Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6241",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Hydrogels",title:"Hydrogels",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This new important book is a collection of research and review articles from different parts of the world discussing the dynamic and vibrant field of hydrogels. The articles are linking new findings and critically reviewing the fundamental concepts and principles that are making the base for innovation. Each chapter discusses the potential of hydrogels in diverse areas. These areas include tissue engineering, implants, controlled drug release, and oil reserve treatment. The book is offering an up-to-date knowledge of hydrogels to experienced as well as new researchers.",isbn:"978-1-78923-369-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-368-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-355-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68817",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"hydrogels",numberOfPages:210,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b3a944044e8aecbba3bd88fba1bef0b1",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6241.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12587,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:65,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:143,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 15th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 5th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 1st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",biography:"Dr. Sajjad Haider is an Associate Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He received his MSc in 1999 and M Phil in 2004 from the Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Peshawar, KPK, Pakistan, and his Ph.D. degree in 2009 from the Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Taegu, South Korea. His research focuses on electrospun nanofibers, biopolymer composite, metal oxide/polymer composites, and polymer hydrogels to develop scaffolds for tissue engineering, drug delivery, and water treatment applications.",institutionString:"King Saud University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"146067",title:"Mr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"adnan-haider",fullName:"Adnan Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/146067/images/5294_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adnan Haider has been a postdoctoral research fellow at Nano, Medical and Polymer Materials Department, School of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, South Korea, since March 2016. He received his MSc degree in 2010 from Kohat University of Science and Technology, KPK, Pakistan and MS leading to PhD degree in 2016 from the Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea. His research work focuses on the development of scaffolds for tissue regeneration, biopolymer composites, polymer hydrogel, drug delivery systems, and preparing the electrospun nanofibers and assessing their potential application in removal of hazardous materials from aqueous medium and biomedical application.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Yeungnam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"918",title:"Polymers",slug:"biomaterials-polymers"}],chapters:[{id:"62030",title:"Decellularized ECM-Derived Hydrogels: Modification and Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78331",slug:"decellularized-ecm-derived-hydrogels-modification-and-properties",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extracellular matrix (ECM) hydrogels are water-swollen fibrillary three-dimensional (3D) networks where collagen type I is the major component. The hierarchical network formed by the polymerization of tropocollagen molecules with enhanced properties is an attractive template for generating biomaterials. The mammalian tissue source from which collagen is extracted and its consequent modification are variables that impact the physicochemical and biological properties of the collagen network. This chapter has the purpose to provide a review of the research of different strategies to modify and characterize the properties of decellularized ECM-derived hydrogels in the context of safe biomaterials with immunomodulatory properties.",signatures:"Jesús A. Claudio-Rizo, Jorge Delgado, Iraís A. Quintero-Ortega, José\nL. Mata-Mata and Birzabith Mendoza-Novelo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62030",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62030",authors:[{id:"219248",title:"Dr.",name:"Birzabith",surname:"Mendoza-Novelo",slug:"birzabith-mendoza-novelo",fullName:"Birzabith Mendoza-Novelo"},{id:"219372",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús Alejandro",surname:"Claudio-Rizo",slug:"jesus-alejandro-claudio-rizo",fullName:"Jesús Alejandro Claudio-Rizo"},{id:"219373",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Delgado",slug:"jorge-delgado",fullName:"Jorge Delgado"},{id:"232315",title:"Dr.",name:"Iraís",surname:"Quintero-Ortega",slug:"irais-quintero-ortega",fullName:"Iraís Quintero-Ortega"},{id:"232316",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Mata-Mata",slug:"jose-mata-mata",fullName:"José Mata-Mata"}],corrections:null},{id:"58119",title:"Hydrogels Based on Polyvinylpyrrolidone Copolymers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72082",slug:"hydrogels-based-on-polyvinylpyrrolidone-copolymers",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The role of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) complex formation with water-soluble 2-hydroxyalkyl methacrylates is described. The impact of the complexation on both the polymerization kinetics and the formation of a copolymer structure initiated by radical initiators has been studied. The activating effect of iron(II) and iron(III) sulfates has been revealed for the initiator-free polymerization of the formulation. An analytical approach to determining the molecular weight of the chain fragments located between two neighboring cross-linking nodes in the polymer network (Mn) has been developed depending on the values of the stability constant (Кst) for the charge-transfer complexes. The basic regularities of hydrogels obtaining based on PVP copolymers with high sorption capacity and diffusion characteristics are presented. The main directions of practical application of synthesized hydrogels are considered.",signatures:"Oleh Suberlyak and Volodymyr Skorokhoda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58119",authors:[{id:"213321",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleh",surname:"Suberlyak",slug:"oleh-suberlyak",fullName:"Oleh Suberlyak"},{id:"213324",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Skorokhoda",slug:"volodymyr-skorokhoda",fullName:"Volodymyr Skorokhoda"}],corrections:null},{id:"60560",title:"Superabsorbent",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74698",slug:"superabsorbent",totalDownloads:1664,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Superabsorbent hydrogel (SAH) is a cross-linked polyelectrolyte polymer that has the capability to absorb a lot of water by keeping it in a three-dimensional (3D) structure. The network’s structure of SAH has the high elasticity that gives the ability of pores to expand in an aqueous media into up to 150–1500 times their own size in a dry state. The size of pores is the major factor that controls the swelling degree of the hydrogel. In contrast, the swelling degree is related to cross-linked density and the number of polarizable functional groups that immobilize on the polymer backbone. The hydrogels could be made by radical-initiated polymerization of hydrophilic monomers, and/or linear polymers dissolve in an aqueous solution. Free radical polymerization of the hydrogel can be done physically or chemically. Advantages and disadvantages of each method will be elaborated in this chapter. The advances in radiation cross-linking methods for the hydrogel preparation are particularly addressed besides other different techniques, e.g., (freezing/thawing and chemical initiation). This chapter will review the preparation methods of superabsorbent hydrogels from synthetic and natural hydrophilic polymers with other new phases such as wax, gum, and rubber. Methods to characterize these hydrogels and their proposed applications (internal curing agent for cement, agricultural proposal, biomedical proposal, and environmental proposal) are also reviewed.",signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60560",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}],corrections:null},{id:"58851",title:"Hydrogels Applied for Conformance-Improvement Treatment of Oil Reservoirs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73204",slug:"hydrogels-applied-for-conformance-improvement-treatment-of-oil-reservoirs",totalDownloads:1445,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter aims at presenting a review of gelling polymer systems that are commercially available or under academic development with potential to control the anisotropic permeability profile of heterogeneous oil reservoirs. In these reservoirs, the oil recovery and sweep efficiency tend to be low, even after applying secondary and enhanced oil recovery methods, because the injected fluid flows preferably through the matrix’s most permeable regions leaving behind part of the displaceable oil retained at the nonswept volume. For that, cross-linked polymers can be used to plug the high-permeability main paths by means of: (i) the formation of an in situ hydrogel or (ii) the adsorption or swelling of pre–cross-linked hydrogel within the reservoir pores, thus causing the diversion of the subsequently injected fluid to low-permeability zones and/or preventing the channeling and early breakthrough of the injected fluid (water or gas) in production wells. The selection of the most suitable hydrogel for the reservoir conformance-improvement treatment should take into account the nature of the conformance problem, the reservoir’s lithology, mineralogy, temperature, pH value, salinity, and hardness of the formation water, as well as the gelling system toxicity and cost.",signatures:"Fernanda G. C. Tessarolli, Ailton S. Gomes and Claudia R. E. Mansur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58851",authors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"},{id:"214185",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Garcia Cordeiro Tessarolli",slug:"fernanda-garcia-cordeiro-tessarolli",fullName:"Fernanda Garcia Cordeiro Tessarolli"},{id:"214358",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Regina Elias Mansur",slug:"claudia-regina-elias-mansur",fullName:"Claudia Regina Elias Mansur"}],corrections:null},{id:"58009",title:"Enhancement of Hydrogels’ Properties for Biomedical Applications: Latest Achievements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71671",slug:"enhancement-of-hydrogels-properties-for-biomedical-applications-latest-achievements",totalDownloads:1438,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, there are many hydrogels used in many important biomedical fields such as therapeutic delivery, contact lenses, corneal prosthesis, bone cements, wound dressing, 3D tissue scaffolds for tissue engineering, etc., due to their excellent biocompatibility and water sorption properties. Many of these hydrophilic polymers have been already approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for various applications. However, many of their potential uses required for many biomedical applications often are hindered by their low mechanical strength, antimicrobial and/or antifouling activity, biological interactions, water sorption and diffusion, porosity, electrical and/or thermal properties, among others. Thus, new advanced hydrogels have been developed as multicomponent systems in the form of composite or nanocomposite materials, which are expected to exhibit superior properties to increase the potential uses of these materials in the biomedical industry. Even though the great advances achieved so far, much research has to be conducted still in order to find new strategies to fabricate novel hydrogels able to overcome many of these problems.",signatures:"Ángel Serrano-Aroca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58009",authors:[{id:"202230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ángel",surname:"Serrano-Aroca",slug:"angel-serrano-aroca",fullName:"Ángel Serrano-Aroca"}],corrections:null},{id:"59564",title:"Hydrogels Fibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74188",slug:"hydrogels-fibers",totalDownloads:1385,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the ever increasing demand for suitable tissue engineering and drug delivery systems, hydrogel fiber spinning has drawn increasing attention due to its ability to create three-dimensional (3D) structures using biomaterials. Hydrogel materials have shown a great promise to be used as templates for tissue engineering and implantable devices. Among the many production techniques available, advanced fiber processing, such as coaxial and triaxial spinning of natural hydrogels, has attracted a great deal of attention because the basic core-sheath structure provides a drug delivery system capable of delivering high concentrations of drug for localized drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Encapsulating the drug and bioactive cores with a more bio-friendly coating allows for a versatile system for producing devices with appropriate mechanical, chemical and biological properties that can mimic the native extracellular matrix, better supporting cell growth and maintenance. This chapter presents a novel fabrication method using a wet-spinning process that allows for the routine production of multifunctional coaxial hydrogel fibers that take advantage of the encapsulating properties of a hydrogel core while also promoting good cell growth and biocompatibility via the use of bio-friendly material in the sheath.",signatures:"Javad Foroughi, Azadeh Mirabedini and Holly Warren",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59564",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59564",authors:[{id:"176793",title:"Dr.",name:"Javad",surname:"Foroughi",slug:"javad-foroughi",fullName:"Javad Foroughi"},{id:"227144",title:"Dr.",name:"Azadeh",surname:"Mirabedini",slug:"azadeh-mirabedini",fullName:"Azadeh Mirabedini"},{id:"227145",title:"Dr.",name:"Holly",surname:"Warren",slug:"holly-warren",fullName:"Holly Warren"}],corrections:null},{id:"58342",title:"Obtaining Hydrogels based on PVP/PVAL/Chitosan Containing Pseudoboehmite Nanoparticles for Application in Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72007",slug:"obtaining-hydrogels-based-on-pvp-pval-chitosan-containing-pseudoboehmite-nanoparticles-for-applicati",totalDownloads:988,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"People with skin lesions caused by burns, ulcerations and other complications, independent of degree and extension of the problem, has induced the search for methods and materials to optimize the process of tissue repair in matter of time and quality. Thus, materials made by synthetic polymers have been used and improved due to overwhelming demand. The efficacy of dressings and bandage depends on a variety of factors such as biocompatibility, composition uniformity, low cost, long validity, flexibility, and so on. In this chapter, hydrophilic membranes based on polyvinylpyrrolidone-PVP/poly(vinyl alcohol)-PVAl and chitosan containing nanoparticles of pseudoboehmite for use in pharmaceuticals were developed and studied. The hydrogels were obtained by ionizing radiation in electron-beam accelerator at a dose of 25 kGy and characterized by mechanical, thermal and physicochemical tests. Pseudoboehmite nanoparticles were obtained from aluminum nitrate by a sol–gel process. The characterization of the hydrogels was done by various tests such as tensile, swelling, thermal analysis, sol-gel fraction and dynamic mechanical analysis. The results show that the presence of PVAl hydrophilic membrane causes lower degree of swelling, greater attraction and greater resistance to elongation at break in tension, although significantly lower fraction of gel membranes contains only agar and PVP. It was verified that the presence of chitosan nanoparticles and pseudoboehmite promotes a decrease in the formation of cross-links during irradiation of hydrophilic membranes.",signatures:"Leila Figueiredo de Miranda, Kátia Lucia Gonçalves Cunha, Isabella\nTereza Ferro Barbosa, Terezinha Jocelen Masson and Antonio\nHortêncio Munhoz Junior",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58342",authors:[{id:"210758",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",surname:"Miranda",slug:"leila-miranda",fullName:"Leila Miranda"},{id:"210801",title:"Dr.",name:"Kátia Lúcia",surname:"Cunha",slug:"katia-lucia-cunha",fullName:"Kátia Lúcia Cunha"},{id:"211141",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Munhoz Júnior",slug:"antonio-munhoz-junior",fullName:"Antonio Munhoz Júnior"},{id:"220263",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabella Tereza",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"isabella-tereza-barbosa",fullName:"Isabella Tereza Barbosa"},{id:"220264",title:"Dr.",name:"Terezinha",surname:"Masson",slug:"terezinha-masson",fullName:"Terezinha Masson"}],corrections:null},{id:"57757",title:"Development of PVA/Fe3O4 as Smart Magnetic Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71964",slug:"development-of-pva-fe3o4-as-smart-magnetic-hydrogels-for-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:1085,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/Fe3O4 magnetic hydrogels had been fabricated by freezing-thawing (F-T) cycle technique, employing natural iron sand as the raw material for the magnetic micro- and nano-sized fillers. An exploration of the durability and magnetoelasticity as well as PVA hydrogel applications in the assessment of human brain tumor was also intensively conducted. The performance of the PVA and magnetic hydrogels mainly depends on the structural dynamic properties, such as polymeric crystallization and particle size. The durability of PVA/Fe3O4 magnetic hydrogels affecting the magnetoelasticity is determined by the concentration ratio of PVA and water, number of F-T cycles, and the concentration of Fe3O4 particles. By controlling those parameters, it was found that hydrogels had PVA: water ratio of 23:100 and four times F-T cycles possessed good mechanical properties. Due to the biocompatible character, the PVA hydrogel was used in the assessment of the human brain tumor, analyzed from the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) value representing the diffusion coefficient of a biological tissue. It was found that the abnormal tissue has a low ADC value compared with the normal one. Moreover, the higher b-value of the diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) measurement is more preferred in obtaining a good contrast of the data imaging.",signatures:"Malik Anjelh Baqiya, Ahmad Taufiq, Sunaryono, Munaji, Dita\nPuspita Sari, Yanurita Dwihapsari and Darminto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57757",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57757",authors:[{id:"192041",title:"Prof.",name:"D",surname:"Darminto",slug:"d-darminto",fullName:"D Darminto"},{id:"192812",title:"Dr.",name:"Malik",surname:"Baqiya",slug:"malik-baqiya",fullName:"Malik Baqiya"},{id:"213030",title:"Dr.",name:"S",surname:"Sunaryono",slug:"s-sunaryono",fullName:"S Sunaryono"},{id:"220975",title:"M.Sc.",name:"M",surname:"Munaji",slug:"m-munaji",fullName:"M Munaji"},{id:"220976",title:"MSc.",name:"Dita",surname:"Puspita Sari",slug:"dita-puspita-sari",fullName:"Dita Puspita Sari"},{id:"220977",title:"MSc.",name:"Yanurita",surname:"Dwi Hapsari",slug:"yanurita-dwi-hapsari",fullName:"Yanurita Dwi Hapsari"}],corrections:null},{id:"58973",title:"Hyaluronic-Based Antibacterial Hydrogel Coating for Implantable Biomaterials in Orthopedics and Trauma: From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73203",slug:"hyaluronic-based-antibacterial-hydrogel-coating-for-implantable-biomaterials-in-orthopedics-and-trau",totalDownloads:1256,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bacterial colonization of implanted biomaterials remains one of the most challenging complications in orthopedics and trauma surgery, with extremely high social and economic costs. Antibacterial coating of implants has been advocated by many experts as a possible solution to reduce the burden of implant-related infection and several different solutions have been proposed in the last decades. However, while most of the investigated technologies have shown their efficacy in vitro and/or in vivo, only few were able to reach the market, due to clinical, industrial, economic and regulatory issues. Hyaluronic acid composites have been previously shown to possess antifouling capabilities and have been used in various clinical settings to reduce bacterial adhesion and mitigate biofilm-related infections. Recently, a fast-resorbable, hyaluronic-based hydrogel coating was developed to protect implanted biomaterials in orthopedics, trauma and maxillofacial surgery. Preclinical and clinical testing did show the safety and efficacy of the device that can be intraoperatively loaded with one or more antibiotics and directly applied by the surgeon to the implant surface, at the time of surgery. Here, we review the current evidence concerning this very first antibacterial coating of implants and outline the economic impact of the possible large-scale application of this technology.",signatures:"Giammona Gaetano, Giovanna Pitarresi, Palumbo Fabio Salvatore,\nMaraldi Susanna, Scarponi Sara and Romanò Carlo Luca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58973",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58973",authors:[{id:"213904",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlo Luca",surname:"Romano'",slug:"carlo-luca-romano'",fullName:"Carlo Luca Romano'"},{id:"221081",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaetano",surname:"Giammona",slug:"gaetano-giammona",fullName:"Gaetano Giammona"},{id:"221082",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanna",surname:"Pitarresi",slug:"giovanna-pitarresi",fullName:"Giovanna Pitarresi"},{id:"221084",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio Salvatore",surname:"Palumbo",slug:"fabio-salvatore-palumbo",fullName:"Fabio Salvatore Palumbo"},{id:"221085",title:"Dr.",name:"Susanna",surname:"Maraldi",slug:"susanna-maraldi",fullName:"Susanna Maraldi"},{id:"221086",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Scarponi",slug:"sara-scarponi",fullName:"Sara Scarponi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5429",title:"Electrospinning",subtitle:"Material, Techniques, and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ce8f54e9951bc68943c45e2b1622f02d",slug:"electrospinning-material-techniques-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5429.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad 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1. Introduction
Photonics, a field that aims at the study of generation, manipulation, and detection of light, has become essential in modern life. Photonic devices as all-optical switches and modulators play a key role in worldwide data optical communications or optical computing. Since the invention of lasers in the 1960s, there has been a huge increase in the use of devices that use photons (light) instead of electrons. In 1985, a research group of the Southampton University showed the potential of silica glass fibers doped with Er3+ ions for applications in long optical transmission systems, at the wavelength region of 1.55 μm, without the need of electronic repeaters [1]. The invention of the erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) was a key factor in enabling the transmission of long-distance data through silica fiber. The 1.55 μm optical waveband falls in the low-loss transmission window of silica fiber and the amplification band of EDFA’s. Sadly, they are still restricted to amplification in the C and L bands. Therefore, optical fibers using linear near-infrared light transmission are only a small fraction of what can be exploited by extending the operating region to the mid- and far-infrared. In fact, silica optical fibers have a non-negligible attenuation of the emitted signal, so if the range of transparency were extended to longer wavelengths, it would have less attenuation. Hence, transparent glasses in the mid and far-infrared wavelength range are well suited to long-distance communication systems due to the Rayleigh dispersion attenuation coefficient varying with λ−4. Nowadays, almost all data flow, including internet, phone calls, etc., goes through fiber optic transmission lines [2] and the field of communications continues to expand to higher data rates and shorter delays to allow more capacity. The demands of the modern world are looking for high-speed communication and therefore it is expected that an overload of data traffic may occur in the telecommunications window that currently operates in the C and L bands. Therefore, an expansion to a wider bandwidth is required which would facilitate data transmission and new amplification materials are needed beyond EDFA’s to provide amplification over the optical fiber. This requires overcoming the limitation of peak water absorption around 1.4 μm. All wave fiber was the first to be designed for optical transmission across the entire telecommunications window from 1.3 μm to 1.67 μm (Figure 1) [3]. On the other hand, rare-earth (RE) have low solubility in silica glass which limits the interaction length of active devices based on RE doped silica [4]. Besides, silica has high phonon energy which implies that the RE ions transitions will decay non-radiatively; also exhibit a low nonlinear refractive index and so, nonlinear devices based on silica will require high intensities to operate. Finally, silica has a high transmission loss at wavelengths above 2 μm [3].
Figure 1.
Loss of standard and all wave silica fibers showing the region of minimum attenuation and the six conventional bands of optical telecommunications [3].
The necessary increase in the bandwidth excludes the use of EDFA’s, leaving fiber Raman amplifiers as the main devices used for that proposes [5]. In fact, amplifiers based on stimulated Raman scattering and four-wave mixing offer additional advantages over EDFAs [6], operate without the need for doping, and can be used at any spectral region [7]. Moreover, the wavelength of the pump laser can be chosen to give a maximum gain at any wavelength range (S, C, or L-band), and the gain bandwidth is higher than that offered by EDFA’s (> 100 nm versus 35 nm), which can be enlarged by an appropriate choice of the material [6]. On the other hand, fiber Raman lasers are excellent options for high-power fiber lasers, mainly because of their high output power and broad gain bandwidth, especially in the near-infrared region.
Although silica is widely used in the near-infrared, it limits the wavelength operating range. To overcome these limitations new glasses for optical device applications and photonics have been investigated. These include heavy metal oxide, fluoride, and chalcogenide glasses.
Glasses containing chalcogenides are the basis for the manufacture of devices operating in the mid-infrared region. In addition, glasses based on heavy metal oxides, such as Sb, Bi, Pb, W, Ga, Ge, Te, allow applications such as optical switches, due to their characteristics of low linear and nonlinear loss, large Kerr nonlinearity, and ultra-fast response. Fluoride-based glasses are used as optical amplifiers in telecommunication as well as in the manufacture of lasers.
Photonics is also used in medical applications, such as lasers used for LASIK surgery, and biomedical diagnostics exploit optical components for bioimaging. Integrated photonics also enables the advance of computing, information technology, sensing, and communications. The integration on a simply planar substrate of several photonic devices (optical sources, beam splitters, couplers, waveguides, detectors, etc.), as proposed by Miller in 1964 [8], enables the control of light on a significantly reduced scale where components are expected to exhibit a very reduced size and achieving a multiplicity of functions, including splitting, combining, switching, amplifying, and modulating signals. Many of these functions are nonlinear. For example, fiber nonlinearities are the basis of several devices such as amplifiers and switching. These nonlinear effects can be divided into two types. The first type is owing to the Kerr-effect (or intensity dependence of the refractive index of the material), which in turn can display phase modulation and wave mixing, depending upon the type of input signal. The second type is related to the inelastic-scattering phenomenon, which can induce stimulating effects such as stimulated Brillouin-Scattering and stimulated Raman-Scattering [9].
NLO is an important issue of advanced photonics and enables technical development in many fields including optical signal processing and quantum optics. It refers to the study of phenomena that occur due to modifications in the optical properties of a material in the presence of light. However, only laser light has sufficient intensity to promote these changes. Indeed, nonlinear optical phenomena (e.g. multiphoton absorption, harmonic generation, self-focusing, self-phase modulation, optical bistability, stimulated Brillouin scattering, and stimulated Raman scattering) require high electromagnetic field intensities to manifest.
2. Basic principles of NLO
In the linear optical domain, photons interact with the glass structure leading to various optical effects, such as dispersion, refraction, reflection, absorption, diffraction, and scattering. For example, the linear refractive index of a material, n, describes how light propagates through it, and the index defines how much light is bent, or refracted when it across the material. However, these properties may become nonlinear if the intensity is high enough to modify the glass optical properties, resulting in the creation of new beam lights of different wavelengths.
A nonlinear optical behavior is a deviation from the linear interaction between a material’s polarization response and the electric component of an applied electromagnetic field [10]. This phenomenon involves various optical exchanges such as frequency doubling, conversion, data transformation, etc. Because the magnetic component of light can be ignored in a glass (photons and magnetic fields usually do not interact), the electric component (E) becomes the main field that interacts with the medium. The polarization (P) induced by this interaction produces nonlinear responses that can be explained due to the distortion/deflection of the electronic structure of any atom or molecule (deformation of the electron cloud) due to the application of the electric field, thus producing a resulting dipole moment (vector that separates the positive and negative charges).
Once an external E field is applied to the material the positive charges tend to move in the opposite direction of the electrons. This interaction causes a charge separation that gives rise to microscopic dipole moments within the material. Under the influence of an electric field, these dipoles oscillate at the same frequency (ω) of the incident light. The sum of all the microscopic dipoles of the medium oscillating with time gives rise to material polarization. At low light intensities, Hook’s law is valid and the deformation of the electrons cloud is proportional to the applied field strength of the incident light: the light waves and excited electrons oscillate sinusoidally. The induced polarization is also oscillatory and is directly proportional to the incident electric field, as described by:
P=ε0χ1EE1
where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity and χ1 (or χ) is the linear susceptibility, which, in this case, depends on the frequency, and thus is directly linked to the linear refractive index, but does not depend on the amplitude of the electric field, which implies that the frequency of light does not change as it passes through matter. However, at high intensities, the electrons are extremely deflected from their orbit, and their movements become distorted giving rise to important deviation from harmonic oscillation. As a result, the amplitude of dipoles oscillation increases, and they emit light not only at the wavelength that excites them but in other frequencies (new color!!!) (Figure 2) [11]. At large intensities, P is a nonlinear function of E whereas, at low intensities, the interaction is a linear function. So, for materials with nonlinear characteristics, in which the polarization given by the Eq. (1) is no longer valid, P must be written in a more general form, as a power series of E:
Figure 2.
(a) Linear optics, a light wave acts on the material constituents, which vibrates and then emits its own light wave that interferes with the original light wave, (b) nonlinear optics. Adapted from [11].
P=ε0χ1E1+χ2E2+χ3E3+…E2
where the values of χ(2) and χ(3), are, respectively, the second-order and third-order susceptibilities which appear due to the nonlinear response of charged particles and are determined by the symmetry properties of the medium. Consequently, nonlinear refractive index (n2), second (𝜒 (2)), and third-order (𝜒 (3)) nonlinear susceptibilities can be measured. In isotropic, nondispersive, and homogeneous mediums, the material susceptibilities can be considered constants. However, in anisotropic media where properties are directionally dependent, the susceptibilities of the material are tensor quantities and therefore, depend on the microscopic structure (electronic e nuclear) of the material [12].
Considering the relations n2=1+χ1, c=1ε0μ0, and n=cc0, where n represents the linear refractive index, c is the speed of light in vacuum, c0 the speed of light in the material, and μ0 the vacuum permeability; Maxwell’s equations can be used to obtain the wave equations in a nonlinear material:
∇2E−1+χε0μ0∂t2E=1ε0c2∂t2PE3
where the term ∂t2P, represents a measure of the acceleration of the charges that constitute the material, which plays a fundamental role in the theory of nonlinear optics. This term acts as a source in the generation of new radiation field components, producing oscillating electric fields within a linear medium of refractive index n.
Assuming an external electric field of the type E(t) = Eexp(−iωt) + c.c, where c.c. denotes “complex conjugate”, the term related to second order polarization is given by:
P2=ε0χ2E2=2ε0χ2E2+ε0χ2E2exp−2iωt+c.cE4
being responsible for the generation of a field with twice the frequency of the incident radiation (2ω), taking the designation of the second harmonic generation process. However, in centrosymmetric materials, or isotropic materials like glass, which have macroscopic inversion symmetry, the polarization must reverse when the optical electric field is reversed, which implies that χ(2) must be zero, i.e., all second-order components of the susceptibility tensor are null and GSH does not manifest unless the glass has been poled. It is possible to induce GSH in glasses to break its centrosymmetry, using heat treatments or high energy excitation in the UV [13]. But, without the use of this strategy to eliminate glass’s isotropy, only a χ(3) is ≠0 and may lead to NLO character in glass [10] and the dominant term in (2) is then the third order:
P3=ε0χ3E3E5
which will give rise to frequency tripled light, called third-harmonic generation (THG). According to (5) this nonlinear polarization contains a component of frequency ω and an additional one at 3ω:
P3=3ε0χ3E2E⏟Pω+ε0χ3E⏟P3ωE6
The term P (3ω) shows that the THG of light is produced while the term P (ω) denotes an incremental change of the susceptibility (Δχ) at the frequency ω, given by:
ε0Δχ=PωE=3χ3E2=6nε0cχ3IE7
Where I is the intensity of the incident light that become significantly the value of χ(3). The χ(3), which gives the dependence of refraction on the intensity of the propagated optical beam, is responsible for the lowest order nonlinear effects in the glass as self-phase modulation and other parametric effects.
Since n2 = 1+ χ, Δχ is equivalent to an incremental change in the refractive index, Δn is an increase (or decrease) of the total refractive index due to nonlinear effects:
Δn=∂χ∂n−1Δχ=Δχ2n=3n2ε02cχ3I=n2IE8
where n2 is the nonlinear refractive. This change of the linear refractive index, n, is proportional to the light intensity, and therefore it becomes a linear function of I:
nI=n+n2IE9
n2=3n2ε02cχ3E10
The intensity-dependent refractive index is generally given as:
nI=n+n1E+n2E2E11
where n1 is the Pockel’s coefficient (insignificant for isotropic materials as glasses) and n2 is known as the Kerr coefficient (from the optical Kerr effect) [10]. However, the classical wave theory says that the intensity of the electric field of the light is equal to the square of its amplitude, and thus one can also write n(I) in the form of Eq. (9). The optical Kerr effect is very sensitive to the operating wavelength and polarization dependence and so the prevalent non-linearity occurs at a frequency well below the glass band gap and this effect is called non-resonant [10].
Typical values of the Kerr coefficient (in cm2/W) are 10−16 to 10−14 in transparent crystals and glasses. Silica glass (e.g. silica fibers), has an n2 index of 2.7 × 10−16 cm2/W at the wavelength of 1500 nm, whereas most of the chalcogenide glasses exhibit higher values, about several orders of magnitude larger than silica [14]. Since the values of the nonlinear refractive index in glasses are very small, resulting in a slight change of ∆n = n2I, the effect is measurable only for very intense light beams (lasers) of the order of 1GWcm−2. From Figure 3, it can be noted that n and n2 are usually directly correlated, such that high index (n) glasses, like chalcogenides, have also high n2 [16] and exhibit ultrahigh n2 greater than silica, as plotted in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Nonlinear refractive index, n2, versus refractive index, n, for various glasses, and silica glasses. Adapted from [15].
For all-optical signal processing and switching devices, glasses with large n (hence a large n2) are very attractive. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the linear refractive index (n), and the third-order nonlinear optical susceptibility χ(3) of various types of glass. High index (n) glasses, like chalcogenide ones, have also high n2, which seem to have the largest non-resonant third-order optical non-linearities related so far. As previously mentioned, χ(3) arises from light-induced changes in the refraction index that result in the Kerr effect or in parametric interactions (mixing of optical beams). In a glass fiber, the third-order susceptibility is related to n2 by Eq. (10) and the magnitude of the corresponding nonlinear effect is given by:
Figure 4.
Relationship between linear refractive index and third-order optical susceptibility. Adapted from [17].
γ=2πλAeffn2E12
where λ is the free-space wavelength and Aeff is the efficient core area [6]. Since 1999, single-mode silica fibers with γ of 20 W−1 km−1 were fabricated [18] with a core that was only 10.7 μm2, but typical Aeff values in silica fibers can reach 50 μm2 for 1.5 μm wavelengths. The self-phase modulation is a phenomenon arising from the dependence between the refractive index of a nonlinear medium and the strength of the electric field, which induces a phase shift of the propagating light, φNL(z):
ϕNLz=γP0z=zLNLE13
where P0 is the input power and LNL is the non-linear length that corresponds to the propagation distance at which the phase modulation becomes relevant, being defined by:
LNL=γP0−1E14
If the input power is only 1 mW at λ =1.55 μm, and the Aeff = 50 μm2, the LNL is ∼500 m [6]. As the refractive index in silica is weakly dependent on power, nonlinearities are introduced into the signal propagation and significantly increase in optical networks over relevant distances.
The various nonlinearities can be expressed in terms of the real and imaginary parts of each of the nonlinear susceptibilities χ(1), χ(2), χ(3), … that appear in (2). The real part is associated with the refractive index and the imaginary part with a time or phase delay in the reply of the material, giving rise to loss or gain. Table 1 exhibits the principal third-order NLO effects usually showed by dielectric materials like most glasses. For example, the nuclear contribution to stimulated Raman scattering (resulting in loss or gain) can be expressed in terms of the imaginary part of a χ(3) susceptibility, while the four-wave mixing, which is only of electronic nature and almost an instantaneous effect, result in frequency conversion and in related to the real part of the χ(3) susceptibility [6]. The imaginary part of χ(3) provides a change in the absorption coefficient, α, as a function of light intensity:
Order
Tensor
Effect
Description
3
χ(3)(−ω;ω,-0,0)
Kerr’s effect
Under the action of two electric fields, there is a change of the refractive index in the NLO medium.
3
χ(3)(−ω;ω,-ω,ω)
Nonlinear refractive index also called Kerr’s effect, self-phase modulation.
The refractive index of the medium changes with intensity according to the formula: n = n0 + n2I. Self-focusing and self-defocusing of a laser beam are special cases.
3
χ(3)(−3ω,ω,ω,ω)
Third harmonic generation.
There is an emission of light with triple frequency under the illumination of the medium.
3
χ(3)(−ω4;ω1,ω2,ω3)
Multiwave mixing.
When illuminated with three light sources with different frequencies a generation of light occurs whose frequency equals the sum of the three excitation frequencies.
Table 1.
Third-order NLO effects are usually shown by dielectric materials. Adapted from [19].
αI=α0+βIE15
where α is the linear absorption, and β is the non-linear absorption coefficient. As a result, occurs a prevalence of non-linearities at frequencies above the electronic absorption edge is known as resonant. The third-order non-linearity may be analyzed in phase conjugate mirrors, like in Mach-Zehnder interferometer pulse selectors or in Fabry-Perot interferometers filled with a nonlinear medium.
The χ(3) susceptibility is often measured by degenerate four-wave mixing, by the maker fringe method (THG method), or by the Z-scan method. The latter is by far the most used and meticulous method involving the analysis of third-order nonlinear optical properties arising from pulsed laser or CW irradiation at a given wavelength [20].
3. Nonlinear optical properties of glass
Glass is defined as a solid material of amorphous (non-crystalline) structure while crystals possess long-range order, the amorphous materials only possess short-range order. Therefore, glasses are typically brittle and optically transparent because they lack internal structure. The silica-based glass was undoubtedly the most studied given its multiple applications. Glasses that do not include silica as a main constituent exhibit other properties that make them useful for various applications, for example in optical fibers that work in different frequency domains than SiO2 fibers. These include fluoride glasses, tellurite glasses, aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses, borate glasses, and chalcogenide glasses. Common glasses are transparent materials in the spectral range of the visible and near-infrared region, although opaque in the far IR and UV region. The visible transparency threshold ends, for high wavelengths (λ), with UV absorption, due to electronic transitions between valence band levels and unfilled conduction band levels. For applications in photonics, there are two main categories of special glasses: chalcogenide glasses (CGs) and heavy metal oxide glasses. Chalcogenide glasses are based on the chalcogen elements S, Se, and Te. These glasses are formed by the addition of other elements such as Ge, As, Sb, Ga, etc. Heavy metal oxide and chalcogenide glasses offer the largest nonlinear response.
Most of the glasses are prepared by the melt of precursors. In solid form, glass is a non-crystalline (or amorphous) material. The deposition from a liquid solution (sol–gel method) is an alternative approach to obtain glass, especially in films form. Some compositions may otherwise be rather difficult to prepare by melt and that’s why in practice this method is limited to a relatively small number of compositions. Therefore, the sol–gel processes allow the synthesis of glasses of extended composition ranges, allowing the fabrication of multiple oxide composition, but also non-oxide glasses, with a high degree of homogeneity, because reagents are mixed at the molecular level at temperatures lower than those required for conventional melting. However, the OH content of the sol–gel glasses is high and OH absorptions usually limit transmission at 1.4 μm.
Optical glasses are optically homogeneous glass that are applied in several optical functionalities. The first optical quality (flint) glasses were created at the end of the 19 century by Otto Schott, who also invented Ba crown glass, allowing the production of adjusted lenses for chromatic aberration [21]. X-ray diffraction (XRD) allows distinguishing a glass from a crystalline material. The pattern of SiO2 glass contains only a few, very broad peaks, which cannot be correlated by the Bragg law with planar distances (as in the case of crystals). SiO2 consists of a matrix of SiO4 tetrahedra (Figure 5) [22].
Figure 5.
A schematic representation of the structure of vitreous silica. The tetrahedral SiO4 units in silica are represented by triangular units [22].
The presence of a glass modifier together with the glass formers (SiO2 or P2O5) breaks up the oxide network M–O–M (M = Si, P) and drives the transformation of the bridging oxygens (BO) into nonbridging oxygens (NBOs). The structural unit of SiO2 has Si-O atomic bonds whose electronic transitions occur in the UV range. For high λ, the transparency threshold ends due to the vibrations of the ions in the network (in resonance with the incident radiation). The amorphous character of the glass explains the absence of grain boundaries in its structure and, therefore, the absence of internal dispersion and reflection phenomena, which are always present in crystalline materials. Glasses are dielectric materials and therefore exhibit a large energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band in accordance with the band theory of solids. Their optical transmission is limited by electronic transitions (Urbach tail) for low wavelength, and multiphonon absorption at high wavelength, in the IR spectrum. The multiphonon absorption process is related to the fundamental vibration frequencies of the glass.
The transmittance spectrum varies from glass to glass, but the main differences are observed outside the transparency range (Figure 6). The glass has an optical transparent window which strongly depends on the compositions. Glasses made for use in the visible region have high transmittance across the entire wavelength range of ∼400 nm–800 nm. However, the structure of silicate glasses limits its transmission in the infrared region to above 3 μm. They have strongly bound electrons but non-bridging oxygens, with their weakly bound electrons, reduce transmission. Chalcogenide glasses, heavy metal fluoride glasses, and heavy metal oxide glasses extend this transmission to higher wavelengths. The telluride glasses have larger atoms and weaker bonds than oxide glasses and so its vibrational resonance occurs at a lower frequency, shifting the fundamental absorption cut-off to longer wavelengths (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Typical transmittance spectra of silica, fluorides, sulfide, selenide, and telluride glasses [23].
The interest in chalcogenide glasses backs from 1950s when was reported high infrared transparency of the As2S glass, up to 12 μm [24]. The structure of chalcogenide glasses such as Ge-Sb-Se consists of covalently bonded atoms, like amorphous SiO2, with lacking periodicity. They include sulfide, selenide, and telluride-based glasses. As dielectric materials, their optical transparent window is dependent on electronic absorption at low wavelengths and multiphonon absorption at high wavelengths. They have a band gap (Eg) that is dependent on the composition and decreases according to Sulfides < Selenides < Tellurides. A specificity of tellurides that differentiates it from the sulfides and selenides in its crystalline structure and physical properties is the large atomic number of Te. The energy gap may be taken from the glass absorption spectrum α(ħω) by extrapolating the linearized Tauc equation:
αħω∝ħω−Eg1/2E16
The absorption coefficient, α, varies exponentially with the photon energy, ħω in the Urbach tail.
It is interesting to note that n and n2 and are usually directly correlated, such that low index (n) glasses, like certain fluorides and phosphates, have also low n2. On the other hand, a relationship between the material band gap and the n2 was also established. For example, the n2 value obtained for pure As2S3 was about 2.9 x 10−18 m2/W while for fused SiO2 was about 2.8 x 10−19 m2/W [25], which is comparatively about 10 times lower. So, materials with lower band gap seam to exhibit an increase in the nonlinear optical behavior; SiO2 has a gap of about 9 eV while that of As2S3 is 2.3 eV [19].
The increase of the nonlinear absorption coefficient (β), third-order nonlinear optical susceptibility (χ(3)), and nonlinear refractive index (n2) and decreasing the optical band gap (Eg) can be attributed to the formation of BO bonds and ions of higher polarizability in the glass matrix. It has been recognized the effect of the glass composition on the dependency of χ(3). In most multicomponent oxide glasses, there are both BO and NBO oxygens in the glass network (e.g. for a silicate glass, Si-O+Na−). The NBO bonds possess larger n2 than the BO of the more covalent Si-O-Si bonds [26]. It was also established that third-order nonlinear optical susceptibility of the glasses increases with increasing optical basicity and tendency for metallization of the glasses. This fact is associated with the polarizability of the anions (F− < O2− < S2− < Se2−) and the small optical band gap [19], which is related to the increasing metallicity of the oxides [27]. The theory of metallization of the condensed matter says that in the Lorentz–Lorenz equation, the refractive index becomes infinite when metallization of covalent solid materials occurs [27]. SiO2, B2O3, and GeO2 based glasses exhibit low refractive index and have low polarizability, large metallization tendency, and small χ(3). Tellurite and TiO2 based glasses, as well as B2O3 glasses containing a large amount of Sb2O3 and Bi2O3 with high refractive index, show large polarizability, small metallization tendency, and large χ(3) (Figure 7). Consequently, under the point of view of polarizability, high-refractive-index glasses with an increased tendency for metallization are promising materials for application as components of nonlinear optical devices.
Figure 7.
Line-up of the Kerr effect among various glass compositions [19].
Glass materials are excellent non-linear optical materials, being isotropic and transparent in a wide spectral range, combining low cost of fabrication with high optical quality, manufacturable not only as bulk shapes, or fibers, but also as thin films (e.g. nonlinear planar waveguides). Furthermore, when compared to polymers, glass is more stable and has the advantage over crystals since its atomic composition is easily tailored: a nonlinear optical glass can be obtained with any refractive index in a wide range [28]. Its properties can be adjusted through doping and compositional changes to fit the specified requests of each application. Its disordered structure allows light propagation inside that medium like no other material. They also exhibit good compatibility with silica-based systems and waveguide production in which high optical intensities and long interaction lengths can be achieved [28], giving rise to nonlinear structures in integrated optical devices [29].
For the fabrication of all-optical systems in information technology and integrated photonics, the chosen materials should exhibit high nonlinearities. Rather, low nonlinearities are essential for fibers in optical communications to avoid phenomena of self-focusing, self-phase modulation, Raman and Brillouin scatterings. NLO was considered the threshold to the total of information that can be transmitted in a single optical fiber. As laser power levels increase, NLO limits data rates, transmission lengths, and the number of wavelengths that can be transmitted simultaneously. Optical nonlinearities give rise to many “secondary” effects in optical fibers. These effects can be damaging in optical communications, but they find other applications, especially for the integration of all-optical functionalities in optical networks. The optical nonlinearities can give rise to gain or amplification, the conversion between wavelengths, the generation of new wavelengths or frequencies, the control of the temporal and spectral shape of pulses, and switching [6]. Thus, they can be distinguished in two types: that from scattering (stimulated Brillouin and stimulated Raman) and that from optically induced changes in the refractive index, resulting either in phase modulation or in the mixing of several waves and the generation of new frequencies (modulation instability and parametric processes, such as four-wave mixing). So, the nonlinear refractive index, also referred optical Kerr nonlinearity (n2), offers a means to achieve switching and amplifying functions in photonic devices and produces nonlinear effects, namely self-phase modulation, and four-wave mixing. Self-phase modulation implies changes in the phase and rising frequency of a pulse, which can cause spectral broadening. Four-wave mixing is a kind of nonlinear frequency conversion generated by the Kerr nonlinearity which enables, for example, high-speed communications, frequency conversion, sensing, and quantum photonics. The effect of ultrafast response time (10 s−15 s) provides broad bandwidths, that can pull actual GHz electronic computing forward to PHz (1015) rates using all-optical signal processing [30]. In addition, spectral broadening, produced by changes in phase from the nonlinear refractive index, can enable the production of short-pulsed sources [30]. Four-wave mixing, on the other hand, can be used to generate optical frequency combs [30], which can measure precise frequencies of light and span spectral ranges useful for spectroscopic investigations.
Although these applications are of great practical interest, the Kerr effect (n2) is often small for common optical glasses (∼10−20 to 10−19 m2/W) [30], leading to high thresholds for nonlinear effects and requiring special sources of high-power excitation.
Transparent optical glasses exhibiting nonlinearities, e. g. large nonlinear refractive index and nonlinear absorption coefficient are good candidates for fiber telecommunication and for nonlinear optical devices such as optical switches, self-focusing, and white-light continuum generation. Glasses that exhibit significant nonlinearity are good candidates as Raman gains media to provide enhanced Raman gain over an extended wavelength range. Chalcogenide (As–Se) glasses and fibers are examples of good candidates as well tellurite fibers because of the high refractive index of TeO2 (2.3–2.4) [6] compared to the SiO2 (1.46). An As2S3 fiber exhibit a Raman coefficient is 300 times greater than that of silica fiber [6]. However, chalcogenide fibers have lesser chemical stability. In spite of that, chalcogenide glass has wide transparency transmission from 0.5 to 25 μm [31], enhancing their potential applications on the mid-IR. As shown in Figure 8, the long-wavelength cut-off edges of chalcogenide glasses depend on the mass of anionic elements and are extended between 12 and 20 μm. Their nonlinearity (Kerr effect) is 200–1000 times larger than that of the silica glass at a wavelength of 1.55 μm [32].
Figure 8.
Typical infrared (IR) transmission spectra of S-, Se-, and Te-based chalcogenide (ChG) glass [32].
The nonlinear optical properties of glasses have been considered of great interest for photonic devices to be used in several technological applications with a broad spectrum of phenomena, such as optical frequency conversion, optical solitons, phase conjugation, and Raman dispersion. Most of the previous investigations were devoted to crystalline materials such as Quartz, LiNbO3, KTiOPO4, and α-BaB2O4 [19]. Nevertheless, recently the development of special glass compositions exhibiting NLO properties have extended the research into practical applications of glass transparent materials for a wide range of effects, such as fast intensity-dependent index, third-harmonic generation (THG), stimulated emission (or stimulated Raman scattering), second harmonic generation (SHG) and the multiphoton absorption [29]. Nonlinear phenomena in glasses, such as nonlinear refractive index, multiphoton absorption, and Raman and Brillouin scattering, depend on the glass itself, its nature (composition and structure), which is responsible for the nonlinearity. On the other hand, in glasses doped with RE ions or semiconductor nanoparticles, in which the glass assumes the role of host, the nonlinearity is produced by interactions between dopant ions, domains, and different phases (such as in glass-ceramics).
The first nonlinear effect in history is often associated with the beginning of the NLO [33], had occurred in 1875, when J. Kerr observed changes in the refractive index of a liquid (CS2) in the presence of an electric field. The Kerr effect or quadratic electro-optic effect is directly related to the third-order nonlinearity, χ(3). Pockels, 20 years later, observed another phenomena, the linear electro-optic effect [34], through the modification of the index of refraction of light in a non-centrosymmetric crystal (Quartz) placed by an electric field. For a long time thereafter, these phenomena were little studied and found of non-practical applications. However, the decisive prerequisite for work out such effects demands high laser pump intensities and suitable phase-matching conditions. Significant effects of NLO (e.g., frequency conversion by taking advantage of second and third harmonic generation) only began to be observed experimentally in the early 60s, after laser invention, due to the fact that such NLO effects require high electromagnetic field intensities to manifest, which was only possible using high-power lasers. P. Franken reported the first observation of the SHG in 1961 after focusing a pulsed ruby laser (λ = 694 nm) into a Quartz crystal; the red incident beam generated an emitted blue light (λ = 347 nm) [35]. THG was soon experimentally reported in 1965 [36]. Since the late of the 80s the interest in NLO properties in glass began to increase [19]. As already mentioned, the nonlinear optical response of glasses is closely related to their anionic polarizability [29, 37] which is described as the deformation of electron clouds (dipoles) when the electromagnetic field is applied. The selection of suitable glass structure and composition can contribute to efficiently optical Kerr effect, self-focusing, intensity-dependent refractive index, and other χ(3) -related effects. In the literature, several reports have shown that the Kerr effect of non-conventional glass compositions is a viable option for self-phase modulation and broadband light generation in the near-infrared [29]. The χ(3) in resonant mode is an additional possibility. Due to the bandwidth requirements for transmitting information for both long-haul and local area networks, Raman amplification is considered a good option to face out the recent developments in the telecommunications fiber industry and diode laser technology. Compared, for instance, with Er3+-doped silica fiber amplifiers, in which the wavelength is fixed at 1550 nm, Raman gain bandwidths are larger, and the operational range only varies with the pump wavelength and the bandwidth of the Raman active medium (the glass nature) [29]. It is well known that the Kerr effect and Raman gain follow the polarity of the glass medium and are deeply impacted by the structure of some specific glasses, such as TeO2 glass, which have large electronic polarizability. Additionality the small length of Te–O bond (2.01 Å) [37, 38] is considered responsible for the large third-order nonlinear optical susceptibility of these kinds of glass [38]. It χ(3) value was as high as 1.4 × 10−12 esu about 50 times as large as that of SiO2 glass [38].
The field of nonlinear optics of glasses has been mainly focused on two main groups: resonant and non-resonant [28]. Non-resonant interactions occur when the light excitation falls in the transparent wavelengths range of the glass longer than its electronic absorption edge. As no electronic transitions take place, the process can be seen as lossless and so an ultrafast glass response due to third-order electronic polarization is assured. Examples are, in general, high refractive index and high dispersion glasses like heavy flint optical glasses, or heavy metal oxide glasses, or chalcogenide glasses.
The resonant ones include semiconductor (quantum dots), or metallic nanoparticles doped glasses [10, 28] and the interaction occurs when the optical field’s frequencies are near the electronic absorption edge so that its high resonant nonlinearity can be exploited. However, the isotropic structure glass and its amorphous state have inversion symmetry and do not exhibit second-order nonlinearity, χ(2), or Pockels effect which is necessary for applications such as electro-optic switching and modulation or wavelength conversion in photonic technology. Indeed, glass is a good example of optically isotropic material (as well cubic crystals) that does not exhibit (in principle) any behavior that arises from that condition (e.g. optical birefringence). However, this is not always the case because second-order nonlinearity can be achieved in glass upon appropriate modification. For example, the application of both heat and electric fields (thermal poling) gives rise to SHG. Since χ(2) is not physically possible in a centrosymmetric material, the creation of an axial symmetry under thermal poling has been demonstrated to be effective to introduce second-order nonlinearity properties [29]. Another route to create an optical SHG is by the introduction of optical non-linear nanocrystals within a glass matrix. Although thermal poling is an efficient way to induce SHG in silicate glasses, χ(2) also appeared after glass heat treatments to precipitate crystallites of non-centrosymmetric compounds [39]. This strategy gives rise to transparent crystallized glasses (glass-ceramics). Nevertheless, more research is necessary to clarify some aspects, for instance, whether the thermal poling approach is effectively the best choice for raising SHG.
In the glass transparency region, which is found between the ionic (vibrational) and the electronic excitation interactions and where no permanent electric dipoles are present, the light frequency is too high for the ionic polarizability to follow the E field oscillations and too low to resonate with the electronic excitations [10]. Still, multiphoton processes may occur. For example, the probability of two-photon absorption is proportional to the square of the E field intensity [10].
4. Quantum dots doped glasses
Intensity-dependent nonlinear optical effects, such as the optical Kerr one, are very significant for all-optical data processing. Glasses with large nonlinear refractive index and nonlinear absorption coefficient are suitable materials for fiber telecommunication and nonlinear optical devices such as ultrafast optical switches and several photonic applications. Since silica and silicate glasses exhibit a small third-order nonlinear susceptibility χ(3), the strategy of combining different materials to obtain composite systems, such as glass doped with semiconductor nanocrystals (quantum dots), allowed to obtain optimized nonlinear optical properties because semiconductors exhibit larger susceptibility. Glasses doped with semiconductors nanocrystals (quantum dots, QDs) such as CdS, CdSe, CdTe, PbS, CuCl, etc., are suitable materials for resonant NLO devices with response times on the ps domain. They can be prepared through the dispersion of a nanocrystalline phase in a glass matrix. This approach, through the reduction of bulk size to nanometric scale or quasi-zero-dimensional quantum dots, allow to change the electronic properties of glasses accordingly with enhanced nonlinearity compared with the corresponding bulk semiconductors [40]. Whenever the absorption of a photon of enough energy (hν is greater than the band gap, Eg) excites an electron from the valence band to the conduction band in semiconducting materials, a free electron–hole pair may be formed. The hole and electron are attracted by Coulombic forces to keep them in a stable orbit as a bound electron–hole pair, called exciton [10]. Due to electrons and holes being confined in a small volume of radius, the radius of the exciton (distance between the electron and hole in an exciton), will change the available energy levels and the interaction with the photons. As the size of nanoparticles becomes progressively smaller, the quantum size effects of excitons confined in all three dimensions give rise to a series of discrete energy levels [10], and therefore the energy associated with them will depend on the relationship between the crystal size (R) and the exciton Bohr radius. Quantum confinement effects are quite significant in the range of a ≪R ∼ aB, where a is the lattice constant of the semiconductors, i.e. when R is similar to Bohr radius of exciton in bulk crystal (aB). In QDs doped glasses these effects give rise to the so-called blue shift of the linear optical absorption edge. The shift regarding to the bulk Eg varies with R as ∼1/R2. Smaller R gives rise to larger blue-shift.
The size of semiconductor particles can be calculated by [41]:
∆Eg=h2/8R21/me∗+1/mh∗
−1.8e2/4πε0εαR−0.124e4/ħ4πε0εα21/me∗+1/mh∗−1E17
where ΔEg is the shift of the band gap energy (due to the confinement), R is the particle size (radius), me∗ and mh∗ are respectively the reduced effective masses of the electron (e) and hole (h). It is interesting to note that the second term, related to the kinetic energy of the electron and hole [41] exhibits a 1/R2 dependence while the third term, the Coulomb interaction between the electron and hole, has a 1/R dependence. Although the kinetic energy of the exciton for nanoparticles of R ∼ aB seems to be predominant, the Coulomb interaction must also be considered [42]. Figure 9 shown that the shift of the exciton resonances to higher energy (blue shift) is a consequence of the increasing quantum confinement as R decreases [43].
Figure 9.
Absorption spectra of CuCI-doped quantum dot glasses: 22 Å (solid); 27 Å (dot); 34 Å (dash) [43].
The changes in absorption also lead to refractive index changes, through the Kramers-Kronig transformation:
Δnω=cπ∫0∞∆αω′ω′2−ω2dω′E18
where c is the speed of light and ω is the light frequency.
The method allows to correlate the determined change Δα in the absorption coefficient to the change Δn in the refractive index [43]. The nonlinear refractive index is then obtained by n2 = Δn/I (Eq. (8)). The value of χ(3) will be proportional to the reciprocal of the confinement volume and will increase with decreasing R [10]. Is then expected that larger non-linearities are obtained for glasses containing smaller particles and larger volume fractions of QDs [10].
5. Metal-doped glasses
Metal doped glass possesses linear and nonlinear optical properties. Great interest has driven the study of the third-order nonlinear susceptibility of metal particles embedded in dielectric matrices, like glasses [44], which are influenced not only by the type and size of the metal particles but also by the metal-dielectric constant. The most significant effect of the confinement of metal particles in optical properties of nanocomposite glasses is the appearance of the surface plasmon resonance, which deeply enhances the glass χ(3) responses with picosecond temporal responses. For example, the optical absorption spectrum of Ag-doped silica sol–gel glass shows the presence of an absorption band of surface plasmon resonance due to Ag nanoparticles at ∼420 nm (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Absorption spectra of Ag-SiO2 cermet (at a concentration of 8% Ag) and SiO2 matrix (without Ag).
Plasmons deals with a coherent interaction between the free-electron gas surrounding metal and the incident radiation. The motion of these free electrons can be described by the plasma Drude model, along with a plasma frequency of the bulk metal ωp. In accordance with the Drude free-electron model, the dielectric constant of metal particles is given by [45]:
εm=εm′−iεm′′=1−ωP2/ωω−i/τE19
Where τ is the time between collisions among electrons. The real (ε’) and imaginary (ε”) parts of the complex dielectric constant are expressed as [45]:
εm′=n2−k2=1−ωP2τ2/1+ωτ2E20
εm′′=2nk=ωP2τ/ω1+ωτ2E21
From the above equations is possible to infer the existence of an interaction between the free-electron gas and the incident electromagnetic field, which gives rise to an excitation of the electrons at the metal surface, associated with collective oscillations of electrons in the metal nanoparticles, called surface plasmon. The large value of χ(3) of metal-doped glasses arises predominantly from the local electric field enhancement near the surface of the metal nanoparticles (Ag, Cu, Ni, or other metal nanoparticles) due to their surface plasma resonance, leading to a variety of optical effects.
When the diameter (d) of metal particles is much lower than the wavelength of light (λ), scattering is negligible. As well, the total collisional impacts of the electrons with the particle surfaces become significant and a new-found relaxation time, τeff, appeared, given by [45]:
1/τeff=1/τb+2vF/dE22
where τb is the bulk value and vF is the electron velocity at the Fermi energy. Spherical metal nanoparticles embedded in a glass matrix with a real dielectric constant εd exhibit NLO properties. Figure 11 exhibits homogeneous size distribution of spherical Au nanoparticles in a SiO2 thin film on a metal substrate [46]. For the conditions.
Figure 11.
Transmission electron microscopy micrographs of Au-SiO2 thin films: a) cross section view of a film with Au volume fraction p = 23%, and b) plan view of a film of Au volume fraction p = 8% [46].
The equation usually considered to obtain the χ(3) of metal/glass composites, is given by [45]:
χ3=3pf4χm3E23
Where χm3 is the bulk metal third-order susceptibility, f is the local electric field near the metal particles and p is the metal volume fraction. The optical response of metal particle/glass composites can be determined by the local field enhancement inside the nanoparticles (dielectric confinement):
f=EE0=3εdεm+2εdE24
f is given by the ratio between the field E inside a metal particle and the applied field E0, with εd the dielectric constant of the glass matrix and εm the one of the metal.
So, if one assumes χm3independent of particle size, then χ(3) will increase as the volume fraction of metal particles and their size increases [45].
6. Conclusions
In the last decades, the development of optics, as the science that deals with light and its applications, has had an enormous growth not only through new or recognized theoretical concepts but also in new optical techniques and new instruments. Several factors contributed to this, namely: 1) the emergence of new light sources, such as lasers, which allowed the advent of new applications associated with light manipulation, such as those based on the nonlinear optical properties of materials; and 2) the development of new glasses or the modification/optimization of others through the addition of dopants (e.g., metallic nanoparticles or QDs), also allowed the creation of new photonic devices (light sources, all-optical switches, modulators, etc.) and new technologies associated with them. These developments also gave rise to the so-called integrated optics, which allowed a reduction in the size of optical systems, while maintaining their high nonlinear optical performance. Many of these technologies are used in the field of communications and other sectors of activity, such as health and information. In terms of materials, NLO glasses have grown as indicated by the numerous scientific publications on the subject. Glasses have great versatility and offer great flexibility to modify their nonlinear responses by manipulating their composition, refractive index, gap, etc. Because of their structural inversion symmetry, glasses do not possess second-order optical nonlinearity. Yet, it is possible to induce this optical response in the glass by thermal electric poling.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"glass, photonics, nonlinear optical (NLO), Kerr effect (third-order nonlinearity)",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80452.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80452.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80452",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80452",totalDownloads:53,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2021",dateReviewed:"November 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 13th 2022",datePublished:"March 30th 2022",dateFinished:"February 13th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The field of photonics has been the target of constant innovations based on a deep knowledge of the nonlinear optical (NLO) properties of materials and especially on information/data technologies. This chapter compiles some of the main physical aspects needed to understand NLO responses, especially in glasses. Any deviation from the linear correlation between a material’s polarization response and the electric component of an applied electromagnetic field is an example of nonlinear optic behavior. Heavy metal oxide and chalcogenide glasses offer the largest nonlinear response. For example, high refractive index and high dispersion glasses fall in the type of non-resonant devices, while the resonant ones comprise metal nanoparticle doped glasses. Metal nanoparticles’ doped glasses can be pre- pared by the sol-gel method. The optical absorption spectrum of Ag-doped silica glass shows the presence of an absorption band of surface Plasmon Resonance due to Ag nanoparticles at 420 nm and Z-scan has been used to study the NLO properties. This chapter contains a brief discussion of the basic principles of nonlinear optics, the review of the nonlinear optical of glass in general, and two separate sections concerning the nonlinear optical effects in the glasses doped with quantum dots and metals, respectively.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80452",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80452",signatures:"Helena Cristina Vasconcelos",book:{id:"10672",type:"book",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Nonlinear Nanophotonics and Novel Materials for Nonlinear Optics",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Optics - Nonlinear Nanophotonics and Novel Materials for Nonlinear Optics",slug:"nonlinear-optics-nonlinear-nanophotonics-and-novel-materials-for-nonlinear-optics",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-836-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-835-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-890-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris I.",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-i.-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris I. Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93646",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",middleName:"Cristina",surname:"Cristina Vasconcelos",fullName:"Helena Cristina Vasconcelos",slug:"helena-cristina-vasconcelos",email:"helena.cs.vasconcelos@uac.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Basic principles of NLO",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Nonlinear optical properties of glass",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Quantum dots doped glasses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Metal-doped glasses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Poole SB, Payne DN, Fermann ME. Fabrication of low-loss optical fibres containing rare-earth ions. Electronics Letters. The Institution of Engineering and Technology. 1985;21:737-738. DOI: 10.1049/el:19850520'},{id:"B2",body:'Refi JJ. Optical fibers for optical networking. Bell Labs Technical Journal. 1999;4(1):246-261. DOI: 10.1002/bltj.2156'},{id:"B3",body:'Hughes M. Modified Chalcogenide Glasses for Optical Device Applications. 2007'},{id:"B4",body:'Vasconcelos HC, Pinto AS. Fluorescence properties of rare-earth-doped sol-gel glasses. In: Chandra U, editor. Recent Applications in Sol-Gel Synthesis. Rijeka: IntechOpen; 2017. 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DOI: 10.3390/mi11030247'},{id:"B10",body:'Available from: https://www.lehigh.edu/imi/teched/OPG/lecture37.pdf'},{id:"B11",body:'Available from: https://www.brown.edu/research/labs/mittleman/sites/brown.edu.research.labs.mittleman/files/uploads/lecture35_0.pdf'},{id:"B12",body:'Yariv A. Quantum Electronics. Third ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1989'},{id:"B13",body:'Liu L. Second-Order Optical Nonlinear Properties of Glasses in Photonic Glasses. Singapore: World Scientific; 2006. pp. 153-189. DOI: 10.1142/ 54 9789812773487_0005'},{id:"B14",body:'Available from: https://www.rp-photonics.com/nonlinear_index.html'},{id:"B15",body:'Pelusi MD et al. Applications of highly-nonlinear chalcogenide glass devices tailored for high-speed all-optical signal processing. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. 2008;14(3):529-539. DOI: 10.1109/JSTQE.2008.918669'},{id:"B16",body:'Vasconcelos HC, Gonçalves MC, editors. Overall Aspects of Non-Traditional Glasses. Synthesis, Properties and Applications. Sharjah, U.A.E: Bentham Science Publishers. ISBN: 978-1-68108-208-0 Hardcover, eISBN: 978-1-68108-207-3; 2016'},{id:"B17",body:'Nasu H, Uchigaki T, Kamiya K, Kanbara H, Kubodera K. Nonresonant-type third-order nonlinearity of (PbO, Nb2O5)-TiO2-TeO2 glass measured by third-harmonic generation. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 1992;31:3899-3900'},{id:"B18",body:'Agrawal GP. Chapter 11 - Highly nonlinear fibers. In: Agrawal GP, editor. Nonlinear Fiber Optics. Sixth ed. Academic Press. NY, USA: University of Rochester. 2019. pp. 463-502. ISBN 9780128170427. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-817042-7.00018-X'},{id:"B19",body:'Dussauze M, Cardinal T. Nonlinear optical properties of glass. In: Musgraves JD, Hu J, Calvez L, editors. Springer Handbook of Glass. Springer International Publishing; 2019. pp. 157-189. Springer Handbooks, 978-3-319-93726-7. ff10.1007/978-3-319-93728-1ff. ffhal-02309707. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02309707'},{id:"B20",body:'Van Stryland EW, Sheik-Bahae M. Z-scan technique for nonlinear materials characterization. In: Materials Characterization and Optical Probe Techniques: A Critical Review. SPIE-International Society for Optics and Photonics. 1997:102910Q. Available from: https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997SPIE10291E.0QV. DOI: 10.1117/12.279853'},{id:"B21",body:'Available from: https://www.lehigh.edu/imi/teched/OPG/lecture12.pdf'},{id:"B22",body:'Parker JM. Glasses. In: Bassani F, Liedl GL, Wyder P, editors. Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics. Elsevier; 2005. pp. 273-280. ISBN 9780123694010. DOI: 10.1016/B0-12-369401-9/00538-6'},{id:"B23",body:'Cui S, Chahal R, Boussard-Plédel C, Nazabal V, Doualan J-L, Troles J, et al. From selenium- to tellurium-based glass optical fibers for infrared spectroscopies. Molecules. 2013;18(5):5373-5388. DOI: 10.3390/molecules18055373'},{id:"B24",body:'Karasu B, İdinak T, Erkol E, Yanar AO. Chalcogenide glasses. El-Cezeri. 2019;6(3):428-457. DOI: 10.31202/ecjse.547060'},{id:"B25",body:'Almeida JMP, Barbano EC, Arnold CB, Misoguti L, Mendonça CR. Nonlinear optical waveguides in As2S3-Ag2S chalcogenide glass thin films. Optical Materials Express. 2017;7:93-99'},{id:"B26",body:'Chakraborty P. Metal nanoclusters in glasses as non-linear photonic materials. Journal of Materials Science. 1998;33(9):2235-2249. DOI: 10.1023/a:1004306501659'},{id:"B27",body:'Dimitrov V, Komatsu T. Classification of oxide glasses: A polarizability approach. Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 2005;178(3):831-846. DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2004.12.013'},{id:"B28",body:'Yamane M, Asahara Y. Nonlinear optical glass. In: Glasses for Photonics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2000. pp. 159-241. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511541308.005'},{id:"B29",body:'Cardinal T, Fargin E, Videau JJ, Petit Y, Guery G, Dussauze M, et al. Glass and glass ceramic for nonlinear optics: Fundamentals to applications. In: Functional Glasses: Properties And Applications for Energy and Information. H. Jain, Lehigh Univ.; C. Pantano, The Pennsylvania State Univ.; S. Ito, Tokyo Institute of Technology; K. Bange, Schott Glass (ret.); D. Morse, Corning Eds, ECI Symposium Series. 2013. Available from: https://dc.engconfintl.org/functional_glasses/14'},{id:"B30",body:'Krogstad MR. “Ge-Sb-Se Chalcogenide Glass for Near- and Mid-Infrared Nonlinear Photonics”. Thesis (Ph.D., Physics). USA: University of Colorado; 2017. Available from: https://scholar.colorado.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/4x51hj00j'},{id:"B31",body:'Ono M, Hata M, Tsunekawa M, et al. Ultrafast and energy-efficient all-optical switching with graphene-loaded deep-subwavelength plasmonic waveguides. Nature Photonics. 2020;14:37-43. DOI: 10.1038/s41566-019-0547-7'},{id:"B32",body:'Gao S, Bao X. Chalcogenide taper and its nonlinear effects and sensing applications. iScience. 2020;23(1):100802. DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.100802. Epub 2019 Dec 25. PMID: 31927486; PMCID: PMC6957858'},{id:"B33",body:'Fowles G. Introduction to Modern Optics. 2nd ed. New York: Dover Publications; 1989'},{id:"B34",body:'Narasimhamurti TS. Photoelastic and Electro-Optic Properties of Crystals. New York: Plenum; 1981'},{id:"B35",body:'Franken PA, Hill AE, Peters CW, Weinreich G. Generation of optical harmonics. Physical Review Letters. 1961;7:118'},{id:"B36",body:'Maker PD, Terhune RW. Study of optical effects due to an induced polarization third order in the electric field strength. Physics Review. 1965;137:A801-A818'},{id:"B37",body:'Azlan MN, Halimah MK, Shafinas SZ, Daud WM. Electronic polarizability of zinc borotellurite glass system containing erbium nanoparticles. Materials Express. 2015;5(3):211-218. DOI: 10.1166/mex.2015.1236'},{id:"B38",body:'Kim S-H, Yoko T, Sakka S. Linear and nonlinear optical properties of TeO2 glass. Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 1993;76:2486-2490. DOI: 10.1111/j.1151-2916.1993.tb03970.x'},{id:"B39",body:'Guignard M, Nazabal V, Zhang X, Smektala F, Moréac A, et al. Crystalline phase responsible for the permanent second-harmonic generation in chalcogenide glass-ceramics. Optical Materials. 2007;30(2):338-345. DOI: ⟨10.1016/j.optmat.2006.07.021⟩. ⟨hal-00172320⟩'},{id:"B40",body:'Banfi GP, Degiorgio V, Ricard D. Nonlinear optical properties of semiconductor nanocrystals. Advances in Physics. 1998;47(3):447-510. DOI: 10.1080/000187398243537'},{id:"B41",body:'Prabhu RR, Khadar MA. Characterization of chemically synthesized CdS nanoparticles. Pramana-Journal of Physics. 2005;65:801-807. DOI: 10.1007/BF02704078'},{id:"B42",body:'Lippens PE, Lannoo M. Calculation of the band gap for small CdS and ZnS crystallites. Physical Review B: Condensed Matter. 1989;39(15):10935-10942. DOI: 10.1103/physrevb.39.10935'},{id:"B43",body:'Justus BL, Seaver ME, Ruller JA, Campillo AJ. Applied Physics Letters. 1990;57:1381-1383'},{id:"B44",body:'Kim K-H, Husakou A, Herrmann J. Linear and nonlinear optical characteristics of composites containing metal nanoparticles with different sizes and shapes. Optics Express. 2010;18:7488-7496'},{id:"B45",body:'Available from: https://www.lehigh.edu/imi/teched/OPG/lecture39.pdf'},{id:"B46",body:'Pinçon-Roetzinger N, Prot D, Palpant B, Charron E, Debrus S. Large optical Kerr effect in matrix-embedded metal nanoparticles. Materials Science and Engineering: C. 2002;19(1–2):51-54. DOI: 10.1016/S0928-4931(01)00431-3'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Helena Cristina Vasconcelos",address:"helena.cs.vasconcelos@uac.pt",affiliation:'
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Azores University, Portugal
Laboratory of Instrumentation, Biomedical Engineering and Radiation Physics (LIBPhys-UNL), Department of Physics, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Portugal
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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VSMCs are mostly of mesodermal origin, although some are of neuroectodermal origin, for example, VSMCs present in the aorta and in blood vessels arising from the aortic arch. VSMCs of neuroectodermal origin are implicated in defects of cardiovascular morphogenesis, such as bicuspid aortic valve, coarctation of the aorta, patent ductus arteriosus and tetralogy of Fallot. The origin, location in the vascular tree, gender, species, strain and age influence the phenotype of VSMCs and their propensity to migration and growth. In a healthy adult organism, VSMCs have a quiescent and differentiated contractile phenotype characterized by early markers (e.g., SM α-actin, SM22-α), intermediate markers (h-caldesmon, calponin) and late markers (SM myosins, smoothelin) of VSMC differentiation. However, after blood vessel injury, surgery or explantation in vitro, VSMCs undergo a phenotypic modulation to synthetic phenotype, which endows them with high activity in migration, growth and proteosynthesis. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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