\r\n\t- BMD measurement technology \r\n\t- Osteoporosis and fracture risk \r\n\t- Bone growth and remodeling
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe submission is also open to any other original study related to these research topics.
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1. Introduction
Thrombosis is the leading cause of death in the world. Indeed, atherothrombosis including coronary artery diseases and cerebrovascular diseases is the top cause of death in various regions of the world [1]. Venous thrombosis including deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism is the third cause of death in hospitalized patients [2]. Thrombosis is a disease caused by thrombi formed at various vessels. The major symptom differs substantially depending upon the site where the thrombi developed. Typically, arterial thrombosis such as myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke is symptomatic even when the thrombi are small (e.g., less than 1 mm in diameter) [3]. On the other hand, venous thrombosis is asymptomatic until thrombi become substantially large such as the ones that occlude several pulmonary arteries to cause pulmonary embolism [4]. In both arterial and venous thromboses, platelets are cells that contribute to initial thrombus formation. Coagulation and fibrinolysis are systems necessary to regulate the size of fibrin thrombi.
It is noteworthy that there is homogeneity in risk factors for various arterial/venous thromboses despite wide variation of clinical manifestation [5]. Framingham study demonstrated that cigarette smoking, diabetes mellitus (DM), dyslipidemia, and hypertension are strong predictors for the future onset of arterial thrombosis represented by acute myocardial infarction [6]. Recent international registries also confirm that these risk factors are contributing factors for the recurrence of cardiovascular events [7]. Moreover, international registries also suggested these parameters as risk factors of venous thrombosis [8]. These clinical observations suggested the presence of common pathways for the onset of arterial and venous thrombosis [9].
The Framingham registry suggested the contributory role of obesity and less exercise as the predictors for future prevalence of risk factors. These abnormalities represented as visceral obesity-related syndrome is named as “metabolic syndrome.” In metabolic syndrome patients, insulin resistance is one of the major contributors [10]. Increased body weight, high blood pressure, and dyslipidemia are common manifestations of metabolic syndrome. Long-term exposure to a high-calorie diet and lack of good exercise are supposed as underlining mechanisms for the onset of metabolic syndromes. The risk of thrombotic disease including arterial and venous thrombosis is speculated to be high in patients with metabolic syndrome.
2. Platelet adhesion at the site of endothelial injuries
Blood is flowing to maintain homeostasis inside the human body. Blood cells have specific functions: erythrocytes bring oxygen to tissues, leukocytes protect from infection, and platelets stop bleeding promptly. As shown in Figure 1, large and heavy erythrocytes tend to be located in the center of blood flow. Small cells of platelets circulate interacting with endothelial cells [11]. In the case where endothelial cells have a physiological function, platelets do not interact with them [12]. Platelets collide with the vessel wall and promptly go back to the blood flow without platelet activation. On the other hand, when endothelial cell function was disturbed by physical or chemical stimuli, endothelial cells lose their ability to keep antithrombotic function. Then, platelets immediately start the interaction with endothelial cells [12]. At the time, von Willebrand factor (VWF) is expressed on the cell surface of stimulated endothelial cells. Platelets capture VWF through glycoprotein (GP)Ibα. GPIbα is expressed on the surface of platelet regardless if they are activated or not [13]. Thus, initial adhesion of platelets at the site of endothelial cell damage occurs predominantly as a physical phenomenon, which occurs immediately without time-consuming biological process. Historically, the vast majority of vessel damage is caused by trauma. Rapid accumulation of platelets at the site of endothelial injury plays an important role to keep our blood in our vessel system for surviving.
Figure 1.
Role of erythrocytes and blood flow in platelet adhesion at the site of endothelial injury. This figure demonstrates the three-dimensional distribution of erythrocytes, platelets, and endothelial cells. Erythrocytes accumulate in the center of blood flow by biorheological effects. Accordingly, platelets circulate close to endothelial cells. In the presence of normally functioning endothelial cells, platelets do not adhere nor are activated, but just return to blood flow (panel A). If the endothelial cell function was disturbed by various stimulations, platelets are adhered and activated through their interaction with von Willebrand factor (VWF).
The potential impact of erythrocytes for the onset and growth of thrombosis has first caught the interest of researchers in the 1960s [14]. Biorheological axial accumulation of flowing platelets was also recognized at the same time [15]. Clinical studies also support the notion that higher hematocrit values are related to higher risk of thrombotic diseases such as myocardial infarction [16]. These results strongly suggest the biophysical role of erythrocytes for thrombus formation. These rheological effects could hardly be controlled by food intake. In another aspect, erythrocytes also influence the function of platelet with biochemical modulation [17, 18, 19]. Indeed, erythrocytes are a huge source of ADP [20], which is one of the most potent platelet-stimulating agents [21, 22]. There is potential effects of food intake for influencing erythrocytes components which can influence thrombogenicity of platelet [23, 24].
Recent advances in computer technology allowed us to predict the structure and function of VWF bound with GPIbα from the physical movement of atoms and water molecules [25, 26]. By the method, physical force generated by VWF binding with GPIbα could be predicted. Platelet adhesion at injured vessel wall is summarized in Figure 2. Platelets are cells with a diameter of approximately 5 μm. But, when platelet adhered at the site of vessel damage, only part of platelet bound with VWF. Molecular dynamic prediction revealed that single bond of VWF and GPIbα could generate binding force approximately 70 pN [25]. Fluid dynamic force applied to platelets reaches to a couple hundred pN when the cell receives detaching force from arterial blood flow. Theoretically, several bonds between VWF and GPIbα are enough to stop platelets from adhering to the vessel wall. The mechanism of thrombus formation is a complicated process, but platelet adhesion under blood flow condition could now be constructed from physical movement of atoms and water molecules.
Figure 2.
Platelet adhesion at the site of endothelial damage under blood flow conditions. Platelet adhesion is mediated exclusively by its glycoprotein (GP)Ibα binding with von Willebrand factor (VWF). Adhered platelets receive fluid dynamic force, but platelets continue to adhere until the detaching force becomes larger than the binding force generated between VWF and GPIbα.
It is of particular importance that endothelial damage is not caused only by acute physical or chemical stimulation. In the recent era, human beings enjoy longer life than those who lived hundreds of years ago. Just like carrying human being, vessel system become old when people become old. Longer time exposure of vessel wall to atherogenic lipids such as LDL cholesterol and its related local biological reaction causes atherosclerosis [27, 28]. Antithrombotic potential of endothelial cell in patients with atherosclerosis is reduced when compared to younger normal ones. Moreover, plaque rupture exposes subendothelial thrombotic materials to vessel lumen. Thus, atherothrombotic events occur frequently [29] in the era of aging society. The initial event resulting in symptomatic atherothrombosis is always platelet adhesion at the site of endothelial injury.
By understanding the mechanism of atherosclerosis and atherothrombosis, it is rather easy to understand that various types of food intake influence the risk of thrombosis. As regards nutritional factor, there is a hot discussion concerning cholesterol. Some suggested potential benefit of cholesterol restriction for prevention of atherothrombosis. The other suggest there are no relationship between daily cholesterol intake and the risk of atherothrombotic event risk.
3. Activation of coagulation cascade and fibrinolysis
Symptomatic atherothrombotic events such as acute myocardial infarction occur when organ perfusing arterial branch was occluded by thrombi. The diameter of organ perfusing vessels is substantially larger than a single cell of platelet. Indeed, the diameter of platelets is just 2–5 μm, while the diameter of myocardial perfusing coronary arterial branches is 2–3 mm. The size of vessel diameter is typically 1000 more than the size of platelet diameter. It is nonrealistic to imagine that coronary arterial branches were occluded by platelet thrombi. Indeed, when coronary arterial thrombi causing myocardial infarction are aspirated by thrombo-aspiration therapy, the main component of occlusive thrombi was fibrin (Figure 3). It is noteworthy that fibrin fibrils are detected around activated platelets (Figure 3 is the product in collaboration with Prof. Yujiro Asada at Miyazaki University).
Figure 3.
Major components of thrombi causing acute myocardial infarction. Sample thrombi were aspirated from patients with acute myocardial infarction. The main results and study protocols were published elsewhere [53]. Here, electron microscopy results are shown. Fibrin fibrils could be seen around activated platelets (arrow).
The lipid components of activated platelet changed from the ones at the quiescent state. Negatively charged phospholipids appeared on the surface of activated platelets [22]. Then, various coagulation factors accumulated around the lipid to form prothrombin complex. On the activated platelet, thrombin generation occurs extremely efficiently. Indeed, thrombin generation rate in the absence of activated platelet and tissue factor is almost 0 as compared to that in its presence. At the site of atheroma rupture, large enough fibrin thrombi were formed as a result of the accumulation of activated platelet and exposure of tissue factor from the ruptured atheroma. Tissue factor accumulated in the atheroma is generated from inflammatory cells, which migrated into the atheroma. In the animal study, dietary lipid restriction reduces the amount of tissue factor accumulated in the atheroma [30]. The clinical factor of the reduction of the onset of myocardial infarction by the use of lipid-lowering therapy [31] may be related to reduction of lipid accumulation and subsequent reduction in tissue factor accumulated in the atheroma. Moreover, there are several publications indicating the impact of food intake for the lipid component of blood cells [23, 24]. The rate of fibrin formation at the site of endothelial damage and platelet accumulation should be modified by food from both activated platelet-derived procoagulant activity and the amount of tissue factors accumulated in the atheroma.
The process of thrombus formation at the site of endothelial injury is complex. We have attempted to develop the process model of thrombus formation as shown in Figure 4 [32]. The model is still simple but includes various physically and chemically different events. First, the model implemented the effect of blood flow, which is a purely physical phenomenon. Second, the model includes platelet adhesion and activation. Platelet adhesion is implemented to be medicated by its GPIbα binding with von Willebrand factor (VWF) (① in Figure 4). GPIbα binding with VWF is a chemical phenomenon, but the binding force is a physical one. We have implemented both in the same model. Platelets were implemented to be activated to change their biological roles (② in Figure 4). This process is a biological process. The detailed process model of platelet activation was published elsewhere [33]. Briefly, platelets were settled to be captured by VWF under blood flow condition. Collagen exposed at the site of endothelial injury also interacts with platelet and contributed to platelet activation through its receptor, namely, GPVI [34]. Then, activated platelet was settled to have stronger capacity to bind with injured vessel wall, cohesion each other, and possess the capacity to express coagulogenic phospholipids. Then, prothrombin conversion to thrombin was settled to occur only on the surface of activated platelets (③ in Figure 4). Thrombin function is neutralized promptly by its interaction with antithrombin III. Thrombin implemented to have function to convert fibrinogen to fibrin (④ in Figure 4) and further activated platelet through thrombin receptor stimulations [35].
Figure 4.
Coupling model of blood flow, platelet, coagulation, and fibrinolysis. Thrombus formation at the site of endothelial injury is modeled. Nonactivated platelets (NP) adhered at the site of endothelial injury through von Willebrand factor (VWF) and collagen are exposed there. NP become activated platelets (AP) by their interaction with VWF/collagen (①). AP has a potential to convert prothrombin to thrombin on their membrane surface (②). After production of thrombin from prothrombin (③), thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to fibrin thrombi. (④) thrombin also has a function to further activate platelets through thrombin receptor stimulation. (⑤) Fibrinolytic system is also incorporated in this model. Functional endothelial cells constitutively release both tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA: ⑥) and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 (⑦). T-PA converts plasminogen to plasmin, which has fibrinolytic activity (⑧) unless inactivated by binding with PAI-1. Plasmin is a strong enzyme able to degrade fibrin. Its function is immediately neutralized by its binding with a2-plasmin inhibitor to form plasmin a2-plasmin inhibitor complex (PIC: ⑨).
There are several coagulation factors, the function of which is regulated strongly by food intake. Gla-domain of coagulation factors plays crucial roles in the accumulation of coagulation factors around exposed negatively charged phospholipids on activated platelets [36]. Gla-domain also plays crucial roles for enzymatic function of coagulation factors. Carboxylation of Gla-domain is mediated by vitamin K. Thus, coagulation cascade does not work well in the absence of vitamin K or in patients taking vitamin K inhibitor. It is noteworthy that there are many foods including fermented food that are known to contain abundant vitamin K. Strict food restriction is necessary to keep the anticoagulant effects of vitamin K inhibitors. Recently, a larger load of vitamin K on health is cautioned [37].
The amount of fibrin formed at the site of endothelial injury was reduced by the effect of intrinsic fibrinolysis. Fibrinolysis is a complex pathway, but the details of which is simplified to be incorporated as shown in Figure 4. Vascular endothelial cells have balanced roles for fibrinolysis by releasing both fibrinolytic tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA: ⑥) and the one has antifibrinolytic effects of plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 (⑦). Both of them are constitutively released from endothelial cells. But the rates of their releases were individually controlled in individual endothelial cells. When the rate of t-PA release increases, the amount of fibrin formed around the endothelial cells becomes smaller. It becomes larger in the case when the rate of PAI-1 release increases. Free t-PA has a potential to convert plasminogen to plasmin. (⑧) Plasmin is a strong protease, which can dissolve many functional proteins including fibrinogen. To avoid too much protein degradation, activity of plasmin is promptly neutralized by the function of α2-plasmin inhibitor (α2-PI: ⑨).
Previous publication suggested increased PAI-1 release after acute myocardial infarction and its role for the increased recurrence of myocardial infarction [38]. Animal experiments revealed that the food coloring agent of crocin reduces activity of PAI-1 and prevents thrombosis [39]. In human, increased PAI-1 activity is reported at the time of too much intake of fat [40]. Total fibrinolytic activity in humans is also reported to be low in obese patients [41]. Decreased fibrinolytic activity in patients taking too much lipid is one potential reason of increased risk of thrombosis in these patients.
4. Role of various types of food intake for the risk of thrombosis
There are many reports suggesting the increase/decrease in the risk of thrombosis by various food and beverage intake. Framingham study suggested that coffee consumption is related to lower risk of myocardial infarction [42]. However, the influence of coffee intake for the onset and recurrence of myocardial infarction is still under discussion because other reports suggested higher rate of sudden cardiac death in coffee intake in patients after myocardial infarction [43]. People have consensus that food intake should influence the risk of arterial and venous thrombosis. The problem is that it is still hard to state which food reduces/increases the risk of thrombosis.
Old epidemiological studies suggested that the risk of myocardial infarction increased in Japanese people who immigrated to Hawaii or California than that of the ones staying in Japan. They have the same genetic background. Environmental factors including food should contribute to the change in the risk of population when moved to the US than staying in Japan. Lower cardiovascular death rate in Japan is still noted in the international registry of patients with atherothrombosis or non-valvular atrial fibrillation. Despite epidemiological data, it is still hard to identify what food specifically modulated the rate of thrombosis.
There are many specific diets that potentially influence thrombotic risk. Among them, sodium intake should be one of the most established factors to avoid cardiovascular diseases. Low sodium intake clearly decreases the risk of heart failure [44], but its direct effects for thrombosis is still to be elucidated. Mediterranean diet is also related to lower risk of cardiovascular diseases [45]. But it is still difficult to identify the specific content of Mediterranean diet related to the reduction in the risk of CV disease. A plant-based diet seems beneficial in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, but it has both good qualities and bad qualities [46]. The relationship between food and the risk of cardiovascular diseases (mostly arterial thrombosis) is complex.
A recent publication suggested the positive correlation between red and processed meat intake and risk of cardiovascular diseases. This study also suggested the negative relationship between the intake of yogurt, cheese, and eggs and CV disease risk [47]. The observation study is useful to find potential contributing factors but still includes many potential biases. Just like drug or medical intervention, randomized trials comparing a variety of food intake with hard endpoint of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, and ischemic stroke will give us more insight. However, in reality, it is hard to design such trials because people have the right to eat whatever they like. It is hard to make a restriction in food intake for a long period of time. The combination of observational study and the study to clarify the mechanism will give us the best available evidence now.
5. Metabolic syndrome and thrombosis: view from the mechanism
Metabolic syndrome is characterized as the presence of three apparent characteristics including visceral obesity manifested as increasing waist circumference, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and high blood glucose. Underlining pathophysiology is insulin resistance and lipid accumulation. It is noteworthy that various cytokines (adipocytokines) were identified from adipose tissue. Adiponectin is the one identified as factor reducing the risk of thrombosis by preventing endothelial dysfunction [48]. Indeed, decreased plasma concentration of adiponectin observed in obese patients may suggest the potential regulatory role of adiponectin for the onset of thrombotic diseases [49]. Despite difficulty in understanding the precise relationship among various cytokines and adiponectin [50], an apparent link between metabolic syndrome and decreased adiponectin is noteworthy. Various parameters for coagulation and fibrinolysis are also influenced in metabolic syndrome patients [51]. It is reasonable to recommend regular exercise to prevent metabolic syndrome and future onset of thrombosis [52].
6. Conclusion
Obviously, food intake influences deeply the risk of thrombotic disease such as arterial and venous thrombotic diseases. Deeply reliable population-based clinical trials or nicely designed registry studies are awaited. Precise understand the mechanism of thrombotic disease from hard science such as re-construction of biological phenomena from the physical movement of atoms.
Acknowledgments
Shinya Goto acknowledges financial support from MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI 17 K19669, 18H01726, and 19H03661. SG acknowledges independent research grant support from Bristol-Myers Squibb (33999603). SG also acknowledges grant support from Vehicle Racing Commemorative Foundation and Nakatani Foundation for Advancement of Measuring Technologies in Biomedical Engineering. SG received research funding from Sanofi, Pfizer, and Ono.
\n',keywords:"myocardial infarction, stroke, arterial thrombosis, platelet, coagulation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72055.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72055.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72055",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72055",totalDownloads:683,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:4,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:40,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 6th 2020",datePublished:"February 17th 2021",dateFinished:"May 6th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The majority of diseases causing sudden death or sudden onset of serious restriction of quality of life are thrombotic disease. Myocardial infarction is often caused by thrombotic occlusion of coronary arterial branches. Ischemic stroke is also caused by occlusion of cerebral arteries with thrombi. In patients admitted to the hospital and immobility, venous thromboembolism causing pulmonary embolism is a major cause of death. The risk of cardiovascular events is influenced by food intake. Yet, the mechanism between specific food intake and the risk of thrombotic disease is still to be elucidated. Recent progress of computer and information technology allows us to describe complex biological phenomena such as thrombosis from basic principles of physics and chemistry. Coupling blood flow, platelet, coagulation, and fibrinolysis allows us to understand the contributing role of each factor for thrombus formation. Yet, the precise role of food intake to influence the risk of thrombosis is still to be elucidated. Coupling basic research and large-scale clinical research will further clarify the role of various types of food intake in the risk of thrombosis.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72055",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72055",book:{id:"7841",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome"},signatures:"Shinya Goto",authors:[{id:"316667",title:"Prof.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Shinya Goto",slug:"shinya-goto",email:"sgoto3@mac.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Platelet adhesion at the site of endothelial injuries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Activation of coagulation cascade and fibrinolysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Role of various types of food intake for the risk of thrombosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Metabolic syndrome and thrombosis: view from the mechanism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Leys D. Atherothrombosis: A major health burden. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2001;11(Suppl 2):1-4'},{id:"B2",body:'Lindblad B, Sternby NH, Bergqvist D. Incidence of venous thromboembolism verified by necropsy over 30 years. British Medical Journal. 1991;302:709-711'},{id:"B3",body:'Goto S. Propagation of arterial thrombi: Local and remote contributory factors. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2004;24:2207-2208'},{id:"B4",body:'Moser KM, Fedullo PF, LitteJohn JK, Crawford R. Frequent asymptomatic pulmonary embolism in patients with deep venous thrombosis. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1994;271:223-225'},{id:"B5",body:'Lowe GDO. Common risk factors for both arterial and venous thrombosis. 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Functional significance of adenosine 5′-diphosphate receptor (P2Y(12)) in platelet activation initiated by binding of von Willebrand factor to platelet GP Ibalpha induced by conditions of high shear rate. Circulation. 2002;105:2531-2536'},{id:"B23",body:'Vidgren HM, Agren JJ, Schwab U, Rissanen T, Hanninen O, Uusitupa MI. Incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into plasma lipid fractions, and erythrocyte membranes and platelets during dietary supplementation with fish, fish oil, and docosahexaenoic acid-rich oil among healthy young men. Lipids. 1997;32:697-705'},{id:"B24",body:'Murphy KJ, Meyer BJ, Mori TA, Burke V, Mansour J, Patch CS, et al. Impact of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte n-3 levels and cardiovascular risk factors. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2007;97:749-757'},{id:"B25",body:'Shiozaki S, Takagi S, Goto S. 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Metabolic syndrome, haemostasis and thrombosis. Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2008;99:995-1000'},{id:"B52",body:'Katzmarzyk PT, Leon AS, Wilmore JH, Skinner JS, Rao DC, Rankinen T, et al. Targeting the metabolic syndrome with exercise: Evidence from the HERITAGE family study. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2003;35:1703-1709'},{id:"B53",body:'Hoshiba Y, Hatakeyama K, Tanabe T, Asada Y, Goto S. Co-localization of von Willebrand factor with platelet thrombi, tissue factor and platelets with fibrin, and consistent presence of inflammatory cells in coronary thrombi obtained by an aspiration device from patients with acute myocardial infarction. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2006;4:114-120'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shinya Goto",address:"sgoto3@mac.com",affiliation:'
Department of Medicine (Cardiology), Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Japan
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1. Introduction
In recent years, the Brazilian Judiciary has been advancing toward turning all its acts digital. Following this direction, the Brazilian Labour Court implemented in 2012 the Electronic Judicial Process (acronym in Portuguese for “Processo Judicial Eletrônico”—PJe), and from this date, all new legal proceedings have already been born electronic. According to the Annual Analytical Report of Justice in Numbers 2020 (base year 2019) [1], produced by the National Council of Justice (acronym in Portuguese for “Conselho Nacional de Justiça”—CNJ), more than 99% of the ongoing cases are already on this platform.
Knowing that human beings cannot promptly analyze a large set of data, especially when such data do not appear to correlate, a way to assist in the pattern-recognition process is through statistical, computational, and data analysis methods. From the perspective that an exponential increase in textual data exists, the analysis of patterns in legal documents has become increasingly challenging.
Currently, one of the major challenges in the legal area is to respond quickly to the growing judicial demand. The Brazilian legal system provides for ways to ensure the swift handling of judicial proceedings, such as the principle of the reasonable duration of a case, the principle of speed, the procedural economy, and due process to optimize the procedural progress [2]. Therefore, with the aid of some clustering mechanism, that is, the grouping of processes, with a good rate of similarity between the documents to be analyzed, it was possible to help in the distribution of work among the advisors of the office for which the process was drawn. In addition, it contributed to the search for case law1 for the judgment of the cases in point, to ensure a speedy trial, upholding the principle of legal certainty. According to Gomes Canotilho [3]:
"The general principle of legal certainty in a broad sense (thus encompassing the idea of trust protection) can be formulated as follows: the individual has the right to be able to rely on the law that his acts or public decisions involved in his rights, positions or legal relations based on existing legal norms and valid for those legal acts left by the authorities on the basis of those rules if the legal effects laid down and prescribed in the planning are connected to the legal effects laid down and prescribed in the legal order" (2003, p. 257).
Thus, this legal management tool created positive impacts such as the decrease of the operational costs of a legal proceeding, as a result of reducing its duration, meaning lower expenses on the allocation of the necessary resources for its judgment.
Recently, machine learning algorithms have demonstrated through research that they are powerful tools capable of solving high-complexity problems using natural language processing (NLP) [4]. In this sense, it is possible to highlight the works of [5, 6, 7, 8, 9], which apply the techniques of word-embedding generation, a form of vector representation of terms, and consequently of documents, taking into account their context. The use of these word embeddings is essential when analyzing a set of unstructured data presented in the form of large-volume documents in court.
Nowadays, a specialist screens the documents and distributes among the team members the legal proceedings to be judged, setting up a deviation from the main activity of this specialist, which is the production of draft decisions. This contributed to an increase in the congestion rate (an indicator that measures the percentage of cases that remain pending solution at the end of the base year) and to the decrease in the meeting of demand index (acronym in Portuguese for “Índice de Atendimento à Demanda”—IAD—an indicator that measures the percentage of proceedings in downtime, compared to the number of new cases). It becomes evident in the consolidated data of the Labor Justice contained in Table 1, with data extracted from the Annual Analytical Report of Justice in Numbers 2020 (base year 2019) [1] produced by the National Council of Justice (CNJ).
Description
2° Degree
1° Degree
Total
Workforce
Magistrates
Legal authority
559
3077
3636
Legal workers
Public administration employee
6911
22,785
29,696
Legal load handling
Stockpile
Number of pending cases
792,223
3,741,548
4,533,771
New cases
Number of new cases
898,104
2,632,093
3,530,197
Judged
Number of cases judged
989,324
3,036,686
4,026,010
Closed
Number of cases with final decision
941,356
3,244,652
4,185,708
Productivity indexes
IAD
Closed cases/new cases
104.8%
123.3%
118.6%
Congestion tax
Closed cases/(new cases + stockpile)
45.7%
53.6%
52.0%
Knowledge
Fact awareness phase
—
35.1%
35.1%
Execution
Judgment enforcement phase
—
72.7%
72.7%
Indexes per magistrate
New cases
Average number of new cases per magistrate
1607
662
821
Workflow
Average number of cases per magistrate
3583
2794
2,927
Judged cases
Average number of cases judged per magistrate
1770
1103
1216
Closed cases
Average number of cases closed per magistrate
1684
1179
1264
Indexes per legal worker
New cases
Average number of new cases per worker
135
83
95
Judged cases
Average number of cases judged per worker
300
351
339
Closed cases
Average number of cases closed per worker
141
148
146
Table 1.
Report of indicators of Brazilian labor justice.
This work aims, therefore, to present the degree of similarity between the judicial documents that was achieved in the inferred groups through unsupervised learning via the application of three techniques of NLP, namely: (i) term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF); (ii) Word2Vec with CBoW (continuous bag of words) trained for general purposes for the Portuguese language in Brazil (Word2Vec CBoW pt-BR); and (iii) Word2Vec with Skip-gram trained for general purposes for the Portuguese language in Brazil (Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR).
This degree of congruence signals the model’s performance and is set from the average similarity measure of the grouped files, based on the similarity cosine between the elements of the group to its centroid and, comparatively, by the average cosine similarity among all the documents of the group.
Aiming to delimit the scope of this research, a dataset containing information from documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed (acronym in Portuguese for “Recurso Ordinário Interposto”—ROI) type was extracted from approximately 210,000 legal proceedings. The Ordinary Appeal Interposed was used as a reference, as this is usually the type of document that induces the legal proceedings for judgment in the higher instance (2nd degree), thus instituting the Ordinary Appeal (acronym in Portuguese for “Recurso Ordinário”—RO). That is a free plea, an appropriate appeal against definitive and final judgments proclaimed at first instance, seeking a review of the judicial decision drawn up by a hierarchically superior body [10].
For the present work, a literature review on unsupervised machine learning algorithms applied to the legal area was performed, using NLP, and an overview of recent techniques that use artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms in word-embedding generation. Then, we applied some methods until the results were obtained, comparing and discussing them, and finally, conclusions and future challenges were presented.
2. State-of-the-art review
Machine learning algorithms have in the most recent research demonstrated a great potential to solve high-complexity problems, which follow the categories into (i) supervised machine learning algorithms; (ii) unsupervised; (iii) semi-supervised; and (iv) by reinforcement [11]. In the context of this chapter, the literature review focused on the search for the most recent research on unsupervised machine learning or clustering algorithms applied to the legal area using NLP.
The investigation revealed that there are not many works dealing with the highlighted topic, which proves its complexity. Thus, we sought to expand the research by removing the restriction to the legal area bringing light to other publications. In [12], we discussed the content recommendation system approaches based on grouping for similar articles that used TF-IDF to perform vector transformation of the document contents and, through cosine similarity, applied k-means [13] for clustering them. In [14], the authors automatically summarized texts using TF-IDF and k-means to determine the document’s textual groups used to create the abstract. Then, TF-IDF is considered the primary technique for vectorizing textual content and k-means the most used algorithm for unsupervised machine learning.
Therefore, we can assume that choosing the best technique of generating word embeddings requires investigation, experimentation, and comparison of models. Several recent pieces of research have demonstrated the feasibility of using word embeddings to improve the quality of AI algorithm results for pattern detection, classification, among other uses.
In 2013, Mikolov et al. [6] proposed two new architectures to calculate vector representations of words calling them Word2Vec, which was considered, at the time, as a reference in the subject. Subsequently, techniques of word embeddings based on the use of the long short-term memory network (LSTM) [15] became widely used for speech recognition, language modeling, sentiment analysis, and text prediction, and that, unlike the recurrent neural network (RNN) they can forget, remember and update the information thus taking a step forward from the RNNs [16]. Therefore, LSTM-based libraries, such as Embeddings from Language Models (Elmo) [17], Flair [18], and context2vec [19] created a different word embedding for each occurrence of the word, related to the context, that allowed to capture the meaning of the word.
In more recent years, new techniques of word embeddings have emerged, with emphasis on (i) Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) [9], context-sensitive model with architecture based on a transformer model [20]; (ii) Sentence BERT (SBERT) [21], a “Siamese” BERT model that was proposed to improve BERT’s performance when seeking to obtain the similarity of sentences; and (iii) Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer (T5) [22], a framework for treating NLP issues as a text-to-text problem, that is, input to the template as text and template output as text.
From this analysis, it was possible to advance in the current state of the art in the area of NLP applied to the legal sector, by conducting a comparative study and application of the techniques TF-IDF, Word2Vec CBoW, and Word2Vec Skip-gram to perform the grouping of labor legal processes in Brazil using the k-means algorithm and the cosine similarity.
3. Methodology
This section presents each step necessary to achieve the results and to make it possible to analyze them comparatively. To perform all the implementations of the routines necessary for this study, the Python programming language (version 3.6.9) was used and, among other libraries, (i) Numpy (version 1.19.2) was used; (ii) Pandas (version 1.1.3); (iii) Sklearn (version 0.21.3); (iv) Spacy (version 2.3.2); and (v) Nltk (version 3.5).
Every processing flow (pipeline) consists of the phases: (i) data extraction; (ii) data cleansing; (iii) generation of word-embedding templates; (iv) calculation of the vector representation of the document; (v) unsupervised learning; and (vi) calculation of the similarity measure, as detailed in the following subsections.
3.1 Data extraction
The dataset used for these studies belongs to the Regional Labour Court of the 5th Region (acronym in Portuguese for “Tribunal Regional do Trabalho da 5ª Região”—TRT5). There are approximately 210 (two hundred and ten) thousand documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed type, incorporated into the Electronic Judicial Process (PJe) system, originally added to the PJe in portable document format (PDF) or hypertext markup language (HTML). As the PJe has a tool for extracting and storing the contents of documents, there was no need for further processing in obtaining the text of such files.
In addition to the content of the documents, the following information was extracted: (i) the name of the parts of the proceedings to which such documents belonged; (ii) the list of labor justice issues from the Unified Procedural Table2 (acronym in Portuguese for “Tabela Processual Unificada”—TPU) of the Labour Justice branch (made available by the National Council of Justice [CNJ] and consolidated by the Superior Labour Court [acronym in Portuguese for “Tribunal Superior do Trabalho”—TST]); and (iii) list of abbreviations (acronyms) with their full translation according to tables made available by the Supreme Court (acronym in Portuguese for “Supremo Tribunal Federal”—STF).3
3.2 Data cleaning
Preprocessing is a fundamental step for the application of artificial intelligence techniques and involves the following: (i) data standardization (when there is a large discrepancy between the values presented to the technique); (ii) the withdrawal of null values; and (iii) the reorganization and adequacy of the structure of the dataset. In this case, it is usually necessary for experts to conduct an exploratory analysis of the data used in advance to determine the direction of preprocessing.
For this phase, this study uses two forms of preprocessing: (i) detection of the subjects of the Unified Procedural Table (contained in the extracted documents) and (ii) cleaning the contents of the documents.
For the detection of the subjects of the TPU present in the extracted documents, regular expression matching was used as the search technique to measure the occurrences of these words in the files marking them with “tags” referring to the subject found.
For cleaning the contents of documents, usually using a regular expression, the steps were as follows:
HTML tags: removed the html tags found in the document, such as <script>, <body>, <style> etc.;
TPU subjects: replaced the subject text with a subject tag, for example, “hora extra” (overtime) changed to hora_extra;
Related Persons: replaced the name of the individuals linked to the legal cases of the documents, such as the name of the author(s) and defendant(s), by the “tag” “parteprocesso” (part in the process);
Judicial process number: replaced the number of the judicial process (according to the standard formatting defined nationally by the CNJ, NNNNNNN-NN.NNNN.N.NN.NNNN where N is a numeral) by the "tag" “numeroprocesso” (process number);
Standardization of abbreviations: replacement of abbreviations (acronyms) by the full translation as drawn STF list as reported in Section 3.1, for example, CLT was transformed into “Consolidação das Leis do Trabalho” (Consolidated Labour Law);
Addresses: replaced the addresses contained in the document with the “tag” “enderecoprocesso” (addresses in the process);
Links: removed Internet links contained in the text;
Date and Time: replacement of date and time content with “datahora” (datetime) tag;
Time: replacement of the time content with the “hora” (hour) tag;
Days of the week: removed the days of the week found in the document;
Document ids: replacement of PJe document ids referenced in the document with “tag” “sequenciadocumento” (document sequence). These ids are typically composed of alphanumeric characters;
Unit of measure: replaced the units of measurements and their values by the “tag” “unidademedida” (measurement unit);
Numbers: replaced the numbers in full, ordinal numbers, and numerical sequences by the “tag” “numeral” (number);
Judging bodies: replaced the judging bodies (e.g., “Tribunal Regional do Traabalho” [Regional Labour Court]) by the “orgaojulgador” (organjudge) tag;
Months of the year: removed the months of the year found in the document;
Judicial Stopwords: only when the technique employed is TF-IDF. The common words were removed in all texts of the judiciary, such as (i) “magistrado” (magistrate) and (ii) “processo” (legal proceeding), among others;
Stopwords:
TF-IDF: removed all stopwords from the Portuguese language, such as “de” (from), “da” (of), “a” (the), “o” (the), “esta” (this) etc.;
Other techniques: removed only the non-adverbs of the Portuguese language, for example, the words “não” (no), “mais” (more), “quando” (when), “muito” (very), “também” (also), and “depois” (after) remain in the document;
Line breaks: replaced line breaks by space;
Punctuation marks:
TF-IDF: removed all the punctuation marks contained in the documents;
Other techniques: removed the punctuation marks except dot (.), comma (,), exclamation (!), and interrogation (?);
Lemmatization:
TF-IDF: applied the technique to replace words with its root, for example, words such as “tenho” (have), “tinha” (had), and “tem” (have) had belong of the same root “ter” (have);
Other techniques: lemmatization has not been applied;
In addition to the preprocessing detailed above, when the technique used was TF-IDF, the tags inserted in the text during this phase were removed.
3.3 Generation of word-embedding templates
An essential technique in solving machine learning problems, involving NLP, is the use of vector representation of words, in which numerical values indicate some correlation of words in the text. This chapter uses word embeddings generated and shared for the Portuguese language, such as Word2Vec CBoW and Word2Vec template with Skip-gram. These templates were created based on more than 1 billion and 300,000 tokens, with results published in the article “Portuguese Word Embeddings: Evaluating on Word Analogies and Natural Language Tasks” presented at the Symposium in Information and Human Language Technology - STIL 2017 [23].
3.4 Calculation of the vector representation of the document
Different from the TF-IDF technique, which has the vector representation of the document based on the statistical measurement of each term of the document in relation to all known corpus, and whose vector dimension is equal to the size of the vocabulary of the corpus, the other techniques (i) Word2Vec CBoW ptBR and (ii) Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR need to go through a change to calculate the vector representation of the document (document embeddings). This happens because for these techniques what you can get is the vector representation of the word (word embeddings).
Thus, to calculate the vector representation for the documents some alternatives are suggested, such as (i) average of the word embeddings of the words of the document; (ii) sum of the word embeddings of the words in the document by pondering them with the TF-IDF and then dividing by the sum of the TF-IDF of the words of the document; and (iii) weighted average with the TF-IDF of the word embeddings of the words of the document, the latter being the technique chosen for presenting the best result.
3.5 Unsupervised learning
The use of unsupervised learning techniques is relevant when the intention is to detect patterns among court documents. The k-means algorithm, whose basic concepts were proposed by MacQueen [13], is the technique adopted in this study. In general, this technique seeks to recognize patterns from the random choice of K initial focal points (centroid), where K is the number of groups that one wishes to obtain and, iteratively, position the elements whose Euclidean distance is the minimum possible concerning the centroid of the group.
Since one does not have an ideal K to offer the algorithm, an approach usually used to support such a decision is to calculate the inertia, based on how well the dataset was grouped through k-means.
The inertia calculation is based on the sum of the square of the Euclidean distance from each point to its centroid and seeks to obtain the lowest K with the lowest inertia. However, the higher the K value reaches, the tendency is that inertia will be lower, and then, the elbow method was used to find the point where the reduction in inertia begins to decrease.
Hence, 31 values for K were used within the range from 30 to 61, considering an interval for each unit, selecting the K that generated the best grouping. In addition, the strategy of creating submodels, limited to two, was used for the documents of the groups whose average similarity rate did not reach a value greater than 0.5.
3.6 Similarity measure calculation
The similarity measure is an important tool for the measurement of the quality of inferred groups. In this study, the cosine similarity measure is adopted, which is a measure that calculates the cosine of the angle between two vectors projected in the multidimensional plane, the result of which is between 0 and 1, in which 1 represents that the two vectors are totally similar, and 0 represents that they are totally different. Given two vectors, X and Y, the cosine similarity is presented using a scalar product according to Eq. (1).
similarity=cosθ=X·YX|·|YE1
Consequently, to decide whether, after the clustering of the chief model, it was necessary to generate up to two more submodels, using the average cosine similarity among all elements of the group. Although the computational cost of calculating the similarity between all files in the group is relevant, we sought to reduce the distance between documents that were part of the same group, although they were located near the centroid. To assess the final efficiency of the technique, another form of calculation was adopted, computing for each group the average cosine similarity between the group elements and its centroid. Thus, as a measure of global similarity of each approach, we calculated the average of the average of the groups, so that the one that reached a value closer to 1 (one) was considered the best technique.
4. Results and discussions
This research shows, as per the methodology presented in the previous sections, how machine learning algorithms associated with NLP techniques are important allies in optimizing the operational costs of the judicial process. It is evidenced from the result, for example, of document screenings and procedural distribution, which allows an expert to devote oneself to their chief activity optimizing working time.
While using the k-means unsupervised learning algorithm, it was necessary to choose the best K for each NLP technique studied. In this scenario, the elbow method was applied based on the calculated inertia of each of the 31 K tested, as shown in Figure 1, thus achieving a better result for each technique.
Figure 1.
Inertia charts constructed by using the elbow method for determining the best number of clusters for each approach.
From the attainment of the best K, the k-means model was trained and, from the grouping performed by this technique, we could reach the average similarity between the documents of each group. Those groups that did not make the cutting line of at least 0.5 of average had the group files submitted for creating up to two submodels. As expected, only for TF-IDF technique groupings is there a need to generate submodels to improve performance.
Table 2 shows the average similarity of the groups obtained using the TF-IDF technique, as well as the result of the Word2Vec CBoW pt-BR technique. It achieved a little better measure of similarity than the Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR technique; however, the latter achieved its result with a smaller number of groups, which places it, in general, as the best technique.
Model
Submodel 1
Submodel 2
Final
Type
Groups
Mean
Groups
Mean
Groups
Mean
Groups
Mean
TF-IDF
37
0.3696
43
0.4001
48
0.4002
48
0.4002
Word2Vec CBoW ptBR
59
0.9060
—
—
59
0.9060
Word2Vec Skip-gram ptBR
34
0.9044
—
—
34
0.9044
Table 2.
Mean cosine similarity between all elements of the group. The best results are highlighted in bold.
After the groups were formed, the statistical data resulting from each approach were calculated, as shown in Table 3 and in the comparative graph of distributions between the techniques (Figure 2). The cosine similarity of the group elements to its centroid was used as a metric, showing the proximity of the results between the techniques with Word2Vec and highlighting the technique Word2Vec Skip-gram ptBR for the smaller amount of generated groups.
Type
Groups
Mean
Std.
Min.
25%
50%
75%
Max.
TF-IDF
49
0.6241
0.1718
0.2466
0.5021
0.5864
0.1639
0.9644
Word2Vec CBoW ptBR
59
0.9475
0.0632
0.7640
0.9352
0.9790
0.991
0.9999
Word2Vec Skip-gram ptBR
34
0.9481
0.0609
0.7960
0.9248
0.9763
0.9924
0.9995
Table 3.
Statistics of the cosine similarity of the group elements to the centroids. The best results are highlighted in bold.
Figure 2.
Boxplots showing the distributions of the clusters calculated by each technique. The more cohesive the boxes and the less number of outliers, the better.
When comparing the values presented in Tables 2 and 3, it is noteworthy that the results presented in Table 2 are worse in all cases. It is inferable from this observation that the similarity measure calculations shown in Table 2 can reduce the similarity rates since there may be elements in the group positioned on completely opposite sides. From Figure 2, it is also possible to verify that the groupings generated by the Word2Vec technique were more cohesive than those generated by the TF-IDF technique, especially the Word2Vec Skip-gram technique, which created fewer groupings in the range of outliers than Word2Vec CBoW, demonstrating its superiority by allowing fewer groups but maintaining consistent quality and cohesion.
Given the aforesaid, among all the techniques evaluated, the Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR technique presented itself as the best option for word embeddings for clustering legal documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed type. Although the Word2Vec CBoW pt-BR technique achieves slightly better rates, it stands out from the previous one for reaching a much smaller number of groups.
The result achieved by each approach can be visualized by projecting in two dimensions of the groups formed from the three techniques: (i) TF-IDF; (ii) Word2Vec CBoW pt-BR; and (iii) Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR, respectively, presented in Figures 3–5. It is evident in the figures that the groups formed from Word2Vec are much better defined, especially skip-gram, which confirms the findings previously explained in this work.
Figure 3.
2D projection of the entire test dataset, showing for each document its corresponding group formed by TF-IDF.
Figure 4.
2D projection of the entire test dataset, showing for each document its corresponding group formed by Word2Vec CBoW ptBR.
Figure 5.
2D projection of the entire test dataset, showing for each document its corresponding group formed by Word2Vec skip-gram ptBR.
5. Conclusion and future work
The use of AI as a standard detection tool based on documents from the judiciary has generally proved to be a viable and helpful solution in the scientific, technological, and practice of legal work. In this chapter, it was possible to present the results considered very promising due to the improvement in the average similarity rate. Thus, we demonstrate the possibility of using word-embedding generation techniques applied on clustering of Ordinary Appeal Interposed using AI algorithms.
Of all the techniques evaluated, the Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR technique presented itself as the best option for word embeddings for clustering legal documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed type.
We believe that specialized word embeddings have great potential in improving the results. Therefore, comes the suggestion for future study of Word2Vec specialized for the judiciary, in addition to evaluating whether the new embeddings generated provide an opportunity to improve the overall performance of clustering. In addition, using transformer-based techniques, such as BERT, can achieve promising results, using both the Portuguese language word-embedding model and training a specialized BERT model for the judiciary.
Moreover, new possibilities arise for using the techniques discussed in this chapter, such as the draft generation of decisions and classification of documents and processes.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Regional Labour Court of the 5th Region for making datasets available to the scientific community and contributing to research and technological development. The authors also thank the Artificial Intelligence Reference Centre and the Supercomputing Centre for Industrial Innovation, both from SENAI CIMATEC.
\n',keywords:"legal, natural language processing, clustering, TF-IDF, Word2Vec",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78463.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78463.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78463",totalDownloads:172,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"August 3rd 2021",dateReviewed:"August 10th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 6th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 6th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Brazilian legal system postulates the expeditious resolution of judicial proceedings. However, legal courts are working under budgetary constraints and with reduced staff. As a way to face these restrictions, artificial intelligence (AI) has been tackling many complex problems in natural language processing (NLP). This work aims to detect the degree of similarity between judicial documents that can be achieved in the inference group using unsupervised learning, by applying three NLP techniques, namely term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF), Word2Vec CBoW, and Word2Vec Skip-gram, the last two being specialized with a Brazilian language corpus. We developed a template for grouping lawsuits, which is calculated based on the cosine distance between the elements of the group to its centroid. The Ordinary Appeal was chosen as a reference file since it triggers legal proceedings to follow to the higher court and because of the existence of a relevant contingent of lawsuits awaiting judgment. After the data-processing steps, documents had their content transformed into a vector representation, using the three NLP techniques. We notice that specialized word-embedding models—like Word2Vec—present better performance, making it possible to advance in the current state of the art in the area of NLP applied to the legal sector.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78463",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78463",signatures:"Raphael Souza de Oliveira and Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",book:{id:"10820",type:"book",title:"Data Clustering",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Data Clustering",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Niansheng Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-888-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-887-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-889-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"221831",title:"Prof.",name:"Niansheng",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"niansheng-tang",fullName:"Niansheng Tang"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. State-of-the-art review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Data extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Data cleaning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Generation of word-embedding templates",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Calculation of the vector representation of the document",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Unsupervised learning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Similarity measure calculation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Results and discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion and future work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'CNJ—Conselho Nacional de Justiça. Relatório Analítico Anual da Justiça em Números 2020. 2020. Available from: https://www.cnj.jus.br/pesquisas-judiciarias/justica-em-numeros/ [Accessed: June 07, 2021]'},{id:"B2",body:'da Costa Salum G. A duração dos processos no judiciário: aplicação dos princípios inerentes e sua eficácia no processo judicial [Internet], Âmbito Jurídico, Rio Grande. Vol. XIX(145). 2016. Avaliable from: https://ambitojuridico.com.br/cadernos/direito-processual-civil/a-duracao-dos-processos-no-judiciario-aplicacao-dos-principios-inerentes-e-sua-eficacia-no-processo-judicial/ [Accessed: September 01, 2021]'},{id:"B3",body:'Canotilho JJG. Direito constitucional e teoria da constituição. 7th ed. Coimbra: Almedina; 2003'},{id:"B4",body:'Khan W, Daud A, Nasir J, Amjad T. A survey on machine learning models for Natural Language Processing (NLP). Computer Science and Engineering. 2016;43:95-113'},{id:"B5",body:'Wang Y, Cui L, Zhang Y. Using Dynamic Embeddings to Improve Static Embeddings. In: arXiv Preprint. arXiv:1911.02929v1. 2019'},{id:"B6",body:'Mikolov, T, Chen, K, Corrado, G, Dean, J. Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Vector Space. In: ICLR: Proceeding of the International Conference on Learning Representations Workshop Track, Arizona, USA. 2013'},{id:"B7",body:'Pennington J, Socher R, Manning C. Glove: Global vectors for word representation. In: Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP). Doha, Qatar: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2014. pp. 1532-1543'},{id:"B8",body:'Bojanowski P, Grave E, Joulin A, Mikolov T. Enriching word vectors with subword information. Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics. 2017;5:135-146'},{id:"B9",body:'Devlin J, Chang M-W, Lee K, Toutanova K. BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding. In: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Association for Computational Linguistics. 2019; 1:4171-4186. 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In: Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems. Red Hook, NY, USA: Curran Associates Inc.; 2017. p. 6000-10. (NIPS’17)'},{id:"B21",body:'Reimers N, Gurevych I. Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks. In: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP). Hong Kong, China: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2019. p. 3982-92. DOI: 10.18653/v1/D19-1410'},{id:"B22",body:'Roberts A, Raffel C, Lee K, Matena M, Shazeer N, Liu PJ, et al. Exploring the Limits of Transfer Learning with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformer. In: arXiv Preprint. arXiv:1910.10683. 2019'},{id:"B23",body:'Hartmann NS, Fonseca ER, Shulby CD, Treviso MV, Rodrigues JS, Aluísio SM. Portuguese Word Embeddings: Evaluating on Word Analogies and Natural Language Tasks. In: Proceedings of the 11th Brazilian Symposium on Information and Human Language Technology (STIL). Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil: Brazilian Computing Society - SBC; 2017. p. 122-31'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"A legal term meaning a set of previous judicial decisions following the same line of understanding."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Labour Justice Unified Procedural Table. Available at: https://www.tst.jus.br/web/corregedoria/tabelas-processuais"},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Table of abbreviations (and acronyms) made available by the Supreme Court. Available at: https://www.stf.jus.br/arquivo/cms/publicacaoLegislacaoAnotada/anexo/siglas_cf.pdf"}],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Raphael Souza de Oliveira",address:null,affiliation:'
TRT5—Regional Labor Court of the 5th Region, Brazil
SENAI CIMATEC—Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus, Brazil
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He founded the Biotechnology Center of the Butantan Institute, where he was director for 19 years (1983 – 2002). He has been dedicated for more than thirty years to the development of vaccines and pharmaceutical products by Instituto Butantan, in production processes that result in products to be made available to the Ministry of Health of Brazil, for free use to the population.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Butantan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"201100",title:"MSc.",name:"Priscila",surname:"Cunegundes",slug:"priscila-cunegundes",fullName:"Priscila Cunegundes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Butantan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"209971",title:"Dr.",name:"Natal'Ya",surname:"Lavrent'Eva",slug:"natal'ya-lavrent'eva",fullName:"Natal'Ya Lavrent'Eva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Samara State Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"team",title:"Team",intro:"
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Our Values
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Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
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Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
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Our Team
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Co-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
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But, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
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Sara Uhac, COO
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Sara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
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Adrian Assad De Marco
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Adrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
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IntechOpen Board Members
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Dr Alex Lazinica
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Alex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\n
\n\t
Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\t
Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\t
Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n
\n\n
Our Team
\n\n
Co-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\n
But, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\n
Sara Uhac, COO
\n\n
Sara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\n
Adrian Assad De Marco
\n\n
Adrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\n
IntechOpen Board Members
\n\n
Dr Alex Lazinica
\n\n
Alex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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This chapter aims for those who need to teach Kalman filters to others, or for those who do not have a strong background in estimation theory. Following a problem definition of state estimation, filtering algorithms will be presented with supporting examples to help readers easily grasp how the Kalman filters work. Implementations on INS/GNSS navigation, target tracking, and terrain-referenced navigation (TRN) are given. In each example, we discuss how to choose, implement, tune, and modify the algorithms for real world practices. Source codes for implementing the examples are also provided. In conclusion, this chapter will become a prerequisite for other contents in the book.",book:{id:"7466",slug:"introduction-and-implementations-of-the-kalman-filter",title:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter",fullTitle:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter"},signatures:"Youngjoo Kim and Hyochoong Bang",authors:null},{id:"77284",title:"The Paradigm of Complex Probability and Isaac Newton’s Classical Mechanics: On the Foundation of Statistical Physics",slug:"the-paradigm-of-complex-probability-and-isaac-newton-s-classical-mechanics-on-the-foundation-of-stat",totalDownloads:1794,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The concept of mathematical probability was established in 1933 by Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov by defining a system of five axioms. This system can be enhanced to encompass the imaginary numbers set after the addition of three novel axioms. As a result, any random experiment can be executed in the complex probabilities set C which is the sum of the real probabilities set R and the imaginary probabilities set M. We aim here to incorporate supplementary imaginary dimensions to the random experiment occurring in the “real” laboratory in R and therefore to compute all the probabilities in the sets R, M, and C. Accordingly, the probability in the whole set C = R + M is constantly equivalent to one independently of the distribution of the input random variable in R, and subsequently the output of the stochastic experiment in R can be determined absolutely in C. This is the consequence of the fact that the probability in C is computed after the subtraction of the chaotic factor from the degree of our knowledge of the nondeterministic experiment. We will apply this innovative paradigm to Isaac Newton’s classical mechanics and to prove as well in an original way an important property at the foundation of statistical physics.",book:{id:"11066",slug:"the-monte-carlo-methods-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"The Monte Carlo Methods",fullTitle:"The Monte Carlo Methods - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]},{id:"46862",title:"Analysis of Balancing of Unbalanced Rotors and Long Shafts using GUI MATLAB",slug:"analysis-of-balancing-of-unbalanced-rotors-and-long-shafts-using-gui-matlab",totalDownloads:8534,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3845",slug:"matlab-applications-for-the-practical-engineer",title:"MATLAB",fullTitle:"MATLAB Applications for the Practical Engineer"},signatures:"Viliam Fedák, Pavel Záskalický and Zoltán Gelvanič",authors:[{id:"85462",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Viliam",middleName:null,surname:"Fedak",slug:"viliam-fedak",fullName:"Viliam Fedak"},{id:"154498",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Záskalický",slug:"pavel-zaskalicky",fullName:"Pavel Záskalický"},{id:"169849",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelvanič",slug:"zoltan-gelvanic",fullName:"Zoltan Gelvanič"}]},{id:"65445",title:"Power Flow Analysis",slug:"power-flow-analysis",totalDownloads:5190,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Power flow, or load flow, is widely used in power system operation and planning. The power flow model of a power system is built using the relevant network, load, and generation data. Outputs of the power flow model include voltages at different buses, line flows in the network, and system losses. These outputs are obtained by solving nodal power balance equations. Since these equations are nonlinear, iterative techniques such as the Newton-Raphson, the Gauss-Seidel, and the fast-decoupled methods are commonly used to solve this problem. The problem is simplified as a linear problem in the DC power flow technique. This chapter will provide an overview of different techniques used to solve the power flow problem.",book:{id:"7678",slug:"computational-models-in-engineering",title:"Computational Models in Engineering",fullTitle:"Computational Models in Engineering"},signatures:"Mohammed Albadi",authors:[{id:"209533",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Albadi",slug:"mohammed-albadi",fullName:"Mohammed Albadi"}]},{id:"46614",title:"Modeling of Control Systems",slug:"modeling-of-control-systems",totalDownloads:10557,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"3845",slug:"matlab-applications-for-the-practical-engineer",title:"MATLAB",fullTitle:"MATLAB Applications for the Practical Engineer"},signatures:"Roger Chiu, Francisco J. 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It is a statistical process that transforms the data containing correlated features into a set of uncorrelated features with the help of orthogonal transformations. Unsupervised machine learning is a concept of self-learning method that involves unlabelled data to identify hidden patterns. PCA converts the data features from a high dimensional space into a low dimensional space. PCA also acts as a feature extraction method since it transforms the ‘n’ number of features into ‘m’ number of principal components (PCs; m < n). Mobile Malware is increasing tremendously in the digital era due to the growth of android mobile users and android applications. Some of the mobile malware are viruses, Trojan horses, worms, adware, spyware, ransomware, riskware, banking malware, SMS malware, keylogger, and many more. To automate the process of detecting mobile malware without human intervention, machine learning methods are applied to discover the malware more precisely. Specifically, unsupervised machine learning helps to uncover the hidden patterns to detect anomalies in the data. In discovering hidden patterns of malware, PCA is an important dimensionality reduction technique that can be applied to transform the features into PCs containing important feature values. So, by implementing PCA, the correlated features are transformed into uncorrelated features automatically to explore the anomalies in the data effectively. This book chapter explains all the variants of the PCA, including all linear and non-linear methods of PCA and their suitability in applying to mobile malware detection. A case study on mobile malware detection with variants of PCA using machine learning techniques in CICMalDroid_2020 dataset has been experimented. Based on the experimental results, for the given dataset, normal PCA is suitable to detect the malware data points and forms an optimal cluster.",book:{id:"11201",title:"Advances in Principal Component Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11201.jpg"},signatures:"Padmavathi Ganapathi, Shanmugapriya Dhathathri and Roshni Arumugam"},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",abstract:"We investigated if general insurance claims are normal or rare events through systematic, discontinuous or sporadic jumps of the Brownian motion approach and Poisson processes. Using firm quarterly data from March 2010 to December 2018, we hypothesized that claims with high positive (negative) slopes are more likely to have large positive (negative) jumps in the future. As such, we expected salient properties of volatile jumps on the written products/contracts. We found that insurance claims for general insurance quoted products cease to be normal. There exist at times some jumps, especially during holidays and weekends. Such jumps are not healthy to the capital structures of firms, as such they need attention. However, it should be noted that gaps or jumps (unless of specific forms) cannot be hedged by employing internal dynamic adjustments. This means that, jump risk is non-diversifiable and such jumps should be given more attention.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha"},{id:"81645",title:"Determining an Adequate Number of Principal Components",slug:"determining-an-adequate-number-of-principal-components",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104534",abstract:"The problem of choosing the number of PCs to retain is analyzed in the context of model selection, using so-called model selection criteria (MSCs). For a prespecified set of models, indexed by k=1,2,…,K, these model selection criteria (MSCs) take the form MSCk=nLLk+anmk, where, for model k,LLk is the maximum log likelihood, mk is the number of independent parameters, and the constant an is an=lnn for BIC and an=2 for AIC. The maximum log likelihood LLk is achieved by using the maximum likelihood estimates (MLEs) of the parameters. In Gaussian models, LLk involves the logarithm of the mean squared error (MSE). The main contribution of this chapter is to show how to best use BIC to choose the number of PCs, and to compare these results to ad hoc procedures that have been used. Findings include the following. These are stated as they apply to the eigenvalues of the correlation matrix, which are between 0 and p and have an average of 1. For considering an additional PCk + 1, with AIC, inclusion of the additional PCk + 1 is justified if the corresponding eigenvalue λk+1 is greater than exp−2/n. For BIC, the inclusion of an additional PCk + 1 is justified if λk+1>n1/n, which tends to 1 for large n. Therefore, this is in approximate agreement with the average eigenvalue rule for correlation matrices, stating that one should retain dimensions with eigenvalues larger than 1.",book:{id:"11201",title:"Advances in Principal Component Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11201.jpg"},signatures:"Stanley L. Sclove"},{id:"81542",title:"On the Use of Modified Winsorization with Graphical Diagnostic for Obtaining a Statistically Optimal Classification Accuracy in Predictive Discriminant Analysis",slug:"on-the-use-of-modified-winsorization-with-graphical-diagnostic-for-obtaining-a-statistically-optimal",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104539",abstract:"In predictive discriminant analysis (PDA), the classification accuracy is only statistically optimal if each group sample is normally distributed with different group means, and each predictor variance is similar between the groups. This can be achieved by accounting for homogeneity of variances between the groups using the modified winsorization with graphical diagnostic (MW-GD) method. The MW-GD method involves the identification and removal of legitimate contaminants in a training sample with the aim of obtaining a true optimal training sample that can be used to build a predictive discriminant function (PDF) that will yield a statistically optimal classification accuracy. However, the use of this method is yet to receive significant attention in PDA. An alternative statistical interpretation of the graphical diagnostic information associated with the method when confronted with the challenge of differentiating between a variable shape in the groups of the 2-D area plot remains a problem to be resolved. Therefore, this paper provides a more comprehensive analysis of the idea and concept of the MW-GD method, as well as proposed an alternative statistical interpretation of the informative graphical diagnostic associated with the method when confronted with the challenge of differentiating between a variable shape in the groups of the 2-D area plot.",book:{id:"11201",title:"Advances in Principal Component Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11201.jpg"},signatures:"Augustine Iduseri"},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",abstract:"This chapter presents a multivariate analysis method which is developed in two steps using a combination of Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and Factorial Correspondence Analysis (AFC). To explain and describe the steps of the method, we use an application example on a survey dataset from young students in Thessaloniki trying to investigate their behavioral profiles in terms of political characteristics and how these may be affected about their attendance to a civic education course offered by the Political Science department in the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. The method is explained step by step on this example serving as a manual of its application to the researcher. HCA assigns subjects into cluster membership variables and in the next stage, these new variables are jointly analyzed with AFC. Correspondence analysis manages to extract the dimensions of the phenomenon in the study, explaining the inner antithesis between the categories but also giving the opportunity to visualize the information in a two-dimensional space, a semantic map, making interpretation more comprehensive. HCA is then applied again to the AFC’s coordinates of the categories constructing profiles of subjects, assigning them to the categories of the variables.",book:{id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg"},signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou"},{id:"81460",title:"Spatial Principal Component Analysis of Head-Related Transfer Functions and Its Domain Dependency",slug:"spatial-principal-component-analysis-of-head-related-transfer-functions-and-its-domain-dependency",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104449",abstract:"In this chapter, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was adopted to spatial variation of Head-Related Transfer Function (HRTF) or its corresponding inverse Fourier Transform, called Head-Related Impulse Response (HRIR), in order to compactly represent their spatial variation. This is called the Spatial PCA (SPCA). The SPCA was carried out for a database of HRTFs in all directions by selecting the domain as one of the HRIRs, the complex HRTFs, the frequency amplitudes of HRTFs, log-amplitudes of HRTFs, and complex logarithm of HRTFs. The minimum phase approximation was incorporated for the frequency amplitudes and log-amplitudes of HRTFs. Comparison of the accuracies in both time and frequency domains taking into account their influence on subjective evaluation showed that the log-amplitudes and complex logarithm of HRTFs are suitable for the SPCA of HRTFs.",book:{id:"11201",title:"Advances in Principal Component Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11201.jpg"},signatures:"Shouichi Takane"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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