vishwakarma, Sanghati Roy, Ranjib Biswas and Mohammad Moghimi Ardekani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72544",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72544",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"73050",title:"Applications of Compound Nanotechnology and Twisted Inserts for Enhanced Heat Transfer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93359",slug:"applications-of-compound-nanotechnology-and-twisted-inserts-for-enhanced-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:494,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanoadditives are a type of heat transfer enhancement techniques adopted in heat exchangers to improve the performance of industrial plants through improvement of the thermal properties of base fluids. Recently, various types of inserts with nanofluids are adopted to enhance the thermal performance of double pipe heat exchangers. In the current article, TiO2/water nanofluid with multiple twisted tape inserts was investigated as a hybrid enhancement technique of heat transfer in straight pipes. The investigations were carried out experimentally and numerically at Reynolds numbers varied from 5000 to 20,000. Using nanofluid with 0.1% TiO2 nanoparticles volume fraction demonstrated enhanced heat transfer with slight increase in pressure drop. Results are showing a maximum increase of 110.8% in Nusselt number in a tube fitted with quintuple twisted tape inserts with 25.2% increase in the pressure drop. However, as the article is representing a part of specified book on heat exchangers, the literature has been extended to provide sufficient background to the reader on the use of nanotech, twisted inserts, and hybrid of compound nanofluids and inserts to enhance heat transfer processes.",signatures:"Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, Muna S. Kassim and Saud T. Taher",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73050",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73050",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69284",title:"Tubular Heat Exchanger Fouling in Phosphoric Acid Concentration Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88936",slug:"tubular-heat-exchanger-fouling-in-phosphoric-acid-concentration-process",totalDownloads:720,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fouling in phosphoric acid concentration is a persistent operational problem that compromises energy recovery in this process. Progress is hampered by the lack of quantitative knowledge of fouling dynamic effects on heat exchanger transfer. The object of this work is an experimental determination of the thermal fouling resistance in the tubular heat exchanger of phosphoric acid preheated installed in phosphoric acid concentration process. By measuring the inlet and outlet temperatures of phosphoric acid, steam temperature, suction and discharge pressure of the pump and acid density measurement, the overall heat transfer coefficient has been determined. The determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient with clean and fouled surfaces, allowed calculating the fouling resistance. The results from the heat exchanger studies showed that the fouling resistance increased with time and presented an asymptotic evolution in compliant with the proposed model by Kern and Seaton, with the existence of fluctuation. The poorly cleaned heat exchanger implied the absence of the induction period and caused, consequently, high values of the fouling resistance in a relatively short-time period.",signatures:"Rania Jradi, Ali Fguiri, Christophe Marvillet and Mohamed Razak Jeday",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69284",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68149",title:"Fouling in Heat Exchangers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88079",slug:"fouling-in-heat-exchangers-1",totalDownloads:1159,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A major problem in industries that use heat exchanger equipment cooled with water in their industrial processes is biofouling. In the design and operation of heat exchangers cooled with water, a coefficient of biological must be considered, which affects the efficiency of the equipment. For this reason, it is necessary to apply appropriate antifouling treatments to the design of each heat exchanger. In order to minimize the undesirable phenomenon of biofouling, various mitigation methods have been developed over the last 30 years, both online and offline, of a physical, chemical, or biological nature. Most of these methods are well contrasted and are applied in the regular operation of the facilities, although some methodology approaches are in the research and development phase. However, the application of most of these methods requires interrupting the production, periodically, in order to clean the biofouling, seriously damaging the performance and operation of the installation. The “online” methods to biofouling control are chemical (oxidizing, and non-oxidants), biological and physical treatments. Nowadays, other methodologies of biofouling mitigation that do not affect the environment are being investigated, although, until now, none have been found that are substitutes for chemical agents and that have the same or with higher efficiency.",signatures:"Sergio García and Alfredo Trueba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68149",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67407",title:"Molecular Dynamics Simulation-Based Study on Enhancing Thermal Properties of Graphene-Reinforced Thermoplastic Polyurethane Nanocomposite for Heat Exchanger Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86527",slug:"molecular-dynamics-simulation-based-study-on-enhancing-thermal-properties-of-graphene-reinforced-the",totalDownloads:635,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation-based development of heat resistance nanocomposite materials for nanoheat transfer devices (like nanoheat exchanger) and applications have been studied. In this study, MD software (Materials Studio) has been used to know the heat transport behaviors of the graphene-reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane (Gr/TPU) nanocomposite. The effect of graphene weight percentage (wt%) on thermal properties (e.g., glass transition temperature, coefficient of thermal expansion, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and interface thermal conductance) of Gr/TPU nanocomposites has been studied. Condensed-phase optimized molecular potentials for atomistic simulation studies (COMPASS) force field which is incorporated in both amorphous and forcite plus atomistic simulation modules within the software are used for this present study. Layer models have been developed to characterize thermal properties of the Gr/TPU nanocomposites. It is seen from the simulation results that glass transition temperature (Tg) of the Gr/TPU nanocomposites is higher than that of pure TPU. MD simulation results indicate that addition of graphene into TPU matrix enhances thermal conductivity. The present study provides effective guidance and understanding of the thermal mechanism of graphene/TPU nanocomposites for improving their thermal properties. Finally, the revealed enhanced thermal properties of nanocomposites, the interfacial interaction energy, and the free volume of polymer nanocomposites are examined and discussed.",signatures:"Animesh Talapatra and Debasis Datta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67407",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69253",title:"A Numerical Approach to Solving an Inverse Heat Conduction Problem Using the Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89096",slug:"a-numerical-approach-to-solving-an-inverse-heat-conduction-problem-using-the-levenberg-marquardt-alg",totalDownloads:527,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is intended to provide a numerical algorithm involving the combined use of the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm and the Galerkin finite element method for estimating the diffusion coefficient in an inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP). In the present study, the functional form of the diffusion coefficient is an unknown priori. The unknown diffusion coefficient is approximated by the polynomial form and the present numerical algorithm is employed to find the solution. Numerical experiments are presented to show the efficiency of the proposed method.",signatures:"Tao Min, Xing Chen, Yao Sun and Qiang Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69253",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69253",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68997",title:"The Fundamental and Application of Surface Heat Flux Estimation by Inverse Method in Cryogen Spray Cooling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89095",slug:"the-fundamental-and-application-of-surface-heat-flux-estimation-by-inverse-method-in-cryogen-spray-c",totalDownloads:648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surface heat flux is an important parameter in various industrial applications, which is often estimated based on measured temperature by solving inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP). In this chapter, the available IHCP methods including sequential function specification (SFS), transfer function (TF) and Duhamel’s theorem were compared, taking the example of surface heat flux estimation during spray cooling. The Duhamel’s theorem was improved to solve 1D multi-layer ICHP. Considering the significant nonuniformity of heat transfer, the 2D filter solution method was proposed to estimate surface heat flux for 2D multi-layer mediums. The maximum heat flux calculated by the 1D method was underestimated by 60% than that calculated by 2D filter solution, indicating that the lateral heat transfer cannot be ignored. The cooling performances based on 2D filter solution demonstrated that substituting the environment friendly R1234yf for R134a can remarkably reduce global warming potential to <1, but its cooling capacity is insufficient. The effective heat flux of R1234yf can be enhanced by 18.8% by reducing the nozzle diameter and decreasing the back pressure, providing the theoretical basis for the clinical potential substitution of R1234yf with low global warming potential (GWP) for commercial R134a with high GWP in laser dermatology.",signatures:"Bin Chen, Jia-Meng Tian and Zhi-Fu Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68997",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68997",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71295",title:"Equation of State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89919",slug:"equation-of-state",totalDownloads:964,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An equation of state (EOS) is a thermodynamic expression that relates pressure (P), temperature (T), and volume (V). This equation is used to describe the state of reservoir fluids at given conditions. The cubic equations of state (CEOS) such as Van der Waals, Redlich-Kwong, Soave, and Peng-Robinson are simple models that have been widely used in the oil industry. This chapter expressed literature for EOS that varies from simple expressions to multiple constant and convoluted types of equations. Many attempts have been made to describe the thermodynamic behavior of fluids to predict their physical properties at given conditions. So, several forms of the equation of state have been presented to the oil industry in order to calculate reservoir fluid properties. The heat exchanger is important in wildly fields as in aerospace, petrochemical industry, refrigeration, and other fields. The optimization design of the heat exchanger is a great significance to industry process to reduce production cost, realize energy conservation, and reduce energy consumption.",signatures:"Eman Mohamed Mansour",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71295",authors:[{id:"277274",title:"Dr.",name:"Eman M.",surname:"Mansour",slug:"eman-m.-mansour",fullName:"Eman M. Mansour"}],corrections:null},{id:"70787",title:"Influence of Input Parameters on the Solution of Inverse Heat Conduction Problem",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91000",slug:"influence-of-input-parameters-on-the-solution-of-inverse-heat-conduction-problem",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation is solved using analytical and numerical methods. An iterative technique is employed which estimates unknown boundary conditions from the measured temperature time history. The focus of the present chapter is to investigate effects of input parameters such as time delay, thermocouple cavity, error in the location of thermocouple position and time- and temperature-dependent thermophysical properties. Inverse heat conduction problem IHCP is solved with and without material conduction. A two-time level implicit finite difference numerical method is used to solve nonlinear heat conduction problem. Effects of uniform, nonuniform and deforming computational grids on the estimated convective heat transfer are investigated in a nozzle of solid rocket motor. A unified heat transfer analysis is presented to obtain wall heat flux and convective heat transfer coefficient in a rocket nozzle. A two-node exact solution technique is applied to estimate aerodynamic heating in a free flight of a sounding rocket. The stability of the solution of the inverse heat conduction problem is sensitive to the spatial and temporal discretization.",signatures:"Rakhab C. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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These mechanical systems are characterized by the transmission of large load possibility at high speed and positional accuracy of the working member of the relevant machinery. Their application is mainly connected with the so-called hard automation, which is characterized by unchangeable or difficult to change operations of the given technical equipment. Their widespread use is known in manufacturing and handling machines of the manufacturing industry, with their dynamic effects and properties greatly affecting the overall behavior, operation, and efficiency of such machinery. At present, increasing demands are placed on the performance parameters of such machinery. Therefore, the operating speeds and thus the inertial effects of the moving bodies are increased, thereby reducing the usable operating frequency of the machines. These facts cause greater wear and reduce overall machine lifetime and reliability and must be taken into account when designing and developing them. The development of computer technology, numerical mathematics, and informatics enables the use of analytical and numerical methods in the design, development, and construction of cam mechanisms.
\nA general cam mechanism is typically referred to as a three-link mechanism with a single degree of freedom, which consists of two moving members mounted on a fixed frame (1). The moving members are the cam (2) and the follower (3) (see an example of a cam mechanism in Figure 1). In the case of the general cam mechanism, the general kinematic pair is formed of the contact of the working surfaces of the cam and the follower. The contact strain of the surface of the contact areas of the said type of kinematic pair, and in the vicinity of this surface, has a periodic course. As a result of the contact strain action, fatigue damage can occur on the contact surfaces. One of the criteria for such damage may be a value of the largest compressive principal stress in the contact area and in its vicinity. This is subsequently brought into the relationship with the strength limit of the respective material. The lifetime of the cam mechanisms is closely related to the choice of materials and their physical and mechanical properties from which the individual components are made, the method of material processing, and the technology of manufacturing of the individual parts or the way and the intensity of loading. It is connected with the way, intensity, and conditions of loading too. This issue connects the knowledge of theoretical, applied, and contact mechanics, tribology, material engineering, and structural analysis, though this theoretical knowledge must be supported by results from experimental identification.
\nA conjugate cam mechanism with an oscillating roller follower.
In technical practice, multi-body cam systems are often encountered in addition to the basic three-body cam systems, which may also contain transforming linkages and mechanisms with constant gear ratio. Such mechanical systems are termed cam hinge or also combined cam mechanisms. These mechanical systems with a single degree of freedom are characterized by a uniform motion of the driving member, which generally does not need to be a cam, in most of their applications. The shape of the working surface of the cam realizes the working motion of the working member of the system, which is not necessarily a follower. In many cases, the kinetostatic analysis method is sufficient for the basic determination of the time course of the dynamic behavior of these mechanical systems. The kinetostatic solution determines the driving force effects, reactions in joints, and the force effects transmitted by the cam mechanism and linkages. For the solution, the knowledge is necessary of the kinematic quantities and geometrical mass parameters of all members of the mechanism as well as action force effects acting on individual bodies. The results of kinetostatic analysis thus become the basic data for determining the distribution of contact stress in the contact area of the cam and follower.
\nThis section gives only basic information on how to solve the tasks of combined cam mechanisms. Fundamental terms and methods of analysis for the investigation of this type of the mechanical systems are specified. For example, the results of the kinematic analysis and synthesis are further used in kinetostatic or dynamic analysis tasks of these mechanical systems. The main goal of these analyses is to determine the courses of reactions in kinematic pairs, force loading of the cam and the follower, force effects acting on individual members, driving effects needed in the systems’ movement, etc. Knowledge of the acting forces in the cam mechanism general kinematic pair is significant to determine the contact stress distribution in the contact of the cam and the follower.
\nDetailed knowledge of this issue may be found in [1, 2].
\nBy definition, a general cam mechanism refers to a three-link mechanical system with a single degree of freedom that contains at least one cam linked with other members by means of at least one general kinematic pair. In this case, the general kinematic pair is formed by contacting the cam and the follower, whose movement is translation, rotation, or general. The cam mechanisms can implement a required working motion within a very precisely prescribed path with the use of a small number of bodies housed inside a relatively small space. The cam is the driving (or also input) member; in terms of shape, it is possible to define the basic cam types: radial, axial (cylindrical), and globoid. The follower is termed as the driven (or output or also working) member of a cam mechanism, which carries out the desired motion. The translating follower motion is defined as a translational or a general. The rotating follower, which performs a rotational motion, is usually called the lever. In order to reduce the passive resistance, the follower is often equipped with a roller in technical practice, whereby pure rolling in the interaction between the cam profile and the follower occurs, as is shown in Figure 1. This arrangement does not influence on the required follower motion.
\nOne of the main conditions for proper operation of the cam mechanism is to maintain permanent contact of the follower with the cam during the action. This constraint of a general kinematic pair is achieved by a load or a redundant kinematic constraint. In the first case, the given contact is held using preloaded returnable compression springs, gravity forces, or inbuilt hydraulic or pneumatic elements. The disadvantage of this arrangement is the increased force loading and wear of the cam mechanism, which is caused by the preload required for the permanent contact between the follower and the cam. In the second case, contact by the redundant constraint is ensured by adding an extra linkage. For example, a grooved cam can realize such an arrangement. This embodiment is simple, but its disadvantage is the change in the rotation direction of the roller in the cam groove during the relative movement between the roller follower and the cam. This phenomenon is caused by a change in the sense of the transmitted normal reaction between the roller and the cam groove, because the pole of relative motion changes during the cam mechanism operation. As a result, the working surfaces of the groove are more worn in the points of the change in the roller rotation. Dual cam and roller follower systems are a more preferred design of the cam mechanism with the redundant kinematic constraint, although this solution is more expensive and complicated to manufacture. The conjugate, complementary, or double-disc cam is one including dual radial discs, each in contact with at least two driven followers coupled by a rigid or a kinematic linkage. The mobility of this mechanism is ensured by a special dimension arrangement, where the actions of both working surfaces of the dual cam must correspond exactly to each other. A schematic representation of a cam mechanism with radial conjugate cams and an oscillating dual roller follower is shown in Figure 1. The given constraint consists of another radial cam
The shape of a cam contour is determined by the synthesis which is on the basis of the knowledge of the displacement law of the given cam mechanism and its dimensional parameters. The position of the cam relative to the frame of the cam mechanism is determined with an angular variable \n
As a combined cam mechanism, it is generally called a mechanical system usually with a single degree of freedom which includes at least one general cam mechanism. This system usually also includes sets of various transforming linkages with not only a constant but also a generally variable gear ratio. They are most often complemented by simple linkages with lower kinematic pairs. In practice, lower pairs are generally planar couplings between two movable adjusted neighboring members. The members connected by a kinematic pair with the frame are referred to as the basic members of the transforming linkages. They perform rotational or translational motion. The basic representatives of such mechanisms are four-bar mechanism, crank mechanism, oscillating mechanisms, gears, etc. (see examples in Figure 2). The following findings are presented in accordance with the knowledge in publication [1, 3, 4]:
\nSome common types of transforming linkages.
The input of the relevant linkage is an ordered triple of variables \n
By differentiating Eq. (1) in time, a relation may be obtained between the velocity and the acceleration:
\nDifferentiation with respect to time is denoted by dots in Eq. (2). The linkage ratio is called a magnitude, which is dependent on the position of the linkage, and it is given by Eq. (3):
\nThe derivatives of Eq. (3) with respect to positions are given by Eq. (4):
\nIntroducing Eqs. (3) and (4) into Eq. (2) gives:
\nwhich expresses relations for calculating the velocity and the acceleration of the output member.
\nThe individual linkage can be placed into so-called
A chain of transformation blocks of linkages.
In relation to solving the problems with the combined cam mechanisms, we have introduced the following nomenclature (designation) of positional and kinematic magnitudes of the main members. Variable \n
The input
The output
The parallel
Block diagrams of the computation of combined cam mechanisms.
Indexes
The calculation of the positional and kinematic quantities of any member of a combined cam mechanism is designed as a kinematic analysis (see the block diagram in Figure 4). The input data are typical data (geometrical mass quantity and dimensions) on a mechanism, the procedure of computation of its chains, displacement function \n
The shape of a cam contour is determined by the synthesis which is on the basis of the knowledge of a displacement law of the given combined cam mechanism and its dimensional parameters. The following observations on the displacement laws are presented in accordance with the knowledge in publication [1].
\nA function assigning time \n
An example of a displacement law.
The initial point \n
Derivatives of the unity displacement to \n
For the solution of problems related to the kinematic analysis and synthesis of cam systems, it is possible to use a broad set of displacement laws in a normalized form. These include, for example, polynomial, trigonometric, and exponential displacements and cycloidal, parabolic, and goniometric displacements (see [1]).
\nThe choice of displacement law greatly has an influence over the dynamic properties and behavior of high-speed mechanical systems, and it should meet the following basic criteria within the specified conditions:
In relation to the desired motion of the mechanism, the acceleration inertia forces, momentum, and performance of the cam mechanism should be always as small as possible.
The vibrations forced by the movement of the mechanical system should be kept at a minimum.
Both criteria lead to low dynamic strain on the members of the mechanical system due to dynamic effects. In addition, the second criterion is related to the accuracy of adherence to the prescribed working member positions and the elimination of any noise sources. Comprehensive and detailed information on the issues of the displacement law choice is provided in [1].
\nIn this text section, we will focus mainly on the general kinematic pair formed by contact of a cam and a roller follower. The mentioned type of kinematic constraint in the technical practice is usually most often constituted by a cylindrical roller and a cam or a crowned roller and a cam. In terms of computational purposes, we can substitute both mentioned contacts for the contact of cylindrical bodies with parallel axes and the contact of an elliptical body with a cylindrical one.
\nThe contact area of the general kinematic pair is subjected to cyclic loading within the working cycle, while the contact surfaces are primarily in rolling contact in combination with a small percentage of mutual sliding. Thus, the transmission of normal and tangential forces is realized. These phenomena cause deformation of both bodies in the contact and cause contact stress in them. The state of stress on the working surfaces and under it is characterized by the principal stresses, which are transient and have the character of pulses with a period of 2π. Fatigue damage of the cam and follower contact surfaces may occur after a certain number of cycles in the operation of cam mechanisms, as long as a certain limit value of this stress is exceeded at any point of the contact area. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. For cams with a hardened surface, this layer can be broken and then peels off (spalling) (see Figure 6). Both types of damage occur due to the contact stress that can be described by the theory of contact mechanics (see [5]). In terms of estimating the lifetime of the contact areas of the general kinematic pair, the distribution of the reduced stress in the surface areas and at a certain depth under it is therefore an important criterion. Thus, in the area of cam mechanisms, it is primarily a matter of determining the service life of the cam and follower contact surfaces depending on the conditions of their force loading.
\nSome common types of fatigue damages of cams and rollers.
The state of deformation and stress existing between the two elastic bodies in contact under load can be established both based on the contact mechanics and based on the use of the finite element method (FEM). The contact mechanics deals with the study of stress and deformation of solids being in contact at one point or along a line, acting under normal and also tangential forces. Physical and mathematical relationships are formulated on the basis of knowledge of continuum mechanics as well as mechanics of materials with the focus on elastic, viscoelastic, and plastic bodies in static or dynamic contact. The principles of contact mechanics are used to solve the problems of contact of rolling bodies (balls, rollers, barrels, needles, tapered rollers) and roller bearing rings, the contact of teeth in gearings, the contact of railway wheels and rails, mechanical constraints, and, last but not least, the contact of the cam and cam follower. The result of the calculations is also Hertzian contact stress, where there is local stress in the contact area, being caused by the contact of two curved areas, whereas these are slightly deformed due to the acting load. Hertzian contact stress is a fundamental quantity in formulating the equations for determining the carrying capacity and fatigue lifetime of cam mechanisms, bearings, gearings, and all objects in general, whose surfaces are in contact. Comprehensive and detailed information on the issues of contact mechanics is provided in [5].
\nWhen two three-dimensional bodies are brought into contact, they touch initially at a single point (
The contact of two nonconforming bodies after elastic deformation.
where \n
Point contact.
where \n
where \n
The contact stress is highly concentrated in the vicinity of the contact area and decreases rapidly with an increasing distance from it. Thus, the stress area is close to the body contact. Since the contact surfaces are dimensionally small compared to the rest of the bodies, the stresses around the contact area are not too much dependent neither on the shape of the bodies in the contact nor on the way of mounting the bodies. This hypothesis simplifies the definition of boundary conditions and allows applying the theory of elasticity of large bodies.
\nIn the case of the contact of
Line contact.
The stress state in a symmetry plane
Another possible way of determining the stress in the contact areas of bodies is to use the finite element method. To achieve the relevant results, a dense finite element mesh in the contact area is required. This requirement leads to a large number of solved linear algebraic equations. The computational body contact algorithm is based on a numerical iteration of finding the elements in contact, so the numerical solution of the equations of the assignment takes place in several steps.
\nIn order to estimate the lifetime of the contact areas, it is first necessary to determine the magnitude of the reduced stress \n
The principal stress components \n
In the case of general kinematic pairs, the contact load on the contact surface of the bodies and under it has the periodic course. At the contact areas of the general kinematic pair and below these points, contact stress becomes a periodical magnitude related to the angular cam displacement \n
and its amplitude by the equation:
\nIn Eqs. (13) and (14), the variable \n
where variable \n
Conditional inequality Eq. (16) describes the fact that during the operation of the cam mechanisms, no destructive action of elastic deformation occur in the general kinematic pair.
\nThe criterion of damage of the loaded contact areas of the cam and the follower in cam mechanisms is the formation of cracks and cavities, so-called pitting. The problem of the pitting formation on the surfaces of the bodies in contact is with that the initiation and propagation of cracks in the loaded material is completely unpredictable because the crack nuclei that form are distributed randomly in the material. Such crack nuclei are inclusions in material or surface irregularity caused by the production and treatment of this material. Therefore, it is difficult to predict exactly the stress state at the point of the contact area in which the damage occurs due to the load. This problem can be solved by introducing a criterion whereby the value of the highest principal compressive stress is determined in the contact area of the bodies, and this is brought into relation with the ultimate strength of the respective material. In the case of pure rolling contact, its magnitude is equal to the maximum value of the contact pressure—Hertzian pressure \n
In the previous part of the article, we briefly discussed ways of determining the stress in the surface and subsurface parts of the contact areas of the bodies. The following text will mention two theoretical approaches, one of which is presented in [1] and the other in [2]. Both procedures result from the knowledge of the contact mechanics, and based on this, the Hertzian pressure value
In the course of the operation cycle of the cam mechanism, no damage caused by the formation of pits is acceptable on the contact surface under load. Referring to [1], such fatigue damage will not occur if Hertzian pressure is given by the Niemann empirical relation in the form:
\nwhere the variable \n
This criterion Eq. (18) is very simple because it is dependent on the only material parameter \n
Based on conclusions introduced in [2], a condition for the level of stress can be derived, in which the contact surface of the body will not be damaged:
\nin which the constant \n
Both conditions according to relations Eqs. (17) and (19) are illustrated graphically for selected steel \n
Load-life relationships for steel C22.
The geometrical shape of the roller crown itself has a significant effect on the stress distribution, due to the load and inertia effects in the contact areas of the general kinematic pair, which is usually formed in practice by a cylindrical roller and a cam or a crowned roller and a cam (see Figure 12).
\nSome types of roller profiles in contact with a cam.
It has been proven that the contact stresses in the vicinity of the shape, discontinuities in the contact area of the bodies in contact, are considerably higher than those reached outside the area of their immediate influence as described in the publication [2]. For this reason, the contact surfaces are more stressed, and their fatigue lifetime is reduced.
\nIn general, we can expect to achieve a longer lifetime of the general kinematic pair of any cam mechanism by using the cylindrical profile of the roller crown. However, in the case of a conventional straight roller, there are discontinuities at the intersection of the roller cylindrical profile with the cam profile. These are caused by the fact that one contact area is axially shorter than the other and also by chamfering the roller edges. In the vicinity of those profile discontinuities, the contact between the roller and cam cannot be considered as simply a straight line contact but for a more complex three-dimensional contact type. Therefore, in this case, it is not possible to apply the conclusions of Hertz’s theory of contact to the calculation of the contact stress distribution. These discontinuities cause a high concentration of contact pressure at the appropriate point in the contact area. In fact, these local increases in the distribution of contact pressure can exceed the strength limit of the given material and thus cause plastic deformation in the contact area, the formation of residual stresses in the material, or hardening of steel. The area in question will further be more prone to fatigue damage to the contact surfaces such as pitting or spalling.
\nTo ensure a more even distribution of contact stress in the contact area of the roller and cam, it is necessary to modify the shape of the axial cross-section of the roller crown. This is one of the reasons for the practical application of crowned rollers, when the radius of curvature of the crown profile is far greater than the radial radius of the roller (see Figure 12). Furthermore, we can easily compensate with their use misalignment between the roller and cam, without causing a fundamental change in the contact stress distribution. However, the largest concentration of contact stress distribution is achieved in the middle of the contact area with all the consequences as in the case of the straight roller.
\nThe reduction of excessive contact stress in the vicinity of straight roller edges is achieved by such a shape of the axial cross-section of the crown, which includes straight line and tangent circular arcs that are connected to it on each side (see Figure 12). However, this shape of the roller crown leads to a certain concentration of contact stress in the transition from the cylindrical segment of the roller to the crowned one. Uniform distribution of stress for different levels of loading of the general kinematic pair contact areas is achieved by the logarithmic profile of the roller crown (see [11, 12]).This type of the roller crown is characterized by a monotonously decreasing profile from its center to the edge according to the logarithmic function (see Figure 12).
\nThese facts will be demonstrated on examples of cam contacts with a cylindrical, crowned, and part-crown roller, which were defined using the finite element method (see [3, 13]). The formation of the model of a general kinematic pair using the finite element method is based on assumptions on the basis of which Hertz’s theory of contact of two elastic bodies is derived (see [5]). The main assumption is that the contact area is continuous and much smaller than the characteristic dimensions of the bodies in contact. Therefore, the stresses in the vicinity of the contact area are not so dependent on the shape of the bodies in contact nor on how these bodies are fixed. Furthermore, it is assumed that the contact stress is very concentrated in the vicinity of the contact region and rapidly decreases with an increasing distance from it. The region of stress acting is therefore in the vicinity of the contact of the bodies. Through these basic assumptions, the definition of boundary conditions is simplified, and the application of the theory of elasticity of large bodies with sufficiently small deformations is allowed.
\nWhen creating a finite element model of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism, the contact of the roller with the cam will be replaced by the contact of two segments of solids of revolution. One of the solids of revolution represents the roller with the desired forming profile, and the other with a cylindrical profile replaces the cam. The radius of the cylinder is identical to the radius of curvature of the cam at the point of its contact with the roller. For the purposes of the computational analysis, we will use one eighth of each of them, assuming the parallelism of the axes of both replacement solids (see Figure 13). In the \n
A schematic drawing of a roller in contact with a cam.
To achieve the relevant results, it is important that a uniform and dense finite element mesh be used to the discretization of the contact area and its vicinity of both bodies. The size of the elements can gradually increase with an increasing distance from the contact areas. For example, the size and shape of the contact area can be predicted by calculating based on Hertz’s contact theory applied to contact of cylindrical bodies with parallel axes or to contact of a body with general profile and cylindrical body. Using this theory, we calculate the components of deformations and stresses in the contact area and its vicinity of both bodies in contact. Furthermore, the shape and size of the contact region are determined depending on the load size. This issue has been dealt with in articles [3, 6, 7] or is published in detail in [5]. Then, on the basis of the data thus determined, we define the space to create an acceptable finite element mesh density of the analyzed bodies with respect to the corresponding results compared to the real state.
\nThe application of the above procedure will be demonstrated on the analysis of the contact stress distribution in the contact area of the cam, of which nominal dimensions are the width \n
\n | Straight roller | \nCrowned roller | \nPart-crown roller | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominal diameter | \n\n\n | \n35.0 | \n35.0 | \n35.0 | \n
Effective width | \n\n\n | \n18.0 | \n18.0 | \n18.0 | \n
Fillet radius | \n\n\n | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n
Crown radius | \n\n\n | \n— | \n500 | \n200 | \n
Crown width | \n\n\n | \n— | \n— | \n6.0 | \n
Nominal dimensions of rollers.
\n | Roller: 100Cr6 | \nCam: 16MnCr2 | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Young’s modulus of elasticity | \n\n\n | \n210 | \n206 | \n
Shear modulus | \n\n\n | \n81 | \n79 | \n
Poisson’s ratio | \n\n\n | \n0.3 | \n0.3038 | \n
Material characteristics of steels.
Significant results are summarized in Table 3. Based on the size of the contact areas and the depth of the maximum reduced stress, the area was defined to create a quality network of elements in the vicinity of the contact of three roller and cam types in the creation of appropriate models using the FEM. In the case of cam and roller contact with the crown with convex segments, only the results from the FEM analysis are shown in the table. Figure 14 shows the distribution of the reduced stress induced by contact of the said cam roller types with the cam. Figure 15 shows the course of the maximum reduced stress in a depth of \n
\n | Straight | \nCrowned | \nPart-crown | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Load | \n\n\n | \n40,000 | \n15,000 | \n35,000 | \n|
Hertzian pressure | \n\n\n | \n2500 | \n2400 | \n2400 | \n|
Maximum reduced stress | \nHertz theory | \n\n\n \n\n | \n1440 | \n1370 | \n1480 | \n
MKP | \n1970 | \n1360 | \n|||
Major contact radii | \n\n\n | \n— | \n5.555 | \n— | \n|
Half width of contact/minor contact radii | \n\n\n | \n0.586 | \n0.538 | \n— | \n|
Depth of maximum reduced stress | \n\n\n | \n0.42 | \n0.38 | \n0.38 | \n
Summary of results.
The stress state in the symmetry plane
The course of the maximum reduced stress depending on the cam width.
From Table 3 and Figures 14 and 15, it is evident that there is an increase in the size of the reduced stresses in the vicinity of the profile discontinuities. This feature is particularly evident in the case of a cylindrical roller, where the contact between the roller and the cam cannot be regarded as merely straight but rather as a more complex three-dimensional type of contact. Therefore, Hertz’s theory of contact cannot be applied to this type of contact around the shape discontinuities. Based on this theory, there are very good results compared to the FEM in contact of the general body with the cylindrical one and inside the contact area of the two cylindrical bodies with parallel axes. Furthermore, it is clear that a uniform distribution of stress can be achieved by such a shape of a roller crown whose profile includes the straight and two circular portions according to the schematic representation in Figure 12. This roller crown profile is advantageous in terms of load transfer capacity and process of its manufacture.
\nThe presented chapter gives basic information on the stress problems related to a general kinematic pair of cam mechanisms. This type of kinematic pair is formed with at least one cam and a follower. The general cam mechanism is a very simple three-member mechanical system, which can implement the required working movements very accurately. Therefore, they are widely used in the design of various machines and equipment of the manufacturing industry. With the increasing pressure on the size and quality of machinery production of the manufacturing industry, the demand for its increased performance, reliability, and service life is growing. This fact is closely related to the detailed knowledge of the dynamic properties and behavior in the machinery during its operation. Thus, a dynamic response induced in the general kinematic pair is dependent both on the dynamic properties of all mechanical systems and on the prescribed displacement law. The choice of displacement law should be in conformity with the main requirements, which are, for example, reduced natural vibration, low dynamic load, high positional accuracy, and noiseless action.
\nDue to the effects of inertia and working forces, there are induced force ratios in the general kinematic pair that are the cause of contact strain. If a certain limit on this strain is exceeded, fatigue damage of the cam and follower contact surfaces may occur in the operation of the cam mechanisms. So knowledge of the distribution of the contact stress and its size are necessary when designing cam mechanisms. Contact stress expressed in Hertz pressure or the principal stresses becomes the criterion for determining the lifetime of the working areas of the mentioned kinematic pair. The lifetime itself depends on the choice of materials from which the individual parts are made and their physical and mechanical properties and the way of material processing and the production technologies of individual parts or the way and intensity of loading. There is currently a wide choice of materials for cams and cam followers of cam mechanisms. In technical practice, however, the most commonly used cams are made from steel. The surface of the cam or cam follower can be heat treated or chemically heat treated. The aim of the treatment is to achieve the desired mechanical or physical—chemical properties of the contact areas of the cam mechanisms. The purpose of this procedure is to increase the hardness and resistance of the contact surface against wear and to keep a resilient core of the respective component. The results from the abovementioned show that it is necessary to know various characteristic parameters describing material properties, heat treatment, or another technological processing for the lifetime estimation using theoretical methods. Therefore, experimental methods are an integral part of determining the lifetime of the working surface of the cam and the follower.
\nThe working surfaces of the general kinematic pair of the cam mechanism frequently operate under extreme conditions, which are high loads, high sliding speeds, and poor lubricating conditions. Thus, this fact can lead to wear or excessive friction and thereby reduce the service lifetime and efficiency. These effects may be reduced by the application of coating on the working surfaces of the cam and follower. Coating is a technological process consisting of the fact that a very thin layer (the order of thousands of millimeters) is applied to the surface of an object, which has a relatively high hardness and strength compared to the underlying material. The thin layer of the coating forms a so-called barrier of the surface layers of the respective component against their chemical and physically mechanical wear. Coatings are generally used to improve hardness and tribological properties, wear resistance, and oxidation of exposed surface layers of the components. The coatings extend the lifetime of the sliding and rolling surfaces and help reduce the required power consumption while increasing performance. This decreases the use of lubricants and allows the use of new material combinations in the implementation of the relevant machinery. In some cases, coatings are even a necessary structural element for higher mechanical and thermal loads.
\nAn effective way of analysis of the dynamic contact strain of the general kinematic pair of the cam mechanism is further presented here, which consists in the interaction of the knowledge and conclusions of Hertzian contact theory between two bodies and the advantages of using the finite element method. Using Hertz’s contact theory, we predict the shape and size of the contact region of bodies in contact. In this way, we define the region to create an even and fine mesh of elements of an appropriate size in the vicinity of contact. Taking into account the assumptions of the Hertzian theory, the definition of the FEM model of a general kinematic pair is considerably simplified, and this reduces the number of algebraic equations needed to solve this problem; thereby, the computational time is reduced. This method leads to the achievement of relevant results compared to the real state. The method is presented in the task of determining the effect of the roller crown shape on the cam stress.
\nThis chapter was created within the work on the TRIO II-FV20235 project—a project supported by the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Czech Republic.
\nThis part of the book is focused on portraying issues regarding the problems of socialization among undergraduate students and the impact on students perceived learning process, social skill, and personal development. Therefore, the major issues included in subsections are the basic concept of socializations, tents and natures of socialization, the process of socialization at a higher learning institution, the review of theoretical foundation of socialization, national and international empirical research result that defines the relevant relationship between pertinent variables on the problems of socialization and the impact on the student perceived learning, social skill, and personal development in higher learning institution. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars [1]. So, this chapter is needed to examine the problems of socialization among undergraduate students and the impacts on student’s learning process, social skills, and personal development. The concept of socialization, theoretical frameworks for socialization in higher learning institution, and review of empirical studies on students’ socialization experience in the higher learning institutions are included in this chapter.
Socialization is derived from the Latin word socials (social) understood as the method that endures all through all life and comes from the legacy, learning, and exchange of the mass involvement of mankind information, abilities, standards, values, designs of behavior, etc., which is under the specific conditions of the society to which the person has a place [2, 3]. Stable social order or social cohesion fundamental for the various components of society work together to maintain the status quo, which includes social structures and institutions, social relations, social interactions and behavior, cultural features such as norms, beliefs, and values. This might be also possible general through socialization [4]. This is way socialization become one of the main concerns of sociology to explain how social cohesion or social order is possible [4].
In the socialization processes, individuals and groups are taught the skills, and behavior patterns, values, and motivations are needed for competent functioning in the culture in which they join [5]. There are also the social skills, social understandings, and emotional maturity needed for interaction with other individuals to fit in the functioning of social dyads and larger groups [6, 7]. Socialization accounts for the transmission of culture and the development of an autonomous human being [8]. It is a requirement for the continuity of society and a requirement consistent with our experience as salved beings [5]. Socialization processes include all those whereby culture is transmitted from each generation to the next, including training for specific roles in specific occupations [1]. It is a lifelong process that starts from childhood till the death of a person and a vital process of learning through which society exists [4].
As it is explained in socialization theories of sociology and social psychology, socialization is the process of the individual development of a human personality within a social environment, with specific living conditions [9]. Socialization enables individuals to acquire language, knowledge, social skills, norms, values, and customs that are necessary for participating in and integrating into a group or community [9]. Socialization is a combination of wanted conformity and externally imposed rules, mediated by the expectations of other persons [1]. Thus, socialization influences the sociostructural organization of common existence and simultaneously attains cultural and social continuity. We are made aware of societal values the norms and beliefs of our society and expectations from our earliest family and play experiences [10].
It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, to be aware of societal values, and taught to be proficient members of society [11]. It is not simply interacting with others like with families, friends, and coworkers, but also internalizing through socializing agents and the most basic of human activities [11]. Through socialization, individual learn the culture of the society into which we have been born, learn, and work. Without socialization, the individual had not learned the material culture of our society and nonmaterial cultures such as beliefs, values, and norms [12]. Without socialization, most importantly the individual had not learned to use the symbols that make up the language through which we learn about who we are, how we fit with other people, and the natural and social worlds in which we live [6]. The critical period of socialization of individuals begins with the initial information and contact between an individual and an organization and continues until sometime after the individual enters the organization [13]. Therefore, from the initial contact up to the level of effective socialization of individual, there are socialization process and types.
Socialization is not independent and it is difficult to get the distinctive socialization types. An individual may be the subject of primary socialization, but this can be limiting, and there will be gender socialization at the same time. As a result, one aspect of knowledge that is advantageous to all types of social events is its simultaneity [1]. Another point is their interdependence [14]. The socialization types and process are both interdependent, planned and at the same time spontaneous. Because of its nature, we do not have clear types of socialization with its clearly demarcated boundaries [15]. For example, there are also formal and informal types of socialization though there are no clear boundaries on what is formal and informal. Effective socialization can only be achieved through formal socialization. Current trends in education show that this cannot be achieved through restrictive social and especially by participation. At the same time, it cannot make a holistic approach to socialization, even if the intention is an entire range typology. When certain aspects of socialization are deficient, it is good to be studied in specific details, but that is integrated into all elements of socialization [1]. Despite there are such limitations, sociologists and social psychologists have identified the following types of socialization [1].
It is fundamental and essential for the harmonious physical and mental development of the child and it is held generally at the family or parents level [16, 17]. Primary socialization involves learning the rules of behavior, norms, and values that can be treated at early ages and the informational and emotional baggage of any person. Primary socialization is equivalent or tantamount to individual humanization [1]. This process of transformation of children into true social human beings is by teaching basic values, through socialization and learning [1]. Primary socialization is a highly emotional process, in contrast to secondary and continuing socialization, which is geared at emotional neutrality. Primary socialization allows children to learn rules of behavior, conventions, and values that can be assimilated at a young age and are part of any individual’s informational and emotional baggage [18]. The primary socialization has a strong maternal character associated with some degree with the father’s influence [1, 19].
As a result, these types of socialization processes demonstrate that the infant is a social entity who forms a social relationship with his mother while still a newborn [20]. From the age of 2 months, both parents establish a social dialog with their children. This conversation will be tailored and reinforced in the next months and years [20]. The content of elementary socialization is organized on the concept of cooperation. The cognitive dimension entails the assimilation of language, which is the most important tool for primary socialization and is located close to the fundamental world. It is the initial way to comprehend the world around you, the contact group, or family group’s interpretation [1].
This types of is the period in which a child begins to interact strongly with other social environments than the family. This type of socialization does not reduce strict in childhood, but it continues throughout the entire life of the individual, with the purposeful creation and strengthening of personality after the primary socialization. In this regard, Goodman defines as cited in [1] this type of socialization continues, identifying it with formal education [1]. As [21] cited in [1] states that secondary socialization is the stage immediately following the primary phase, the young obtains a number of statuses and, as a result, consecutive roles, as well as incorporation into multiple group structures and the larger institution [22]. This sort of socialization occurs in educational institutions, professional, or formal organizations of diverse organizations, and happens in an environment of progressive emotional neutrality as the person grows and matures. Socialization is a gradual process that is influenced by a variety of circumstances whose importance varies from one society to another. The most important factors are family, school, group of friends, work, religion, mass media, etc. [1].
Secondary socialization is achieved from the age of 6 or 7 and adolescents must continue socializing from adolescence to death. Another rationale for socialization delimitation is the molding of the self. If individuals’ emerging self (ego) and personality are created in infancy and adolescence—mostly by absorbing the emotions of others—social mature personality is enhanced through reflection in the mirror, and the focus is now on how the self is presented to others [1].
This is sometimes called compatible socialization. Compatible or positive socialization is the process that leads to a person’s conformism to the group or society to which he or she belongs. Individual conformity is to the expectations and requirements of a group or, more broadly, of society. Because it follows the social-normative concept, this is regarded as positive-normal socialization [23]. Existing and dominant in each society and partly with the moral and educational ideal that designs some models is social-cultural perspective [24]. It is a direction of socialization that complies with the requirements, values, and norms of socially permissible and desirable [1].
Negative socialization is the polar opposite of positive socialization and does not conform to any moral or educational standard. Negative socialization is more commonly achieved in marginal, peripheral, and peripheral subculture groups. This socialization is frequently equated with the development of antisocial conduct [1].
According to Robert King Merton Anticipatory, socialization prepares a person for future duties and positions [25]. The individual has time to learn the behaviors they take the new position, rights, and duties associated with it, just as they do before executing a role. Language was integrated into social theory to investigate this type of socialization from the perspective of role statuses [26]. Merton claims that social conformism to the ideals of a reference group, distinct from the group to which one belongs, determines anticipatory socialization. As a result, Merton believes that the debate on socialization between the concepts of passivity and activism is founded on a false problem, and to demonstrate this, the American sociologist has devised an anticipatory socialization paradigm [27]. The group of belonging represents meetings of individuals who fulfill the following three conditions: First, the individuals involved are in constant interaction. Second, they define themselves as group members. Third, those do not participate in the interaction to define it as a member of the group and the reference group, which is the points compared with that reference a sufficiently large proportion of individuals who belong to a social class, to establish the state that characterizes that social category [5].
Formal socialization is fully overlapping with education. But the distinction between formal and informal is not just at school. Therefore, formal socialization can be made by all institutions, organizations, bodies, groupings officially recognized prescribing precise objectives, rules, duties, privileges, and obligations [1], whereas the informal socialization is the process of assimilation of attitudes, values, behavior patterns acquired in the personal life [28]. Informal socialization agents are family, friends, colleagues, etc. According to [1], informal socialization can be performed even by professional force outside the classroom. Therefore, they need support activities outside the curriculum or, rather, educational activities carried out under informal curriculum.
Gender socialization is the process that encourages or discourages certain behaviors and attitudes of a particular kind, which communicate what is right for the moment gender norms, which teaches a language that culture is communicated and transmitted permanently [16]. Gender socialization defines socialization treating culture as an essential part dichotomy of female-male by which an individual learns behaviors-specific values considered masculine or feminine specific [25]. Gender socialization occurs both at the direct or explicit and indirect or default. Through complex processes of socialization individuals acquire or learn and internalize their gender identity [16]. Trajectories of socialization, traditional and new ones, contribute to the preservation and transmission of gender stereotypes [29].
Most gender theories show that the best age for gender identity formation is between the ages of 2 and 6, when children’s assimilative capability is at its peak. Children are socialized into gender roles through a range of activities, opportunities, encouragement, discouragement, events, ideas, and various sorts of guidance. As children grow and develop, gender preconceptions that they encounter at home are reinforced by other aspects of their environment, and consequently persist throughout childhood and adolescence [30]. There are inborn factors that lead boys and girls to choose a toy, factors related to biological differences between the sexes.
Professional socialization, which refers to the knowledge and understanding of the nature of interpersonal relationships, as well as the creation and strengthening of personal relationships with team members, colleagues, bosses, and subordinates, can be considered a component of the professional integration process [31]. Professional socialization is not only the process of acquiring skills, behavior, and knowledge specific to that profession but also desiring to belong to the reference group, effort involving the acquisition of norms and values, and behavioral patterns referential of group members. Thus, desire for belongingness to the reference group is considered as the first step toward professional socialization [1].
This is done by the spontaneous transmission of norms and values without using qualified personnel. It may accompany the planned socialization [6]. For example, the school has performed both forms of socializing process. The student acquires social experience both within lessons for purposes of the teacher and through experience that might be lived or observed social interaction of teachers with students, teachers, and among themslves [1, 32].
In connection with socialization, there are two types of socialization processes: re-socialization and dissocialization. Dissocialization entails leaving a particular status and role and, as a result, abandoning the rules and behaviors associated with that status and function. It entails both physical and social seclusions. Separation of environments or people who have met their interaction demands and gives them support statuses to get rid of previously taught habits of behavior and interaction. Individual members of the so-called whole institutions, such as the army, monastery, prison, and so on, who are especially susceptible to this, whereas resocialization is a process of learning new roles, while abandoning previous roles [23]. We also come across circumstances where certain persons are undergoing dramatic resocialization, either positive or negative. The term “socialization” is used in this context to describe the process of transforming people who have engaged in antisocial behavior [33].
The aims of re-socialization is to learn new roles offered by the society as if professionalization, the professional reconversion, or rehabilitation of those who have committed deviant or delinquent roles and norms of life accepted by society [34]. Resocialization occurs in tandem with dissocialization and entails the orientation of learning and social control, as well as the uptake and expression of individual behaviors that are congruent with the new integrator system’s board of values and attitudes. It is important to note that the efficiency of resocialization is determined not only by individual receptivity, but also by the new agent of socialization’s level of social control and the degree to which previously gratifying elements are removed [1, 35]. These two processes of socialization, that is, de-socialization and re-socialization are not only concurrently happens, but interdependent [24].
Socialization is not a one-time or even a short-term event rather a lifelong process [36]. We are not stamped by some socialization machine as we move along a conveying or belt and thereby socialized once and for all. Age norms and time-related rules and regulations play a big role in socialization throughout life. As we become older, we come across age-related transition periods that necessitate socialization into a new position, such as entering school, starting a job, or retiring [37]. Many of life’s social expectations are made clear and enforced on a cultural level. Through interacting with others and watching others’ interaction, the expectation to fulfill roles becomes clear [38]. In the process of socialization, adulthood brings a new set of challenges and expectations, as well as new roles to fill. As the aging process moves forward, social roles continue to be evolved and changed. In the eyes of society, youthful pleasures are becoming less acceptable. Adulthood is defined by responsibility and commitment, and men and women are expected to settle down. Many people marry or form a civil union during this time, start families, and focus on a career path. Instead of being students or significant others, they become couples or parents [39].
Adults engage in anticipatory socialization, or the preparation for future life roles, in the same way as young children pretend to be doctors or attorneys, play home, and dress up. A couple who cohabitates before marriage, for example, or soon-to-be parents who read infant care literature and prepare their home for the upcoming arrival are also examples [40]. Financially capable adults begin planning for their retirement, conserving money, and researching future health care choices as part of anticipatory socializing. Regardless of the social system that supports it, adjusting to a new life position can be tough. In another way, socialization continues throughout maturity. In contrast to former eras, when one might expect to get married only once, live in a single region, and have a single career, current society demonstrates a rising fluidity of roles [25].
Agents of socialization are sometimes called operators. An agent of socialization is any person or institution that shapes a person’s norms, values, or behaviors [25]. Agents and operators of socialization are the sources from which we learn or are influenced by socialization [41]. This socializing aid is beneficial. What happens throughout the socializing process? How do we learn to use the material culture of our society’s objects? How do we come to believe in the nonmaterial culture’s beliefs, values, and norms? This learning occurs through interactions with a variety of socialization agents, such as peer groups and families, as well as official and informal social institutions. The followings are the main agents of socialization [42]. These are family; the main agent of socialization; the peers which can put very important influences on students; the school that breaks bonding with parents which influence depending on the values the school and teachers hold, the mass media; the importance of its influences depends on what is read, watched, or listened to, and the frequency with which it is consumed neighborhoods, religion, daycare, sports and the workplace [42]. Some other authors categorize the above listed socializing agents as social group agents and institutional agents [13, 14].
The early experiences of socialization are frequently provided through social groups [11]. Expectations are communicated and reinforced by parents and subsequent peer groups. In these situations, people learn to use physical artifacts of material culture while also learning about society’s beliefs and values [42].
The most important and first agent of socialization is mothers and fathers, siblings, and grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. Socialization can be both deliberate or structured and unconscious or unintended [41]. They demonstrate how to use objects, interact with others, and understand how the world works, for example. As you may know from your own experience as a child or from your role as a parent, socialization entails teaching and learning about a seemingly endless number of items and concepts [42].
It is also important to keep in mind that families do not socialize children in a vacuum [16]. A family’s ability to raise its children is influenced by a variety of social circumstances. We can use sociological imagination, for example, to see how individual behaviors are influenced by the historical period in which they occur [14]. If a parent smacked his son with a stick or a belt if he misbehaved 60 years ago, it would not have been deemed harsh, but today, the same conduct could be deemed child abuse [1, 43]. Classical sociologists like Karl Marx recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an important role in socialization [44]. Likewise, children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-related behaviors. For example, according to those who study gender using the individualist framework gender as a characteristic of the person, parents are believed to be the most significant source of gender socialization [45]. Hence, parents and families are the first agent of socialization [1].
The first step in human group affiliation is the categorization of people into groups. A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests. Sociologists and other social psychology researchers have studied socialization and social development over the past 100 years. Around the age of three, children and adolescents begin to create peer groups, usually with other children who are neighbors, classmates, or siblings. Children learn how to connect with other children of similar ages as well as more complicated group behaviors such as leadership, teamwork, and cooperation in these groupings [46].
Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns. This process continues as children develop into teenagers. Adolescents value peer groups in a new way as they begin to form their own identities independent from their parents and assert their independence [38]. Because children engage in different types of activities with their peers than with their families, peer groups provide possibilities for socialization. Adolescents’ first significant socializing experience outside of their family occurs in peer groups. Surprisingly, research have revealed that while friendships are a high priority for adolescents, this is counterbalanced by parental influence [47]. As teenagers separate from their families through adolescence, peer networks become increasingly important. Within these groups, children learn how to behave in groups without adult supervision and have the opportunity to explore their sexuality. However, as teenagers grow into adults, peer pressure is often overshadowed by the obligations of employment, school, or family. Practitioners have been able to lead people through the socialization process as a result of their work. Social learning theory has been proven to be particularly useful in understanding socialization and the best strategies to lead a person through the process [5].
The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization [6]. Formal institutions such as schools, workplaces, and the government teach people how to behave in and navigate these systems [1]. Other institutions such as the media, religion contribute to socialization by flooding us with messages about norms and expectations [14, 48].
On average, children spend about 6 to 7 hours a day in school which makes it hard to deny the importance school has on their socialization [6]. Students are not only in school to learn arithmetic, reading, science, and other topics; it is also the system’s evident function [8]. Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behaviors like teamwork, following a schedule, and using textbooks. School and classroom rituals led by teachers serving as role models and leaders regularly reinforce what society expects from children [44]. The hidden curriculum, or the informal teaching done by schools, is how sociologists characterize this component of schools. Children learn that there are winners and losers in society when they engage in a relay race or a math competition. Children experience cooperation with other individuals in cooperative conditions when they are obliged to work together on a project [14]. During the day, children learn how to deal with bureaucracy, rules, and expectations, as well as how to wait their turn and remain still for long periods of time [17]. The hidden curriculum includes the latent functions of competition, teamwork, classroom discipline, time awareness, and coping with bureaucracy. Schools also help children socialize by explicitly teaching them about citizenship and nationalism. There are also other institutional socializing agents such as religion, government, mass media [6].
Skills, knowledge, behaviors, and cultural values are passed down to future generations both formally and informally [49]. Formal or direct instruction and education, such as in schools, colleges, and religious institutions, is used to formalize transmission. Informal socialization, on the other hand, is carried out through folkways, customs, and cultural values, among other things [17]. The more agreeable the socializing agencies are, the more safely and quickly socialization occurs. According to studies, when there is a disagreement between the ideas, models, and abilities passed down by a child’s peer group or between home and school, the individual’s socialization is slowed and uncertain [6, 41]. Socialization inculcates basic discipline and self-controlling mechanisms. An individual learns to control his impulses and projects a disciplined behavior to gain social approval or for the sake of a future goal. Socialization helps to control human behavior [50]. This control through the process of socialization is exercised to maintain social order. Societies depend heavily upon effective socialization to internalize social norms and values as individual’s guides and motives to action [50]. It does not cease or stop when a child becomes an adult, internalization of culture is continued over generations. Through this internalization, society perpetuates itself. Its members transmit cultural values to the next generation, and thus, society continues to exist [6]. Socialization has been depicted as a social learning process that is very important to the emergence of social selves as well as to the survival and development of individual societal relations and their cultural context [51]. More specifically, the contents of socialization include a shared system of meanings and symbols. These shared systems include a set of values, beliefs and practices, and shared forms of communication [52].
Values are a cultural standard for discerning desirable states in a society like what is true, good, just, or beautiful [43]. Values are firmly ingrained in a culture’s ideas and are essential for transmitting and teaching them. People’s beliefs are their core tenets, attitudes, and convictions. Individuals in a society hold different opinions, but they all have common ideals. To show the distinction between value and beliefs, North Americans believe that anyone who works hard enough will be successful and affluent. The value that riches is good and desirable lies under this idea. Values assist in the shaping of a culture by indicating what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, and what should be pursued or avoided [39]. Values often suggest how people should behave, but they do not accurately reflect how people do behave [43]. Classical sociologist like Harriet Martineau made a basic distinction between what people say they believe and what they do, which are often at odds [53]. Values depict an ideal culture; they are the ideals that society wishes to embrace and live up to. However, ideal culture differs from real culture, which is based on what happens and exists in society. There would be no traffic accidents, murders, poverty, or racial strife in an ideal culture [44]. However, in real life, police officers, legislators, educators, and social workers work tirelessly to avoid or correct such mishaps, crimes, and injustices [54].
The cultural standards used for the transmission of culture form one to the next generations and separate the potential consequence. For example, the number of unplanned pregnancies among teens reveals that not only is the ideal hard to live up to, but that the value alone is not enough to spare teenagers from the potential consequences of having sex. There are also several methods in which societies attempt to put values into practice. These could be in the form of prizes, sanctions, or penalties. People are frequently rewarded for adhering to society’s conventions and upholding its principles. A youngster who assists an old woman in boarding a bus, for example, may be greeted with a grin and a thank you. A quarterly incentive may be given to a business management who improves profit margins [55].
People sanction particular behaviors by granting their support, approval, or permission, or by formally disapproving and refusing to support them [44]. Sanctions are a type of social control that encourages people to follow social norms. People may follow rules in the hopes of receiving beneficial consequences. Good grades, for example, may result in praise from parents and teachers [22]. People are punished when they act against a society’s values. Other passengers may scowl or even reprimand a boy who pushes an older woman aside to board the bus first [44]. Breaking norms and rejecting values can lead to cultural sanctions such as earning a negative label or to legal sanctions. Values are not static, and vary across time, culture, and between groups as people evaluate, debate, and change collective societal beliefs. For example, cultures differ in their values about what kinds of physical closeness are appropriate in public [56].
Norms are the other content of socialization that might be transferred from one to the next generation. Often times, norms are described as how people are expected to behave in certain situations. Sociologists refer to norms as the visible and invisible rules of conduct that shape societies. A norm is a generally accepted manner of doing things, as opposed to values and beliefs, which specify desirable conditions and convictions about how things are. Norms explain how to act in accordance with what society has determined to be good, right, and significant, and most people of society adhere to them since breaking those results in some form of punishment. Norms are defined as the rules that govern behavior in general [28].
Norms can be categorized as formal and informal [18]. Formal norms are written regulations that have been established. They are behaviors that have been worked out and agreed upon to suit and serve the majority of people. Employee manuals, college entrance exam requirements, and no running in swimming pools are all formal rules [17]. Of the numerous forms of norms, formal norms are the most detailed and precisely expressed, as well as the most rigidly enforced. Even formal norms, however, are enforced to varied degrees, as cultural values reflect [17, 57]. There are many formal standards, but there is also a vast list of informal norms, or casual behaviors, that are commonly accepted. Observation, imitation, and general socialization are all ways that people learn informal norms. Some informal norms are taught directly, while others are learned by observation, such as the repercussions of others breaking a rule. Children learn quickly that picking your nose is subject to ridicule when they see someone shamed for it by other children. Although informal norms define personal interactions, they extend into other systems as well. Informal norms dictate appropriate behaviors without the need for written rules [17].
Mores, folkways, and taboos are all subcategories of norms. Mores are the social standards that express a group’s moral values and principles. They are founded on social expectations. Violations can result in significant repercussions. The most powerful mores are protected by law or other formal rules. Murder, for example, is deemed immoral and punished by law. More often than not, social mores are judged and guarded by public opinion or an unwritten rule. People who break social norms are considered dishonorable [17]. They can even be avoided by some groups. For example, the mores of the school system require that a student’s writing be in the student’s own words or else the student should use special stylistic forms such as quotation marks and a system of citation for crediting the words to other writers. If they did not, it is considered plagiarism or cheating. Violations of this rule have serious ramifications, including expulsion and exclusion. Folkways, unlike mores, are norms that have no moral grounds or grounds. They are based on a person’s social preferences. Folkways guide proper behavior in everyday cultural practices and expressions. When welcoming another individual, folkways advise whether to shake hands or kiss the cheek. Folkways are not serious enough to be termed mores, but they are serious enough to end a relationship before it really gets started. Folkways may be minor etiquette, but they are far from insignificant. Taboos are activities that are strictly prohibited by sincerely held sacred beliefs [58].
They are the most powerful and deeply rooted conventions. Their misdeeds and misconducts elicit revulsion or disgust, as well as harsh retribution. The word taboo originally meant sanctified, inviolable, forbidden, unclean, or cursed. The restriction had a clear supernatural context; the deed had offended the ancestors and elicited their wrath [1]. In everyday life, many mores, folkways, and taboos are taken for granted. To get through daily routines smoothly, people must behave without thinking; we cannot stop and examine every movement. Individual efforts can be continuously coordinated and concerted thanks to the many degrees of norm. These several levels of norm assist people in navigating their daily lives within a specific culture, and their study is essential for comprehending cultural differences [59].
Humans are constantly trying to make sense of their surroundings. Symbols are tangible marks that stand in for or symbolize something else, such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and phrases. Symbols can help us understand the underlying experiences, statuses, states, and ideas that they represent. They communicate recognizable meanings that are universally understood [44]. You cannot say anything that is, anything you say that has any meaning at all is universal. The world is filled with symbols. Some symbols are highly functional; for instance, stop signs provide useful instruction. As physical objects, they belong to material culture, but because they function as symbols, they also convey nonmaterial cultural meanings. Some symbols are only valuable in what they represent. Many objects have both material and nonmaterial symbolic value. Therefore, symbols will be socialized content [60].
Parents impart societal standards to their children, but socialization is not a one-way process. Students are active participants in the socialization process. They do not receive from the socializer in a passive manner. They are physically or culturally predisposed to be socialized more or less easily in various aspects of their lives. They process socialization-related information, accepting or rejecting it as appropriate. They are more accepting of some forms of control than others, in part because some forms of misbehavior, such as bodily and psychological injury to others, are fundamentally more problematic than others, such as social convention violations [61]. Some steps are required in the socializing process. Stages of socialization are a term used to describe these steps [62].
The initial stage of socialization is investigation. During this stage of the socialization process, an individual assesses a group to see if it is a good fit for him or her. The group follows suit. The end of this stage occurs when the group extends an invitation to the newcomer and the newcomer accepts. The second phase is known as socialization. The new member adopts the culture of the group, whether it is correct or wrong, and good or bad. They blend in with the group, adopting its norms, attitudes, and beliefs. The maintenance stage is the third stage of the organization’s socialization process. The new member and the group agree what the group expects of the new member, such as how they should act or another contribution, during the maintenance stage. If an individual fails to meet collective expectations, they can be kicked out, or they can renegotiate and rejoin the group. The other option is to re-socialize. Depending on the conclusion of the maintenance stage, the member will either be welcomed back into the group or taught to act appropriately, or they will be evicted and forced to learn to live outside of it. The last stage is the remembering stage. In this section, people who have left the group reflect on their experiences [17, 44].
Socialization provides us the means
There are several benefits of socialization. Socialization reduces the loneliness, which makes individuals feel better, building constructive relationships unless individuals have bad peer groups as found in many schools, improving the growth and development of a person, occupying the mind and keeping it ticking so you can avoid things like dementia, a reduction in stress and anxiety, learning how other cultures or groups like to do things or enables in understanding their perspectives and attributes, and getting emotional, physical, and spiritual support [26]. Individuals and the cultures in which they live both benefit from socialization. It demonstrates how inextricably linked humans and their social worlds are. To begin with, society replicates itself through imparting culture to new members. It will cease to exist if future generations of society do not learn its way of life [17]. For a society to exist, whatever distinguishes culture must be passed along to newcomers. We discover who we are and how we fit into the world around us through socialization and social contact [8]. Furthermore, to function successfully in society, we must learn the fundamentals of both material and nonmaterial cultures, including everything from how to dress to what is appropriate attire for a specific occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what is considered appropriate to eat for dinner to how to prepare it on the stove. Our society’s expectations for dining out are instilled in us through socialization. Different cultures’ manners and customs are learnt through socialization [17].
Because university campuses are an open atmosphere, socialization is also very important in higher learning institutions. During their studies, students in an open atmosphere keep contact with others who are not in schools, such as friends, parents, and employers. When we say university students’ socialization, we are referring to the process by which college students absorb social culture knowledge and grow into independent and mature persons. Two items will be considered in this case. Perspectives are from both the society and the individual. They still need to learn professional information from a social standpoint. On the other hand, people must develop a suitable philosophy for themselves, as well as a proper worldview and value idea. College students are a distinct social group with expectations and hopes from both their parents and society. However, there have been concerns in recent years of rising issues in numerous campuses. For instance, studies reveal that in China, students are suspended from school, skip courses, or even commit suicide, among other things. Anxiety, fragility, and other difficulties could be caused by social isolation and a lack of proper assimilation to the school and college environment. As a result, socializing may be a viable solution to the issues.
Individuals will be socialized for unintended behaviors. There will be deviants. Deviance is a breach of social norms. The act of deviating from societal norms is known as deviance. Similarly, aberrant behavior violates social norms and social codes in the workplace, home, and marriage, among other places. Everything is deviance, and behavior is known as deviant behavior, whether it is breaking a pledge or breaking a state law. It is our nature to stray. Deviancy in one generation/society may be a noun in another. Individuals will mingle and be exposed for aberrant cases throughout the transmission of skills, knowledge, attitude, and beliefs [64].
From its beginnings, socialization has been a central term in the social sciences [3]. It is significant because it is necessary for the survival of communities and cultures, as well as for individual development. There is a discussion on socialization, with people debating whether we are the outcome of nature or socialization. According to some experts, who we are is a result of the relationships that surround us [17]. Others claim that our genetic makeup determines who we are. Naturalists believe that our personalities, skills, and interests are predetermined before we are born. As a result, we are dependent on nature in this regard [16]. Scholars use the study of twins as one method of illustrating the influences of nature. Some studies looked at identical twins who were raised apart [65].
In certain circumstances, the pairs had the same genetics but were socialized differently. Researchers can learn more about how our temperaments, likes, and abilities are influenced by our genetic makeup versus our social environment by investigating the degree to which identical twins raised apart are alike and different, despite the fact that this type of situation is uncommon [17]. Though genetics and hormones play a significant impact in human behavior, biological explanations of human behavior have serious sociological faults, especially when used to explain the complex aspects of human social life such as homosexuality, male aggression, female spatial skills, and so on [66].
In most cases, biological explanation logic is divided into three sections. These are the identification of a supposedly universal human quality or trait, an argument for why this behavior makes it more likely that the genes that code for it will be successfully passed down to descendants, and the conclusion that this behavior or quality is hard-wired or difficult to change [17, 67]. However, claiming that males are naturally aggressive because of their hormonal structure ignores vast differences in the meaning and practice of aggression across cultures, as well as vast differences in what counts as aggressive in different situations, not to mention the fact that many men are not aggressive by any definition, and that men and women both have male hormones like testosterone [16]. In this case, the sociologist is more concerned with the fact that nonaggressive males are frequently referred to as sissies. This suggests that a normative structure within a male culture is more likely to explain male violence than a genetic or hormonal structure [68]. The greater interest of sociology is the impact of society on human behavior, the nurture side of the nature vs. nurture debate. Genes are never expressed in a vacuum, regardless of the role genes or biology play in our lives. The environment has always had a significant impact [69].
Sociologists all agree that socialization is essential for healthy individual and societal development. The question is how academics from the three major theoretical paradigms approach socialization. Theoretical models are used for studying socialization through Durkheim’s concept of socialization as a starting point. The dominant sociological approaches to the study of socialization in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s were Durkheim’s concept of socialization, Parsons’ development of an influential socialization model, and the theory of reproduction and its development in the late 1950s and early 1960s [60]. These socialization models are classified as the functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective, the symbolic interactionist perspective—also known as the interactionist perspective—or simply the micro-view [47, 60]. All of these sociological perspectives provide various explanations for the social world and human behavior in relation to the socialization process [47].
Individual and collective development are influenced by socialization, as is the reproduction of status hierarchies and structural inequalities [66]. Socialization does not mean renouncing all its dimensions and influences. Although socialization is a relatively new concept, it refers to a reality that predates human societies. The issues of socialization, or the integration of new members into society, have been studied in philosophy, anthropology, and history, and are now being studied in interdisciplinary social sciences such as sociology [47]. In sociology, socialization has been approached in two ways. These are from the standpoints of society and the respective socializing agents, as well as individuals in the process of socialization and their respective social worlds [47]. The central question in the first case is how a given society transmits or instills values, beliefs, norms, and lifestyles. The second focuses primarily on individuals’ activities during the processes of appropriation, learning, and internalization, as well as socialization, through which they become self-conscious and develop the abilities to integrate, communicate, and participate in the society and culture in which they live. The first is more common in traditional sociology, while the second is a goal of the new sociology of childhood socialization [60].
In sociological theory, there are five generations of thinkers in the history of study of socialization [47]. These are the pioneers of the eighteenth century, the founders of the early to mid-nineteenth century, the institutionalization of the early twentieth century, the compilers of the mid-twentieth century, and the constructivists who now overlap with other trends such as the return to grand theory or postmodernism. So, the issue of socialization neither began nor ended with Parsons [47]. Rather, Talcott Parsons falls under the fourth generation of this scheme, the so-called compilers, and a group of scholars and teachers who worked hard to make sociology a rigorous scientific discipline, a science of society. The fourth generation attempted to find a synthesis and convergence of the various currents of thought that had preceded them, whether conservative or critical. Within this generation, two groups predominate: the conservative-minded sociologists, led by Parsons, and the authors involved in the development of critical theory of society, known as the Frankfurt School of sociology [47].
All scholars agree that socialization is required for the learning of culture and society values. It is also agreed that socialization occurs as a result of internalization [70]. Individuals learn and internalize cultural norms, codes, and values through the multifaceted process of socialization. This procedure allows people to join and remain members of one or more social groups. Individuals acquire social and cultural competencies through interaction with other people and social institutions, as well as responses to their macro- and micro-sociocultural contexts [16]. This process occurs in social settings that both allow for and limit interaction and opportunity. As a result, social expectations for people coming of age are not uniform [60]. Similarly, the mechanisms and outcomes of socialization differ depending on the organization, geographical space, sociocultural context, and sociohistorical time. Furthermore, socialization processes within a society may differ depending on the power and status of their subgroup identities. Many members of society must deal with the competing influences of the dominant culture and marginalized subcultures [63]. Scholars have spent the majority of their time focusing on the socialization processes of childhood and adolescence. Adaptation to and internalization of social norms, values, and behaviors, on the other hand, continue throughout adulthood [16]. Individuals go through identity, family, educational, and career changes and transitions with their generational cohort. As a result, their social roles may shift and change throughout their lives [71].
Socialization facilitates processes of inclusion and participation in society for a wide range of individuals and groups. At the same time, socialization helps to maintain social order by reproducing existing stratifications based on race, gender, and social class. Socialization processes continue to shape generational cohorts and intergenerational dynamics, as well as various social institutions [72]. Socialization is associated with the stability and maintenance of society because it prepares individuals for membership in society [73]. The socialization process in sociology has been approached from various viewpoints. These were the functionalist, interpretive reproduction, conflict perspective, symbolic interactionist, and social construction of reality. Currently, the integrative approaches or structuration viewpoint is a crucial to study socialization in an organization including the higher learning institutions [74]. This means that socialization of students as new comers will not be determined by the preexisting structure, norms, value, and rules of the organizational environment, but rather the new comer can influence, change, and create new rules, values, and rules in a given organization. Therefore, three important socialization processes are strong in the undergraduate socialization process of students in the higher learning institutions. These are individuals, groups, and organization source of socializing influence, the social process through which these sources of socializing influences are encountered and responded to by students, and resultants of socialization outcomes in various college settings [18].
This method to comprehending undergraduate socialization raises two basic problems concerning individual socialization in an organizational setting. One is about social interaction; what are the interpersonal processes that people go through to get socialized? The other is about organizational structure: What are the different qualities of a higher education institution as a socializing organization that has an impact on students? The relevance of taking into account both individual and organizational variables when investigating socialization can be expressed in the following way. Individuals may become differently socialized as a result of differences in their past experiences, motives, and talents, as well as disparities in the structure of the social situations in which they interact [18].
Overall, undergraduate socialization can be thought of as a complex process in which students enter college as new men with specific values, aspirations, and other personal goals, and are exposed to a variety of socializing influences while in college, such as normative pressures exerted through social relationships with college faculty and peers, and parental pressures, and participation in noncollege reference groups; evaluates the importance of various normative pressures experienced in achieving personal goals; and modifies or preserves values, aspirations, and personal goals maintained at college entrance [75]. Student background characteristics/precollege features, noncollege pressures, college experiences and behaviors, interactions with socialization agents, and student-parent relationships are some of the variables that may influence undergraduate students’ socialization in higher learning institutions. The relationship between the variables that affect students’ socialization and the conceptual framework of undergraduate students’ socialization at higher learning institutions is depicted in the graphs below [74].
Individual traits and the range of students’ experiences within higher education institutions influence the complexity of socialization processes, which can be complementary. In addition, as shown at Figure 1, there are conceptual ways to studying undergraduate socialization in higher education institutions as organizations. As a result, it is reasonable to expect that research in this area will incorporate both wide conceptual foundation and rigorous empirical approaches to elaborate, extend, and deepen our understanding of socialization in higher education. Far too often, studies only pay lip service to conceptual models, addressing a small number of variables and failing to make conclusions about the models when discussing results. Paying attention to stakeholders in research, whether academic or not, can reveal vital information regarding conceptual frameworks as well as the sorts and targets of suggestions that may be made. The frameworks were crude detours from a strictly structural functional approach to studying student socialization in higher education. Each looked at additional paradigmatic ways of framing socialization beyond structural-functionalism that put more emphasis on human motivation and actions in a restricted way. As a result, we came upon Anthony Giddens’ structuration theory.
Comprehensive framework for student socialization in higher education (adopted from [
According to structuration theory, social behaviors organized over space and time are more important than individual actor experiences or the presence of any type of societal whole. Human social interactions are recursive, just like some self-reproducing objects in nature. That is, they are not formed by social actors, but are constantly produced by them through the techniques by which they express themselves as actors. Agents duplicate the conditions that allow these activities to take place in and
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/206440",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"206440"},fullPath:"/profiles/206440",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()