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",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"9528d3b1ff011d68022c4fa750b4bc24",bookSignature:"Dr. Kieran Richard Hickey",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8491.jpg",keywords:"Tornadoes Causes, Characteristics, Features, Impacts, Temporal Variability, Spatial Variability, Regional Change, Climate Change, Climatological Context, Trends, Patterns, Projections",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kieran R. Hickey is currently Head of the Department of Geography and also Head of the School of the Human Environment at the University College Cork, in addition, he is a Fellow of the Royal Meteorology Society and the Royal Geographical Society.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"17924",title:"Dr.",name:"Kieran",middleName:"Richard",surname:"Hickey",slug:"kieran-hickey",fullName:"Kieran Hickey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17924/images/system/17924.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kieran R. Hickey is a Senior Lecturer in Physical Geography in the School of the Human Environment in University College Cork, Rep. of Ireland where he is currently Head of the Department of Geography and also Head of the School of the Human Environment. He earned his B.A. in Geography and Economics in 1986 and his M.A. in Geography in 1990 from University College Cork, Republic of Ireland and his D.Phil from Coventry University, England in 1997. His research is in storms and hurricanes, climate change, historical climatology and climate disasters. He is a Fellow of the Royal Meteorology Society and the Royal Geographical Society. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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These viruses are generally transmitted by arthropod vectors to their vertebrate host and circulate among wild animals serving as reservoir in sylvatic life cycle. Through spillover transmission from enzootic amplification cycles, humans can be infected as incidental and dead-end hosts. By contrast, some arboviruses undergo urban cycle involving humans as amplifying hosts and causing several epidemics in urban areas [1, 2, 3].
\nBy definition, arboviruses require an arthropod vector in the transmission cycle, in which they must replicate prior to transmission [1]. Most common arthropods include mosquitoes, flies, and ticks along with others hematophagous arthropods [2, 3].
Most of the arboviruses that cause human/animal diseases belong to four virus families,
A high proportion of arboviruses associated with human and animal disease circulate in tropical and subtropical regions, where arthropods tend to be abundant. However, many arboviruses also circulate among wildlife species in temperate regions of the world. Despite the global distribution of viruses such as West Nile virus (WNV), DENV and now CHIKV, most other arboviruses are generally endemic but limited to specific regions of the world. Nevertheless, even within this relatively localized distribution, dispersion to distant locations can occur via animal or vector migration [4]. Global warming, deforestation, and urbanization have led to rapid expansion of the habitats of the vectors and caused enormous increase in vector-borne diseases throughout the world. Increase in international travel, shipping, and industrialization can lead to transport of infected mosquito and eggs to different new ecological niches facilitating the contact with naïve individuals causing outbreaks of high magnitude due to lower herd immunity [2]. The greatest health risk of arboviral emergence comes from extensive tropical urbanization and the colonization of this expanding habitat by the highly anthropophilic mosquito,
More than 500 species of viruses are registered in the International Catalog of Arboviruses and this estimate is continuously increasing. While many current arboviruses do not appear to be human or animal pathogens, this large number of widely different and highly adaptable arboviruses provides an immense resource for the emergence of new pathogens in the future [4].
\nRecent global changes in climate and human behavior are important determinants of arbovirus emergence. The viral transmission can be limited by the ecology of the host or of the virus itself; arboviruses frequently persist at low maintenance levels until changes in single or multiple factors disrupt the transmission cycle, facilitating rapid and widespread amplification [1, 6]. Arboviruses can therefore emerge at epidemic levels due to changes in viral genetics, in the composition or dynamics of the host or vector population and/or in the environmental structure that often are of anthropogenic origin [1].
\nAs arboviruses are virtually all RNA viruses lacking proofreading functions, a high frequency of mutations associated with fast replication allows them to rapidly adapt to different environments. The high rate of genetic mutations could lead to changes in virulence, epidemiology or competence of vectors, which can occur via simple point mutations [3, 5]. Often, outbreaks of emerging arboviruses may be related to relatively small changes in viral genetics or to the introduction of new strains that have increased virulence and viremia levels in vertebrate, thereby expanding the host range and increasing amplification potential. Alternatively, genetic changes can improve vector competence and therefore transmission rates [1].
\nZoonoses exploiting complex rural or suburban ecosystems may have multiple vectors and infect a variety of vertebrate host species. Arboviral amplification can progress rapidly to epidemic levels when competent vector and vertebrate host populations meet repeatedly within a permissive environment for viral transmission and replication. Moreover, humans may be exposed to arboviruses when they invade rural environments or when bridge vectors bring viruses into peridomestic environments [1]. Deforestation associated with urbanization process has contributed to increase the contact between humans and vectors [7]. Furthermore, the expansion of urbanization has led to high concentrations of susceptible human hosts, often living in socioeconomic conditions favorable to the expansion of the vector population, facilitating viral transmission and outbreaks of epidemics [1]. Furthermore, the feeding preferences (anthropophilic and/or ornithophilic) of arthropod vectors are of fundamental importance [8, 9, 10]. Arthropods frequently exposed to the human environment, domestic animals, and livestock can undertake an adaptive process defined as domestication [8, 11]. Moreover, many of the epidemic vectors are peridomestic, naturally existing in close association with humans. The vectors of CHIKV, YFV, and Zika virus (ZIKV) all use human habitat to maintain their populations [12, 13]; thus, general living conditions along with ineffective vector control programs, can contribute to providing one component necessary for arboviral transmission [5, 7].
\nChanges in the composition of vertebrate or vector host species may be related to environmental changes that expand old or create new ecological niches. Extensions of the vector range into permissive environments are often followed by invasion of the arboviruses they transmit. These invasions are generally facilitated by travel and commerce [1], constantly introducing new species of viruses and their arthropod vectors into new geographic areas. Most of these introductions are not detected until they cause an epidemic, when they are already well established and it is not possible to eliminate them from the new area [7]. An additional factor that plays a role in the generation of arboviral outbreaks is the immunity status of vertebrate hosts in the affected areas. Outbreaks registered for the first time in a new area usually involve immunologically naïve populations, exhibiting extremely high rates of attack. Even in areas where epidemics have previously occurred, rare epidemic events interspersed with significant interepidemic periods may render the younger generation susceptible to infection [5].
\nFollowing their recent local and global emergence, some arboviruses have acquired great importance in terms of public and veterinary health. The combinations of factors that led to their emergence are of fundamental importance to understand the risk associated and how this can be mitigated. Moreover, many other arboviruses are largely ignored despite their potential to emerge globally [1].
\nDENV (
CHIKV is an
ZIKV (
YFV is the type of species in the
WNV belongs to the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) serocomplex in the genus
JEV is the most frequent cause of mosquito-borne encephalitis globally. The public health significance and the global distribution of JEV have been progressively expanding; currently, more than 3 billion people in Asia reside in areas at risk of JE, with an estimated 50,000 symptomatic cases and 10,000 deaths occurring annually [46]. Taxonomically, JEV is placed within the genus
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is classified within the genus
Mayaro virus (MAYV) is an emerging
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus (
Because they are not an essential part in the zoonotic arbovirus life cycle, arbovirus disease control based on humans and domestic animals cannot eradicate the arbovirus. Consequently, the reservoir in wild species places a limitation in the control disease emergence, and only understanding the interactions involved in the biology of the virus, hosts, and ecology will lead to effective control and prevention strategies [4, 5]. With effective vaccination and sustainable vector control programs, it is possible to control or even eliminate human transmission cycles. In fact, vaccination can increase herd immunity, making it easier to sustain reduced virus transmission with vector control. On the other hand, vector control can complement a vaccine by lowering the risk of infection, making vaccine delivery goals easier to achieve [75].
\nThe YF vaccine has been used extensively in West Africa and has been instrumental in eliminating the urban transmission cycle in South America. However, despite its efficacy and low-cost production, epidemics continue to occur due to inadequate vaccination coverage, as demonstrated by the recent YF outbreak in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo [76]. Adequate and continuous vaccination programs along with high levels of herd immunity are of paramount importance for the control of YF. In Africa, together with childhood immunization, mass preventive vaccination campaigns to protect elderly people need to be implemented [77]. Moreover, in South America, people of coastal areas are largely unvaccinated and therefore exposed to the risk of YFV coming from the near enzootic regions [75]. Finally, YF cases reported from travelers from Angola to China highlight the need to implement the WHO International Health Regulations in order to protect travelers and to avoid the introduction of YFV in naïve areas of Asia where the vector is widely present [76]. Japanese encephalitis was controlled in Japan, Taiwan, and Korea using inactivated vaccines, which also contributed to control infection in China [10, 78]. A live attenuated JEV vaccine was used to reduce the risk of infection in children in China, as well as being part of the large children immunization campaign in India [10]. At the end of 2015, the first dengue vaccine was licensed (CYD-TDV vaccine Dengvaxia). The results of a large phase III study in 10 endemic countries in Asia and South America showed a complex performance of the vaccine with efficacy dependent on serotype, as well as previous immunity and age of the subject [79, 80]. Two other live dengue virus vaccines are in phase III trials and many other dengue vaccines are in phase I and II trials [75]. Research on vaccines against CHIKV has been slow, as CHIKV causes major epidemics only every 10–30 years, limiting the interest of the pharmaceutical industry for a financial return [75]. However, two vaccines against CHIKV have recently completed phase I clinical trials, both are strongly immunogenic after 2–3 doses and are currently in phase II trials [81, 82]. Among more than 40 Zika vaccines developed, DNA, RNA, and inactivated virus [83, 84, 85] versions started clinical trials and the first live-attenuated vaccine has been demonstrated to be safe and efficacious after a single dose in mice [86]. However, there are some concerns about potential interactions with immunity generated by other flavivirus natural infections or vaccines leading to more severe manifestations of the disease, as well as the immune trigger in the development of Guillain-Barre syndrome [87]. Currently, there is no specific licensed anti-arbovirus agent, and patient management is therefore mainly supportive. Passive immunotherapy is a promising approach for the management of newborns exposed to CHIKV. The anti-CHIKV human immunoglobulins purified from convalescent donors exhibit strong anti-CHIKV effects in vitro and animal models [88], and are now evaluated in the prevention of mother-to-child CHIKV transmission in newborns born to viremic mothers [87]. Novel antiviral therapies are also being investigated. Drug repurposing strategies have identified potential inhibitors of
The continued outbreaks of YFV and JEV demonstrate that even with a widely available and effective vaccine, it is difficult to control a vector-borne disease using only vaccination [6]. Overall, the best current perspectives for controlling the majority of vector-borne diseases rely on reducing the contact between the vector and susceptible humans and the most effective approach for this goal remains the elimination or reduction of mosquito populations [87]. Nowadays, many of the insecticides used in the mid-twentieth century eradication campaign are considered environmentally unacceptable, as well as being economically prohibitive and at risk of developing resistance in mosquito populations [87, 91]. Several alternative approaches are focused on reducing the abundance of mosquitoes or preventing the transmission of pathogens by the mosquito. Environmental management includes modification of the natural breeding habitat of mosquitoes and the adoption of human behaviors that reduce the incidence of the bite, such as the elimination of domestic oviposition and larval sites, the indoor residual spraying and fumigation, the use of insecticide-treated bed nets and screening windows together with lethal traps, which have been found to be effective in reducing
The implementation of localized arthropod control measures during epidemics, for example, in high-density urbanized areas, can play an important but transient role in reducing the impact on humans and animals of emerging arboviruses if these are supported from surveillance systems, which differ at regional level and in many areas are completely absent [4]. Furthermore, it is essential to characterize and understand viral genetics, antigenic properties, virulence patterns, vector associations, and maintenance mechanisms to identify and control future arboviral outbreaks. The next public health needs include communication to the population and physicians of vector-borne diseases, the guarantee of vector control programs, and the maintenance of adequate surveillance systems with trained personnel, together with the availability of drugs, vaccines, and rapid diagnostic testing [5].
\nArboviruses already have a well-known history of emergence and will undoubtedly continue to emerge in the future. There are many unidentified arboviruses that, due to their high mutation rates, may emerge as pathogens even if they are not yet present as epidemic strains in the wild environment. Recent progress in sequencing offers new opportunities to identify them during surveillance activities, especially in the tropics, where viral diversity is higher [3]. The greatest risk for humans derives from the ability of some arboviruses to adopt urban transmission cycles involving highly efficient and anthropophilic vectors, such as
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Water is one of the important inorganic resources for all living things to maintain their vital events. Therefore, it plays a major role when it comes to consumption of nutrition in human body directly and indirectly. According to the World Health Organization, 100 liters of water per day is needed to optimally meet an individual’s basic needs [1]. However, 4 billion people in the world already live in water-scarce areas. By 2050 global demand for water will increase by 20–30% and water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change, could cost some regions up to 6% of gross domestic product [2]. Besides human use, water is also very important due to the fact that its deficiency significantly restricts plant production. Water in agriculture is central to feeding the planet, providing livelihoods, and building resilience to climate shocks and extremes.
Irrigation, which is the largest usage? of water, covers the functions related to the production of cultivated plants. One of the most important conditions for the regular development of plants is to have sufficient water in the root zone during the growing season. Irrigation is the delivery of the water, to the plant root zone where the required water amount cannot be met with any precipitation. The history of irrigation begins with the history of humanity. It is known that even before the birth of civilizations, primitive irrigation techniques were used for crop production. Many civilizations have developed in areas where water is available, and irrigation can be implemented. Today, just 20% of the world’s croplands are irrigated but they produce 40% of the global harvest which means that irrigation more than doubles land productivity [3].
Most of the cultivated crops needs irrigation during their growing period. Some of the field crops such as grain, wheat, rye etc. can survive under rainfed agriculture. But when it comes to vegetables, the requirement of irrigation turns into a requirement. Vegetables comprise very high percentages of water. Some of them, such as cucumber, tomato, lettuce, zucchini, and celery contain even over ninety-five percent of water [4]. Due to high levels of water content in the cells, they are critically vulnerable plants to water stress and drought conditions. Their yield and quality are affected rapidly when subjected to drought. Therefore, irrigation is essential to the production of most vegetables for having a good yield with high quality. However, over-irrigation can inhibit germination and root development, and decrease vegetable quality and post-harvest life of the crop. This can be concluded as vegetable crops may experience water stress in two different ways: firstly, when there is insufficient amount of water (drought stress), or secondly, when there is excess amount of water (waterlogging or soil water saturation). Under these circumstances the amount of irrigation water, when to irrigate and how to irrigate are the questions that have to be considered carefully. The selection of proper irrigation management is vital to maximize vegetable quality, yield, and water use efficiency while minimizing environmental impacts. Deciding suitable/efficient type of irrigation system for vegetables is quite challenging as there are so many variables such as water amount and quality, soil type, vegetable grown, and economic limitations. Once all the parameters are optimized, the highest yield could be obtained with most favorable water amount and energy.
Plants terminate new developments in the above ground parts by minimizing the use of water and carbohydrates in the stem and help the root develop more when they cannot get enough water from the soil, and if the situation lasts or the water in the soil is insufficient, plant activities stop completely. Nevertheless, there must be sufficient air in the soil for satisfactory root development. In the conditions where there is more water in the soil, the amount of air decreases as the spaces between the soil particles are filled with water. Therefore, it is very important to balance the amount of water and air in the root zone of the plant in order to provide the best plant growth. Thus, increasing plant production depends on knowing the relations between soil, plant, and water.
Knowing the physical and chemical properties of the soil is fundamental to successful irrigated agriculture. Values such as field capacity and wilting point of a soil are affected by parameters such as soil texture and structure, and organic matter content [5]. Soil moisture availability varies with the amount of water in the soil and the type of the soil. Knowing soil texture and other specific characteristics is essential for planning and using an irrigation system. Since sandy soils do not have much specific surface area, they cannot hold much water. Therefore, the field capacity value of a sandy soil can be as low as 10%. Clay particles stacked on top of each other in the form of plates have a large surface area, so the field capacity of clay soils can be over 40%. As a result, clay soil does not have to be irrigated as frequently as sandy soil. Thus, for scheduling purposes it is essential to know the texture of the soil [6]. In a soil at field capacity, a mineral soil with a high organic matter content has more water holding capacity than a mineral soil with a lower organic matter content [7].
Irrigated agriculture depends on a sufficient supply of high-quality water [8]. Agricultural water quality is also determined based on the effect of water on plant quality, yield and soil properties [9]. Properties that determine water quality for transplant irrigation are: alkalinity, electrical conductivity (EC), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), and elemental toxicities. The direct effects of irrigation water on plant growth arise either due to the creation of high osmotic conditions from plant sap or the presence of phytotoxic compounds in the water [10].
Under the effect of high osmotic pressure, the water usage of plants decrease, which is lethal for the plants. Therefore, the total salinity content of irrigation water is extremely important [11]. Plants suffer more damage from salts in the early stages of their development compared to their ripening periods. This situation leads to either a decrease in yield or no yield at all. Negative effects of dissolved salts in water could be cessation of vegetative growth in the plant. It also appears in the form of reduced plant and seed development. In a study with broccoli plant [12], both irrigation water salinities and irrigation water amounts were effective on plant yield, while only salt levels were effective on dry matter values. There has been a significant decrease in the yield from 6 dS/m, and the increase in the amount of irrigation water has decreased the yield [12]. Not all vegetables respond to salinity in a similar way; some vegetables can give acceptable yields compared to other plants at much higher soil salinity.
pH has chemical and biological importance in water as an increase or a decrease in pH affects the toxicity of some compounds [13]. The quality of irrigation water in the root medium has a direct impact on the pH of the growing media and the nutrient availability. When the proportional amount of Na ion is high, the physical properties of the soil change negatively. Excess Na in irrigation water causes soil dispersion and structural dispersal. For this reason, the Na + content of water should be calculated using % Na SAR values.
The effects of irrigation water quality on soil and plants vary depending on the physical and chemical properties of the soil, the salt resistance of the plant grown, the climate of the region, the irrigation method applied, the irrigation interval and the amount of irrigation water [14].
Due to the depletion and insufficiency of existing water resources, there is a need to seek alternative water resources. In many countries, treated wastewater is considered as an alternative irrigation water. However, heavy metals, salts and harmful chemicals can be lethal especially in raw vegetables when not managed carefully in irrigation. To determine whether the treated wastewater is suitable for irrigation, the total concentration and electrical conductivity of the dissolved substances in the water, the sodium ion concentration, the ratio of sodium ion concentration to other cations, the concentration of boron, heavy metals, other potentially toxic substances, the total concentration of Ca++ and Mg++ ions under some conditions, total solids, organic matter load, and amount of floating matter such as oil-grease and pathogenic organisms should be examined. On the other hand, wastewater irrigation for vegetables has serious concerns since most of the vegetables are consumed raw. Moreover, in most countries using wastewater as an irrigation water for the raw eatable crops is forbidden by law.
In irrigation applications, it is necessary to know the amount of moisture held in the soil at certain tensions. These reference soil moisture amounts are called soil moisture constants. Major soil moisture constants in terms of irrigation are saturation point, field capacity, and wilting point. During and immediately after irrigation, all the pore space in the soil is filled with water and the soil becomes saturated. As a result of water molecules filled the pores in the soil, there is a little air in the soil, and for most crops if the soil stays saturated the crop will be damaged due to this lack of air for the roots to breathe. If there are no drainage problems, the water in the soil will drain away under gravity following irrigation, leaving space for air in the soil’s pore space [6]. In many types soil, after a rain or irrigation, the water immediately starts draining deeper into the soil. After 1 or 2 days, the water content in the soil will reach, Zaten after 1-2 day diyerek zaman vermissin. To larger areas underneath the surface, a nearly constant value for a particular depth in question. This somewhat arbitrary value of water content, expressed as a percentage, is called the field capacity [15]. Wilting point also called as the permanent wilting point, can be defined as the amount of water per unit weight or per unit bulk volume in the soil, expressed in percentage, that is held so tightly by the soil matrix that roots cannot absorb this water and a plant will wilt. Therefore, in practice, plants only benefit from moisture between field capacity and wilting point. The interval between the field capacity and the wilting point is called the usable/available water holding capacity. As it is known, the most important factor limiting plant growth in arid and semi-arid climates is the lack of available water in the root zone [16]. For this reason, irrigated agriculture is an inevitable necessity in arid and semi-arid areas.
The objective of irrigation is to allow the soil moisture to reduce to a safe limit and then to irrigate the soil to bring it back to field capacity. The interval between irrigation will thus depend on the available moisture in the soil and the rate at which the soil water is abstracted by the crop [6].
Accurately measuring soil moisture and evaluating the moisture change in the soil in the vegetable root zone are very crucial in irrigation applications. The monitoring of soil moisture is a standard way to determine when vegetable crops need to be irrigated. An effective irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions is achieved by monitoring the soil moisture and determining the soil moisture content correctly [17].
There are several methods due to the development of science and technology through the years. Gravimetric method, tensiometers, granular matrix sensors or the gypsum blocks, time domain reflectometry (TDR), frequency domain reflectometry (FDR), drill & drop soil moisture probe and neutron probe are commonly used techniques or practices.
Gravimetric method is a basic method in soil moisture measurement. It can be also used to compare different methods with one another as a standard calibration method [18]. In this approach, the moisture content of the soil is determined by drying soil samples in an oven at 105°C to a constant weight and finding the amount of water lost. The moisture content is calculated by ratio as weight of water to the weight of dry soil. Generally, samples of 50 to 100 g of soil are enough in most field tests due to the large samples requiring longer drying times [18].
In other methods, different devices ranging from inexpensive simple moisture meters to much more expensive probe systems are used to measure soil moisture. These devices provide real-time monitoring of soil moisture. In the first group, water potential in soil are measured with tensiometers and the granular matrix sensors such as gypsum block and the watermark sensors. In the second group, soil moisture content considering the time or frequency of electronic pulse traveling between or returning to electrodes and capacitance sensors are measured with water content sensors. Resistance-type moisture sensors work by measuring the resistance between electrodes inserted into the soil [17].
Tensiometer is a device that measures moisture tension inside soil. It is widely used in the practice because it is inexpensive, needs no power supply, and provides direct and continuous readings [19]. They are inserted into the soil to different depths considering the effective root zone of the plants [20]. It has water-filled generally transparent looking tube with a porous ceramic at the bottom and a vacuum gauge at the top. The readings as a suction i.e. negative pressure or a potential are in kpa (kilopascals) or centibars. Tensiometer readings are not affected by the soil temperature or the osmotic potential of the water solution in the soil and work at low water retention tensions (0–85 kPa) which represent a small part of the entire range of available moisture [21].
Granular matrix sensors or the gypsum blocks with electrodes embedded in block of porous material are used to measure a resistance that reflects. The electrodes are connected to cables that extend to the soil surface for neyi read ediyor. Resistance? by a portable resistance meter providing small voltage. If water is present in the soil, the gypsum block gets wet, thus the resistance between electrodes decreases, while on the contrary the resistance increases as soil dries. Increased resistance shows an elevated tension in the soil. Therefore, resistance readings from devices are converted to actual water contents using a calibration curve later as the granular matrix sensors indirectly measure soil water tension using electrical resistance [22]. Being an inexpensive device can be seen as an advantage but it is stated that mistakes in measurements of moisture of wet soils occur frequently [19, 23].
Capacitance sensors, TDR and FDR are the techniques that consider dielectric property of the soil to measure moisture content [24]. These electromagnetic soil moisture sensors have improved throughout the last few decades considering size, cost and precision [22]. A capacitance sensor consists of two electrodes, which provide to be immersed in the soil and measure the dielectric constant that increases. Although they are inexpensive and user friendly, the common restriction for most of the capacitance sensors is that they provide measurements considering a very small soil volume, thus they do not reflect the situation in the soil away from the sensor. Therefore, they are more suitable for small volume container-grown vegetables in greenhouses. In addition, accuracy of capacitance sensors can be affected by many soil properties such as clay and organic matter contents, salinity level, bulk density, and temperature [22].
Soil moisture content is better estimated by determining the dielectric constant based on time domain reflection principle, frequency reflection principle and standing wave principle with the advanced devices. In this context, several types of soil moisture sensors have been developed as TDR and FDR [17, 25]. TDR device works according to the principle of determining the electrical conductivity (dielectric constant) value of a material based on the propagation speed of electromagnetic waves. Although it provides rapid and repeatable measurements with no health risks, unlike neutron probe technique, it is a complex and an expensive measurement equipment. It has also some disadvantages such as reflection loss in saline soils or wet soil increases conductivity [21]. Soil moisture sensors may also require calibration, and thus calibration equations to convert readings to volumetric water content are considered [22].
In the FDR with capacitance probes, by given voltage from two electrodes, soil moisture is determined under the assumption that dielectric constant of water is much higher than soil. Capacitance is measured from variation in frequency of a reflected radio wave or resonance. When the electrodes are given voltage, which induces the frequency oscillations with an oscillator to propagate an electromagnetic signal, at a certain point resonance occurs and soil moisture content is determined through this point. The accuracy and repeatability of the FDR are high, and the FDR probes give faster response time compared to TDR probes. Moreover, FDR is relatively inexpensive and has no health risks as well. However, calibration for the results needs to be done for each soil used. To obtain correct measurements, probes need to have good contact with the soil without air gaps and the moisture measurements in saline soils are generally not reliable [19, 21].
Soil moisture profile probes or drill & drop probes provide continuous soil moisture measurements from different depths over the entire length of the probe. Salinity and temperature sensors can also be found in the probe in addition to the moisture sensors. In this practice, the time taken for an electromagnetic wave to travel along a given length of a transmission line in the soil is measured. Soil dielectric properties are changed with moisture content in the soil. This leads to different electromagnetic wave travels rates in wet and dry soils. Thus, the soil moisture content can be estimated with this approach. This device might be a good option for fast, easy but short-term measurement for monitoring of the vegetable cultivated soils.
In neutron probe method which detects soil moisture using radioactive element, fast neutrons are continuously emitted from the neutron source to the soil environment during measurement. The probe device has a source and a detector. When fast neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms, they lose energy and decelerate. With increasing soil moisture content, the density of slow neutron clouds increases. The neutron meter determines the moisture content in the soil by determining the functional relationship between the density of the slow neutron cloud and the water molecules. Although it allows fast, reliable and repeated measurements at any soil depths, the neutron instrument is expensive, and has radiation hazard risk to health, thus it cannot be widely used [17]. Neutron probes and drill & drop probes can be effectively used in soils cultivated with deep root vegetables. A major restriction of these devices might be their expense for small farms.
Vegetable crops require more and frequent irrigation than other plants as they contain 60–90% water, and thus irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions plays a vital role in vegetable growth. The availability of sufficient water in soil is essential for good crop formation, growth, yield and quality in vegetable production. The application of frequent but low volumes of water for vegetable crop production has been proven to result in more-yield compared to few application [26].
Crops can experience water stress in two different ways, which are the water shortage (drought) and excess water (flooding, saturation) [27]. The excess water causes waterlogging in soils, and the symptoms are similar to the water deficit impeding the oxygen supply and respiration of roots and water uptake. Drought stress occurs when atmospheric conditions cause permanent water loss through evaporation or transpiration. Under stress conditions the stomatal closure occurs with a reduction of net photosynthesis, and these responses depend on the severity and duration of stress and crop growth stage [28]. As a practical approach in controlling water stress level, the leaf photosynthetic activity can be monitored since measuring stomatal conductance or resistance of plant leaves indicate the severity of water stress. In drought stress; plant development is regressed, woody structure occurs, bloom early and growth of the leaf area, stem height and chlorophyll content reduce [29]. In addition, water plays a considerable role in the nutrition consumption of plants by dissolving nutrients in the soil. The encounter of a dry soil layer during the growing period of the vegetables will prevent the enlargement and development of the roots. However, there are many ways to manage drought stress such as mulching, use of plant growth regulators, anti-transpirants, use of water absorbent polymers (e.g. hydrogel), grafting technique, use of resistant varieties, irrigation method selection (e.g. drip irrigation), water harvesting and protected cultivation [27].
Growing areas of tomatoes have increased intensively, green peas moderately, beans and sweet corn slowly between 1997 to 2017 [28]. Corn, soybeans, beans and peas are the crops that are moderately water stress sensitive while tomatoes are within the extremely drought sensitive group. Although most crops are less sensitive to water shortage during the early stages of vegetative growth, changes of many physiological traits causing the disturbance of fertility and reduction of yield appear during the generative stage [28]. Therefore, irrigation scheduling and irrigation water requirements are determined by the water stress tolerance and water use potential of the plant varieties. Water use potential of vegetable crops depends on crop type, field soil properties, irrigation system type, climatic conditions, and crop growth stage.
Irrigation is likely to increase the size and weight of an individual fruit and to prevent defects. On the other hand, too much moisture reduces soluble solids in muskmelons (cantaloupes) and capsaicin (what makes the peppers hot) in hot peppers when it occurs during fruit development. In order to determine the amount of water needed for irrigation of plants, it is necessary to know the amount of water they consume, the percentage of this amount met by precipitation (effective precipitation) and the irrigation efficiency, which includes losses in transmission and application of the irrigation. Effective precipitation is ignored for the vegetables grown under greenhouse conditions [4]. Total irrigation water requirement for a crop in the field conditions can be calculated using below equation:
Part of water delivered from resource is not fully stored in the crop root zone as it is lost through evaporation, runoff and deep percolation within the irrigated area. Therefore, an application efficiency value used for calculating total irrigation water required is the fraction of the available water stored in effective root depth to water conveyed to the field. Irrigation water requirement can be reduced by drip irrigation method as drip irrigation method applies water directly to crop root area (only some parts of the soil root zone watered) which saves a considerable amount of irrigation water [30]. In this case, the total irrigation requirement value should be corrected with a wetting percentage or plant cover percentage value which is lower than 1.
Irrigation scheduling simply means application of water to crops at the required time and in the required quantity. Irrigation scheduling is one of the most effective way to increase water productivity in fertile crop production. Marketable yields for most shallow rooted vegetables can be easily damaged by short-term moisture stress of two to three days. Deficit irrigation generally results yield loss and inadequate quality in vegetables, while excess irrigation increases susceptibility to diseases, irrigation energy cost and environmental pollution risk from the nutrient leaching [31].
Different techniques of irrigation scheduling in irrigation of vegetable crops are used. They can be classified as monitoring of soil water status, water balance approach from crop water demand and observing of plant traits. Continuously monitoring soil moisture throughout crop growing period is very crucial and also requires accurate measurement with precision-based devices [32]. Soil moisture sensors can be used to regulate the interval of irrigation and, possibly, the water quantity by continuously monitoring water content or tension of the soil [31]. Technological advances in automatic soil water sensor-based irrigation systems are aimed to save an optimum soil water range in the root zone for high-quality plant growth. These algorithms are? used in automated irrigation management and scheduling agricultural activities. Furthermore, these algorithms are developed to observe water content and ensure irrigation with automated activation when necessary [33]. Smart irrigation automation systems can be less used in open field agriculture, while they are used increasingly in greenhouse production with soil or without soil to save considerable amounts of water and nutrients that are heavily applied.
Irrigation scheduling in crop water demand method consists of supplying the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) (daily, five or ten days’ averages) for each crop growing stage. Thus, this method is known as crop evapotranspiration method. The ETc value of a fully-irrigated vegetable crop can be calculated either empirically by multiplying daily reference of evapotranspiration (ETo) by crop coefficient (Kc) or experimentally (2). However empirical way is commonly preferred to save time, cost and labor.
ETo is calculated by well-known Penman-Monteith (FAO) equation using daily or daily average (of five or ten days) air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and solar radiation data [22, 34]. Kc values are selected from the tables prepared for different growth stages of vegetable crops [34]. Irrigation scheduling programs such as CROPWAT can be used as the model-based scheduling. This program uses Penman-Monteith (FAO) method with collected soil, crop and climatic data in the region [22, 35]. The precision of ET-based scheduling method depends strongly on the accuracy of the ETo estimation value, a correct Kc value determined with site-specific calibration approach, correct determination of the soil’s available water holding capacity, and measuring site-specific precipitation [35, 36].
Irrigation interval can. be calculated by the ratio of readily available water (RAW) to the crop daily net irrigation water requirement (Inet) which are calculated as:
RAW is calculated by, below equation [35].
where RAW is the readily available water content (mm), θfc is the volumetric water content at field capacity (m3 m−3), θwp is the volumetric water content at the permanent wilting point (m3 m−3), D is the effective rooting zone depth or the soil layer depth considered (mm) and MAD is the fraction of the total available water that is allowed to be depleted. MAD value should be kept low in vegetable irrigations to protect plants from water stress. RAW value is also equal to the net irrigation quantity applied to the soil.
Plant-based scheduling techniques have been improved from the relationship between crop water stress and soil moisture deficit to define an optimal moisture content level for crop growth. Measuring crop water stress for irrigation scheduling has been also recommended considering the variations in plant species, tissues, and phenological stages [35, 37]. The approaches have been categorized as the measurements of tissue water potential and the measurements with plant physiology-based (sap flow, stomatal conductance, thermal sensing with infrared thermometers).
Stomatal conductance is a good indicator in determination of irrigation need in many plants sensitive to water insufficiency, thus improvement of this technique among plant-based irrigation scheduling approaches has drawn increaasing attention [37]. In recent years, the use of irrigation scheduling based on the crop water stress index (CWSI), which is calculated based on the canopy temperature measured with an infrared thermometer, has gained importance. Many researchers have reported that the CWSI value can be used for preparation of irrigation scheduling [38]. This approach argues that significant increases in canopy temperature exceeding air temperature has been a good indicative for stomatal closure and water deficit stress [37].
Furthermore, a systematic method can be applied as a practical scheduling approach. In this method, water applications are managed on a time or volume basis applying every day for the same duration or in the same quantity. Moreover, it is quite practical to base irrigation scheduling on evaporation from a Class A pan as a result of the combined effect of climatic factors. This approach requires a correction coefficient (kp) (mostly changed between 0.6–0.8) to convert potential evaporation value measured in pan to the ETo value. The Kp coefficient is also expressed as Kcp when it includes the crop coefficient. Water use from fully developed vegetation can be about 75–80% of the amount of water evaporated from the pan, in other words, Kcp = 0.75–0.80. When plants do not completely cover the soil surface, actual water consumption will be less than 75% of pan evaporation. Water use for vegetable crops can be considered as 10–15% of pan evaporation during the first 1/3 of the season, 40–50% of the pan evaporation during the mid-season, and 60–80% of the pan evaporation during the last 1/3 of the growing season [39].
In irrigated agriculture, when operating an area for irrigation, firstly the most suitable irrigation method under the conditions should be selected, then the system required by this method must be planned, installed and operated. In general, the irrigation method to be selected must meet some conditions such as to provide uniform water distribution, to minimize deep percolation and run-off losses, not cause soil erosion, not prevent agricultural mechanization, help leaching the salt from soil.
Due to the shallow rooting depth of most vegetables and their high response to lack of water, irrigation is frequently required in small amounts. This situation is more important in greenhouses with intensive production. Vegetable growers consider drip irrigation method as an effective way to save water and that plant needs, as well as to reduce weeds, fungi and diseases. Drip irrigation minimizes water loss from run-off and deep percolation, decreases evaporation losses. It has been determined that water savings of 50–80% are achieved when compared to conventional surface irrigation methods [27]. Drip irrigation method also provides more efficient water and fertilizer usage than the sprinkler method. It also reduces disease problems because leaves are not wetted. Drip irrigation lowers energy need because of the low pump pressures required and provides more applicable opportunity of automation. However, compared to sprinkler nozzle sizes, drip system emitters have very small openings, emitters gets clogged. Therefore, it requires water quality control and some preventive solutions such as filtration and dilute acid applications. Many researchers have declared considerable benefits of drip irrigation method over other conventional irrigation methods to improve yield and water productivity (WP) of fruits and vegetables [40]. The water application efficiency is about 80–90% in drip irrigation systems [39]. Maximizing the water productivity with decreased water loss and increased yield in drip irrigation is a practical way to manage finite water supplies. Plants use large amount of the water applied from increased water efficiency. This also minimizes leaching of agro-chemicals out of the field or vegetable growing containers into the environment. In the last few decades, water productivity of vegetable crop values has been improved with the use of efficient micro irrigation techniques such as micro sprinkler and drip irrigation [41]. Jha et al. [40] determined that drip irrigation method resulted higher water productivity with more than five-folds increase in potato and cauliflower compared to the furrow method. It was also observed that drip irrigation method conserves approximately 70–80% water compared to conventional flood irrigation method.
In drip irrigation systems, to avoid possible plant stress, irrigations are usually scheduled to start when allowable percentage of usable water in the soil has been consumed. This level ranges from 30% in drought-sensitive plants to 70% in drought-resistant plants. In drip irrigation, this value is usually taken as 30% (MAD value) [39].
Irrigation volume in drip irrigation system considering soil available water depletion approach can be calculated with equation below.
where P is the wetting factor, A is the irrigated area (m2), and other terms are as mentioned before. Wetting ratio are considered minimum %30 in semi-arid regions, and it is 35% and 25% in arid and humid regions, respectively [42]. Wetting factor is less than 1 because especially during irrigation of plants with wide row spacing, a dry area remains between the laterals that is not wetted. In some cases, the plant covering ratio is also considered instead of this value in order to apply water according to the plant growth rate.
Irrigation volume can be also determined using the Class A pan evaporation with following equation [43].
where Ep is the cumulative pan evaporation measured using a standard Class A pan at considered duration (mm), Kcp is the coefficient of crop-pan evaporation, P is the wetting factor and A is the irrigated area (m2).
Due to (Ep x Kcp) is equal to the ETc (ETc = Ep × Kcp), bunun yerine (7) de can be also used to calculate irrigation volume from the ETc values determined using other approaches empirical (e.g. Penman-Monteith) or experimental.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7004",title:"Metabolomics",subtitle:"New Insights into Biology and Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7004.jpg",slug:"metabolomics-new-insights-into-biology-and-medicine",publishedDate:"July 1st 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Wael N. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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