A comparison of different techniques to characterise the surface chemistry of different insect wings.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Improving the quality of artificial intelligence (AI) learning algorithms increases the application of IVAs in different areas. The capabilities and usage of IVAs are expanding rapidly. IVAs, such as Siri, Alexa, and chatbots, help individuals and companies to make better decisions. They learn from collected historical data, and the quality of their recommendations depends on the size of the database they are using. Modern technology has provided a huge capacity for data collection and storage. This means that the new generation of IVAs can help people much better than the previous one. This book examines the applications of IVAs in different areas and presents a clear vision of how this new technology can be used in current and future activities. 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As a scientific supervisor, he has provided practical guidance to undergraduate and postgraduate students in mechanical and mining engineering and information technology for many years.\nDr. Soofastaei has more than fifteen years of academic experience as an assistant professor and leader of global research activities. Results from his research and development projects have been published in international journals and keynote presentations. He has presented his practical achievements at conferences in the United States, Europe, Asia, and Australia.\nHe has been involved in industrial research and development projects in several industries, including oil and gas (Royal Dutch Shell), steel (Danieli), and mining (BHP, Rio Tinto, Anglo American, and Vale). His extensive practical experience in the industry has equipped him to work with complex industrial problems in highly technical and multi-disciplinary teams.",institutionString:"Artificial Intelligence Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"526",title:"Software Intelligent Agents",slug:"software-intelligent-agents"}],chapters:[{id:"78670",title:"Introductory Chapter: Virtual Assistants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100248",slug:"introductory-chapter-virtual-assistants",totalDownloads:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ali Soofastaei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78670",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78670",authors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],corrections:null},{id:"74876",title:"Generating the Voice of the Interactive Virtual Assistant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95510",slug:"generating-the-voice-of-the-interactive-virtual-assistant",totalDownloads:386,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter introduces an overview of the current approaches for generating spoken content using text-to-speech synthesis (TTS) systems, and thus the voice of an Interactive Virtual Assistant (IVA). The overview builds upon the issues which make spoken content generation a non-trivial task, and introduces the two main components of a TTS system: text processing and acoustic modelling. It then focuses on providing the reader with the minimally required scientific details of the terminology and methods involved in speech synthesis, yet with sufficient knowledge so as to be able to make the initial decisions regarding the choice of technology for the vocal identity of the IVA. The speech synthesis methodologies’ description begins with the basic, easy to run, low-requirement rule-based synthesis, and ends up within the state-of-the-art deep learning landscape. To bring this extremely complex and extensive research field closer to commercial deployment, an extensive indexing of the readily and freely available resources and tools required to build a TTS system is provided. Quality evaluation methods and open research problems are, as well, highlighted at end of the chapter.",signatures:"Adriana Stan and Beáta Lőrincz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74876",authors:[{id:"333913",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Stan",slug:"adriana-stan",fullName:"Adriana Stan"},{id:"344059",title:"MSc.",name:"Beáta",surname:"Lőrincz",slug:"beata-lorincz",fullName:"Beáta Lőrincz"}],corrections:null},{id:"74746",title:"Virtual Assistants and Ethical Implications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95479",slug:"virtual-assistants-and-ethical-implications",totalDownloads:426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Virtual assistants are becoming a part of our daily life, from our homes to our work. Sometime we may not even know that the customer service agent that we were speaking with is a virtual assistant. These assistants continuously collect information from our interactions and learn many things about us. The information they gather over time is enormous. This chapter introduces the concept of ethics, discusses the ethical principles of virtual assistants, (Transparency, Justice & fairness, Non-maleficence, Responsibly and Privacy). Although there is limited regulation governing these virtual assistants, practical guidelines and recommendations are provided for designers and developers to understand the ethical implications when building a virtual assistant. In this chapter, we also discuss technology and learning techniques for virtual assistants and present examples on how to ensure ethical virtual assistant.",signatures:"Abhishek Kaul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74746",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74746",authors:[{id:"331237",title:"Mr.",name:"Abhishek",surname:"Kaul",slug:"abhishek-kaul",fullName:"Abhishek Kaul"}],corrections:null},{id:"75694",title:"Group-Assign: Type Theoretic Framework for Human AI Orchestration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96739",slug:"group-assign-type-theoretic-framework-for-human-ai-orchestration",totalDownloads:280,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In today’s Information Age, we work under the constant drive to be more productive. Unsurprisingly, we progress towards being an AI-augmented workforce where we are augmented by AI assistants and collaborate with each other (and their AI assistants) at scale. In the context of humans, a human language suffices to describe and orchestrate our intents (and corresponding actions) with others. This, however, is clearly insufficient in the context of humans and machines. To achieve this, communication across a network of different humans and machines is crucial. With this objective, our research scope covers and presents a type theoretic framework and language built upon type theory (a branch of symbolic logic in mathematics), to enable the collaboration within a network of humans and AI assistants. While the idea of human-machine or human-computer collaboration is not new, to the best of our knowledge, we are one of the first to propose the use of type theory to orchestrate and describe human-machine collaboration. In our proposed work, we define a fundamental set of type theoretic rules and abstract functions Group and Assign to achieve the type theoretic description, composition and orchestration of intents and implementations for an AI-augmented workforce.",signatures:"Aik Beng Ng, Simon See, Zhangsheng Lai and Shaowei Lin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75694",authors:[{id:"341635",title:"Dr.",name:"Aik Beng",surname:"Ng",slug:"aik-beng-ng",fullName:"Aik Beng Ng"},{id:"342548",title:"Prof.",name:"Simon",surname:"See",slug:"simon-see",fullName:"Simon See"},{id:"346282",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhangsheng",surname:"Lai",slug:"zhangsheng-lai",fullName:"Zhangsheng Lai"},{id:"346285",title:"Prof.",name:"Shaowei",surname:"Lin",slug:"shaowei-lin",fullName:"Shaowei Lin"}],corrections:null},{id:"74875",title:"AI-Powered Virtual Assistants in the Realms of Banking and Financial Services",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95813",slug:"ai-powered-virtual-assistants-in-the-realms-of-banking-and-financial-services",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter aims at providing a framework for analysis on evolutionary trends in finance that have to do with technological progress and especially with artificial intelligence (AI) applications. The starting point can be identified with a survey on how they have modified the business areas involving banking and financial services and on what can be expected – in terms of future strategic shifts and behavioral changes – on both the supply and the demand sides. The next step revolves around a wider and deeper investigation on the role that virtual assistants have started to – and are likely to further – play in the areas under scrutiny: special attention is requested upon the provision of enhanced customer service support, including conversational AI and sound branding; implications encompass developments that are on the cards, based upon digitalization as a must – not just an option – as shown by the Covid-19 pandemic. Conclusions allow to emphasize the significance, advancing features and value of this conceptual paper, as it leads to sort out best practices and success stories that are worth disseminating and replicating to benefit not only individuals and enterprises having direct interest in them, but society as a whole.",signatures:"Margherita Mori",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74875",authors:[{id:"335401",title:"Prof.",name:"Margherita",surname:"Mori",slug:"margherita-mori",fullName:"Margherita Mori"}],corrections:null},{id:"75862",title:"Specific Wear Rate Modeling of Polytetraflouroethylene Composites via Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) Tools",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95242",slug:"specific-wear-rate-modeling-of-polytetraflouroethylene-composites-via-artificial-neural-network-ann-",totalDownloads:241,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lately, artificial neural network (ANN) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) models have been recognized as potential and good tools for mathematical modeling of complex and nonlinear behavior of specific wear rate (SWR) of composite materials. In this study, modeling and prediction of specific wear rate of polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE) composites using FFNN and ANFIS models were examined. The performances of the models were compared with conventional multilinear regression (MLR) model. To establish the proper choice of input variables, a sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the most influential parameter on the SWR. The modeling and prediction performance results showed that FFNN and ANFIS models outperformed that of the MLR model by 45.36% and 45.80%, respectively. The sensitivity analysis findings revealed that the volume fraction of reinforcement and density of the composites and sliding distance were the most and more influential parameters, respectively. 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Experimental results show that approach using the CNN + LSTM has a 93.28% accuracy with an average detection time of 25 seconds, whilst the approach has a slightly lower accuracy. These times are within typical times for loading a web page which makes toolbar integration into a browser a practical option for website phishing detection in real time. The results of this development are compared with previous work and demonstrate both better or similar detection performance. 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by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek 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\r\n\tNanorods have attracted extensive research interest in science and technology due to their extraordinary properties, and high aspect ratio. They can be synthesized from carbon and other metal-based materials. These nanorods have found applications in different fields such as aerospace and automobile industries, biomedical fields, biosensors, catalysis, lithium-ion batteries, EMI shielding, etc. Nanorods are used in biomedical applications in drug delivery and cancer therapy, but their toxic behavior and mechanism are still unclear. This book proposes novel, fundamental, and comprehensive updates on the advancement in nanorods' synthesis, properties, and applications. Nanorods' toxicity levels and measurements are essential due to their increasing toxic effects on living organisms. Therefore, the new mechanism-based toxicity strategies will also be covered in this book to determine the toxic effects of nanorods. This book aims to bring concisely and compiled information in the book chapters. This book can provide benefits to teachers, students, and researchers.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-903-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-902-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-904-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fb27f444442e8f039b560beae93e6873",bookSignature:"Prof. Tejendra Kumar Gupta",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11757.jpg",keywords:"Nanorods, Carbon Nanorods, Silver Nitrate Nanorods, Tin Oxide Nanorods, Chemical Vapor Deposition, Ball Milling, Laser Ablation, Flame Synthesis, Sol-Gel, Microwave Plasma, Coprecipitation, Electrical Properties",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Gupta is a Researcher in Carbon-based nanomaterials and Polymer nanocomposites and an Assistant Professor at the Amity Institute of Applied Sciences. He has over 30 research publications in SCI-indexed journals, and over 15 presentations in conferences including Invited Lecture and book chapters to his credit.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345089",title:"Prof.",name:"Tejendra Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Gupta",slug:"tejendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Tejendra Kumar Gupta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345089/images/system/345089.jpg",biography:"Dr Tejendra Kumar Gupta is working as Assistant Professor in Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Amity University, Noida, India. He obtained his doctoral degree from Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (Institute of National Importance), CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India. Dr Gupta is a recipient of Dr D.S. Kothari Postdoctoral Research Fellowship Award from UGC, India and MI-MIT collaborated Postdoctoral Research Fellowship by Masdar Institute of Science and Technology (A part of Khalifa University of Science and Technology), Abu Dhabi, UAE. He is Editor and Reviewer of several International Journals of Materials Sciences, Polymer composites, Mechanical Engineering and Water Technology. Dr Gupta has over 30 research publications in SCI indexed journals, over 15 presentations in conferences including Invited Lecture and book chapters to his credit. His research focuses on synthesis of carbon based nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and graphene and fabrication of polymer matrix nanocomposites for various applications such as electromagnetic interference shielding, mechanical electrical, thermal and strain sensing properties of polymer nanocomposites.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"17",title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429343",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Ivancic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429343/images/19998_n.jpg",email:"martina@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5884",title:"Unraveling the Safety Profile of Nanoscale Particles and Materials",subtitle:"From Biomedical to Environmental Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e5811aa0f15ab9d8b6a235e8408875d",slug:"unraveling-the-safety-profile-of-nanoscale-particles-and-materials-from-biomedical-to-environmental-applications",bookSignature:"Andreia C. Gomes and Marisa P. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65858",title:"Applications of Synchrotron-Source IR Spectroscopy for the Investigation of Insect Wings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84591",slug:"applications-of-synchrotron-source-ir-spectroscopy-for-the-investigation-of-insect-wings",body:'\nInfrared (IR) spectroscopy can be used for the chemical characterisation and identification of materials. The use of a synchrotron light source, which is extremely intense and highly collimated, enables a superior signal-to-noise ratio and high-resolution spatial mapping of materials and surfaces compared to alternative IR sources.
\nIR spectroscopy relies on the absorption of specific wavelengths within the IR spectra, upon interacting with certain molecular bonding. Differences in electronegativity and/or orientations of molecular species create a disproportional distribution of charges. Atomic elements that are more electronegative more strongly attract electrons when bonding with an element with lower electronegativity, resulting in dipole moments. As the molecules naturally vibrate, the distance between the negative charge centre of each elemental species in a specific bond fluctuates, creating an electric field. This fluctuation is known as the resonant frequency. If the frequency of the IR radiation, which changes according to wavelength, matches the molecular resonant frequency, the radiation is absorbed. The size of the molecular frequency is determined by the size and electronegativity of the atoms involved in the chemical bond, as well as the immediate molecular environment. These modes of vibration can include bending, scissoring, rocking and symmetric and asymmetric stretching [1]. Through detection of absorbed wavelength ranges, which typically form easily identifiable peaks, it is possible to determine the major chemical bonding present in the sample, indicative of the chemical composition [2, 3].
\nThis chapter discusses the setup, advantages and results of synchrotron-source IR spectroscopy for the investigation of insect wings, with a particular focus on the setup at the Australian Synchrotron. The wings of particular insects are of interest as they possess unique anti-wetting, anti-biofouling and mechano-bactericidal properties due to their chemical composition and nanostructured surface [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. These properties are useful as biomimetic templates for the design of anti-wetting and anti-biofouling materials, with applications in a range of industries such as the hulls of ships or water pipes [9]. Additionally, the mechano-bactericidal activity of these surfaces provide a novel solution to preventing bacterial colonisation on biomedical devices and other surfaces, particularly in light of emerging concerns of antibiotic resistance. These surfaces are advantageous to present strategies which rely largely on coatings embedded with antimicrobial agents resulting in issues of reduced efficacy over time and cytotoxic side effects and can promote the development of resistance [10, 11, 12, 13].
\nInfrared (IR) microspectroscopy, as the name suggests, allows the chemical composition of materials to be determined at the microscopic scale. Typically, an IR transmission microscope, with all reflecting optics, is coupled to a Fourier-transform IR (FTIR) spectrometer, permitting mid-IR absorption spectra to be collected from features as small as 5–10 μm in size within a sample to be analysed or identified. This process relies on the use of a high numerical aperture (NA) condenser and objective optics to focus the IR beam onto the sample, with the subsequent collection of the beam that has passed through the sample. The limit of the sample dimensions that can be examined is set by the optical diffraction limit at the analysing wavelength (e.g. 1600 cm−1 = 6.25 μm in wavelength). Selection of the region of interest for analysis is typically determined by inserting an aperture into the optical path of the IR beam at a focus position that is placed either before or after the sample. This results in a loss of most of the intensity of the beam from a conventional IR source, such as that of a Globar™ source, from reaching the detector. Alternatively, multi-pixel IR imaging detectors, such as linear array and focal plane array (FPA) detectors, can be used to enable the simultaneous collection of FTIR spectra from many positions within the sample. This approach, however, also typically relies on less than 0.1% of the total intensity of the IR source being directed to each sensing element of the FPA detector.
\nAn alternative approach, described here, combines the high brightness of a broadband synchrotron source with an FTIR spectrometer and IR microscope, which enables the full intensity of the IR source to be directed to a diffraction-limited position on the sample. This results in a high signal intensity and a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) when analysing samples with features of 5–10 μm in size [14, 15, 16]. Synchrotron IR beamlines dedicated to the high spatial resolution analysis of microscopic materials are currently in operation at a number of national laboratories worldwide.
\nThe Australian Synchrotron commenced operations for researchers in 2007, with two IR beamlines having been included in the initial suite of beamlines. One of these was dedicated to high spectral resolution gas-phase spectroscopy in the far-IR spectral region, while the other beamline was established for mid-IR microspectroscopy. Extraction of IR radiation from the Australian Synchrotron is achieved though the incorporation of a removable plane mirror (M1, see Figure 1) within the vacuum chamber of one of the dipole bending magnets of the electron storage ring. Figure 1A shows the modified vacuum chamber of the electron storage ring, with two ports incorporated to enable the insertion of the IR M1 mirror and extraction of the IR light reflected off the M1 mirror. Figure 1B shows the M1 mirror undergoing vibration testing prior to installation in the synchrotron storage ring. When inserted, the M1 mirror collects an angular portion of the emitted IR and visible synchrotron radiation of 58 mrad (horizontal) and 17 mrad (vertical), with this beam being reflected towards a toroidal focusing mirror (M2). This mirror focuses the beam downwards towards two plane mirrors M3 and M3a, which, in turn, direct the beam to a focus point through the shield wall at a position just beyond a chemical vapour deposition (CVD) diamond window that separates the vacuum of the synchrotron storage ring from the vacuum of the IR beamlines.
\n(A) Modified vacuum chamber of the storage ring dipole magnet, with ports to allow the insertion of the M1 beamline mirror and the collection of the reflected radiation. (B) M1 mirror undergoing vibration testing. (C) Layout of the beamline optics of the IRM and THz/far-IR beamlines and their shared beamline front end.
A schematic depiction of the beamline layout is given in Figure 1C. Beyond the CVD diamond window, the synchrotron beam expands and is directed to the beam splitter optics, where half of the horizontal fan of radiation is reflected to each of the two IR beamlines. The final matching optics for each of the IR beamlines is designed to provide a well-collimated beam that is matched in dimensions to the internal optics of the FTIR instrument, which is coupled to the beamline. In the case of the IR microspectroscopy (IRM) beamline, a combination of plane mirrors and a spherical focusing mirror delivers a collimated beam of approximately 12 mm × 12 mm in an area at the entrance port of the FTIR spectrometer. While this beam does not fill the interferometer beam splitter, it provides a beam that is matched in size to the entrance aperture of the reflecting condenser optic used for most experiments.
\nThe IRM beamline at Australian Synchrotron is equipped with a Bruker VERTEX 80v FTIR spectrometer coupled with a Hyperion 2000 FTIR microscope and a liquid nitrogen-cooled narrowband mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detector (Bruker Optik GmbH, Ettlingen, Germany). The synchrotron FTIR mapping measurements described in this chapter were performed within a spectral range of 3800–700 cm−1 using a 4 or 8 cm−1 spectral resolution. Blackman-Harris 3-Term apodisation, Mertz phase correction and zero-filling factor of 2 were set as default acquisition parameters using OPUS software suite (Bruker).
\nThere are several operation modes available at the beamline, depending on the specific requirements of the experiment. The primary modes of operation are transmission, reflectance, transflectance, grazing incidence reflectance and attenuated total reflection (ATR). Transmission microspectroscopy generally requires the samples to be thinner than ~10 μm, whereas reflectance and transflectance measurements ideally require the sample to be highly polished or placed on a reflective substrate such as gold or on low-emissivity (low-E) slides. Grazing incidence reflectance can be applied to the study of thin films on metallic surfaces, while ATR microspectroscopy can be applied to a diverse array of samples ranging from soft gels [17], fingermarks [18] and food products [19] to single fibres [20] and composite materials [21, 22]. Details of the experimental setups for transmission and ATR measurements, which are the two main operation modes used for the investigation of insect wings, are given below.
\nPrior to spectral data acquisition, the preparation of insect wing samples involves the dissection of the wing membrane into rectangular sections of approximately 5 mm × 8 mm in area using a surgical blade. The wing sections were then gently rinsed with MilliQ H2O (resistivity of 18.2 MΩ cm−1, Merck Millipore, Washington, DC, USA) and then blow-dried using 99.99% purity nitrogen gas [23, 24, 25, 26].
\nFor transmission measurements, the wing sections were held on a gap between an aluminium support frame using polyimide (Kapton®) tape to fix both sides of the section, before being transferred onto the sample stage of the microscope (Figure 2A). The IR microscope was operated with a matching 36× IR reflecting objective and condenser (NA = 0.5). In transmission mode, the synchrotron IR beam passes through a condenser located below the microscope stage and is focused into a small spot onto the wing sample (Figure 2B). By coupling the IR microscope to a synchrotron source, significant advantages could be gained regarding the highly collimated and highly intense synchrotron IR beam, particularly for single point FTIR microanalysis of sampling areas in the order of 3–5 μm2. At the IRM beamline, the area of measurement per pixel on the sample is defined by the size of a single aperture located in a focal plane between the sample and detector, which can be adjusted to be as small as 4–5 μm, whereas the minimum step interval between pixels allowed for this microscope is 1 μm. Therefore, synchrotron FTIR microspectroscopy has been proven to be a powerful analytical tool for acquiring the spatially resolved distribution of chemical functional groups present across selected areas of the insect wings being analysed [14, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\n(A) An aluminium support frame used as a sample holder for mounting insect wing sections prior to them being transferred onto the microscope stage and (B) schematic diagram showing the IR beam path in transmission mode for the investigation of insect wings.
ATR-FTIR spectroscopy utilises the property of total internal reflection, which is established when light travelling in an optically denser medium of an ATR crystal element impinges onto the surface of a lower-index medium with an incident angle greater than the critical angle [27]. Under these specific conditions, the electromagnetic field (i.e. an evanescent wave) penetrates and decays exponentially within a shallow depth of the adjacent low-index sample. Any IR-absorbing material located in contact with this interface interacts with the evanescent field resulting in an IR absorption, which is consequently transformed into an ATR-FTIR spectrum. The typical path lengths that the evanescent wave penetrates into most organic samples range from 0.2 μm to 5 μm, depending on the refractive indices of the ATR crystal and the sample, the angle of incidence and the wavelength of light [27]. As a result, the ATR-FTIR technique has been widely used for probing surface-specific molecular information of materials. The technique has been used as an alternative sampling method (i) when the sample cannot be prepared as thin sections for transmission measurements and (ii) to avoid scattering artefacts commonly presented in transflectance measurements.
\nTwo models of ATR devices were developed for mapping measurements at the IRM beamline based on the use of an ATR hemispherical element known as the macroscopic (macro) ATR-FTIR technique [17, 28]. The technique increases the field of view and only requires a single contact point for the entire mapping measurement, preventing the cross contamination between measurement points and minimising the sample damage, which often occur in the traditional microscopic (micro) ATR-FTIR approach where repeated contacts are performed similar to a tapping mode.
\nWhile one of the ATR models was developed based on a piezo-controlled driving system [17], the so-called “hybrid” macro ATR-FTIR, which is the main ATR device used for the analysis of insect wings, was developed by modifying the cantilever arm of a standard Bruker macro ATR-FTIR unit to accept germanium (Ge) ATR elements with different facet sizes (i.e. 1 mm, 250 μm and 100 μm in diameter) to suit for different types of sample surfaces (Figure 3A). Coupling the synchrotron IR beam to the Ge ATR hemispherical crystal (
(A) Hybrid macro ATR-FTIR device, showing the standard macro ATR-FTIR unit (top) and the adaptation of the cantilever arm to couple with the smaller diameter Ge micro-ATR crystal (2) compared to the original 1 mm diameter Ge macro ATR crystal (1) (bottom) and (B) data acquisition process involving background measurement of air in the noncontact position followed by mapping measurement of the wing sample in the contact position.
In practice, the wing section was mounted on an aluminium disc using polyimide (Kapton®) tape to hold both sides of the wing. The aluminium disc was then placed into the sample stage of the macro ATR-FTIR unit. As illustrated in Figure 3B, the Ge ATR crystal was subsequently brought to the focus of the synchrotron IR beam, and a background spectrum was recorded in air using 4 or 8 cm−1 spectral resolution and 256 co-added scans. After that, the wing sample was brought into contact with the Ge ATR crystal, and a synchrotron macro ATR-FTIR chemical map was acquired using shorter co-added scans (such as 8, 16 or 32 scans) depending on the observed absorption intensity and the quality of the contact. With the use of a Ge ATR crystal (
The use of synchrotron-source infrared (IR) spectroscopy is an effective method of surface characterisation to determine the chemical composition across insect wings. The intense and highly collimated light source allows sensitive detection of chemical components with high-resolution spatial mapping.
\nThe wings of some insects exhibit unique anti-wetting, anti-biofouling, self-cleaning and bactericidal properties, primarily due to nanostructured arrays of lipids on the wing epicuticle [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. These properties are of interest as a biomimetic template for the design of anti-biofouling and self-cleaning surfaces, with applications in a range of industries [9]. Additionally, the mechano-bactericidal activity of these surfaces provides a novel solution to preventing bacterial colonisation on biomedical devices and other surfaces, particularly in light of emerging concerns of antibiotic resistance. This bactericidal activity was first discovered on the wings of cicadas and shortly after dragonflies and damselflies and has since been successfully extended to synthetic analogues of the wings, with similar high aspect ratio nanoscale features [5, 29, 30, 31]. These surfaces present advantages over traditional strategies that typically rely on coatings embedded with antimicrobial agents, which can have issues of reduced efficacy over time and cytotoxic side effects and promote the development of resistance [10, 11, 12, 13].
\nThe wing membrane of these insects can be broken into two primary components, the procuticle and the epicuticle (Figure 4). These insect wings have been widely studied as strong, lightweight materials, especially in the context of aerodynamics [32, 33, 34]. The wing can be broadly defined as composed of two layers, the procuticle, which is the predominate layer and the epicuticle, which consists of a thin layer of nanoscale pillars on both the dorsal and ventral sides of the procuticle and significantly contributes to the surface properties of the wings.
\nProposed model of the epicuticle of the dragonfly wing membrane. Three layers are contained within the epicuticle: the outer epicuticle, the meso epicuticle and the inner epicuticle (adapted from Ivanova et al.) [
Synchrotron-source IR spectroscopy is useful for investigating the chemical composition of defined areas of materials. IR spectroscopy provides important information of the molecular bonding, groups and structure of chemical identities present in a sample. The extremely intense and collimated light generated enables significantly improved sensitivity, with a low signal-to-noise ratio. Furthermore, the IRM beamline at the Australian Synchrotron is coupled to a Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer and microscope, providing a highly focused IR beam, which enables spatially resolved chemical maps close to the diffraction limit, to be generated pixel by pixel. These properties are advantageous when characterising the chemical composition and distribution of the insect wing membrane, which is only a few microns thick, and possess lateral features on the nano-/microscale. A comparison with other surface chemistry characterisation techniques is made in Table 1.
\nTechnique | \nInsect wing sample | \nAdvantages | \nDisadvantages | \nRefs | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Synchrotron-source IR spectroscopy | \nDragonfly, cicada and damselfly wings | \nPerformed in atmospheric conditions and suitable for sensitive samples Able to map chemical functionality across the wings with high spatial resolution | \nDoes not provide the identity of individual chemical species (only chemical bonding) | \n[14, 24, 36] | \n
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy | \nDragonfly wings, 15 species of cicadas | \nOverall chemistry of insect wing surfaces at the top layer Capable of surface excavation to reveal the chemical depth profile | \nDoes not provide details of chemical bonding Unable to map | \n[35] [37] | \n
Raman microspectroscopy | \nOverall chemical functionality of insect wing surfaces Able to map the wing surfaces with pixel-to-pixel distance less than 1 μm | \nLow signal-to-noise ratio Interference by the fluorescent background of the insect wings | \n[38] | \n|
MALDI-TOF mass microspectroscopy | \nWings of the grey flesh fly ( | \nProvides the direct chemical functionality of the insect wing surface Able to map chemical functionality across the insect wings | \nThe samples are required to be completely flat Low spatial resolution Destructive to the sample | \n[39] | \n
A comparison of different techniques to characterise the surface chemistry of different insect wings.
Insect wings were cut into small sections using a sterile surgical blade. Spectra were collected in transmission mode within the 4000–800 cm−1 spectral region. High-resolution spectral maps of the wing samples were obtained through FTIR microspectroscopy at the infrared microspectroscopy (IRM) beamline at the Australian Synchrotron. These spectral maps detail spatial variations in peaks representative of lipid components (ester carbonyl C〓O peak or C▬H stretching peaks). A comparison of the nanostructures present on the wing membrane surface and lipid spectral maps of different cicada, dragonfly and damselfly species is presented in Table 2.
\nA comparison of the nanostructures present on the wing membrane surface of different cicada, dragonfly and damselfly species and high-resolution lipid spectral maps generated using IR microspectroscopy.
With the exception of the second entry (
Lipid spectral map generated by the absorbance under the
Spectral data in Cheeseman et al. [36] was collected using an offline Globar™ IR source at the IRM beamline at the Australian Synchrotron
Lipid spectral maps for
The wing membrane of cicadas, on both the ventral and dorsal sides, consists of a periodic hexagonal array of spherically capped nanopillars [23, 44]. Comparatively, the wing membranes of dragonflies and damselflies are covered with an irregular array of single and clustering nanopillars, which are typically taller with a larger distribution in height than those present on cicada wings.
\nWhere provided, the 2D spectral maps of the dragonfly wings showed spatial variations in the intensity of the ester carbonyl peak and
The average spectra from each sample contain three major band groups at 3500–3100 cm−1, 3000–2800 cm−1 and 1800–1450 cm−1 which correspond to the hydroxyl, alkyl hydrocarbons and ester carbonyl groups, respectively [3, 45, 46]. The presence of C▬H stretching bands, particularly
Average IR spectra of an area of the wing membrane of a species of cicada (
In addition to transmission mode, there is also attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mode available at the Australian Synchrotron. This mode utilises a Ge crystal with a high refractive index, through an in-house-developed device, generating an evanescent wave penetrating only the top surface layer of the sample, as described above. The high refractive index promotes detection of molecular bonding in very small concentrations in the sample. This mode is advantageous to transmission for thick or opaic samples, where transmission is not achievable or in circumstances when only the top surface of the sample is of interest. In the case of characterising insect wing membranes, ATR mode provides a complimentary technique to transmission, generating high-resolution spectral maps of only the top surfaces (primarily epicuticle), which is of interest as the primary contributor to the unique anti-wetting, anti-biofouling and bactericidal properties. A comparison of spectral maps generated from ATR and transmission mode of the wings of two dragonflies is presented in Figure 6.
\nComparison of the distribution of lipid components of the wing membrane of two dragonflies,
The high spatial resolution of ATR IR spectroscopy demonstrates the lateral distributions of lipids/waxes on the micron scale (Figure 6). Additionally, because the light source only partially penetrates the surface in ATR mode, the spectral map more closely represents the lipid distribution on the wing epicuticle, composed of an irregular array of lipid nanopillars. However, there is also a compromise as structural details of the procuticle are not included and the total imaging area is limited to the facet size of the crystal. Additionally, because ATR mode requires physical contact between the crystal and the sample surface, image quality is affected by the topography of the surface, with issues arising with non-flat surfaces. For example, it is not possible to image both the vein and membrane sections of the dragonfly wings due to the large height difference between the membrane and vein surface.
\nThe use of synchrotron-source infrared (IR) spectroscopy is an effective method of surface characterisation to determine the chemical composition across insect wings. The intense and highly collimated light source allows sensitive detection of chemical components with high-resolution spatial mapping. Such sensitive surface characterisation is useful for insect wings, as well as other natural materials with unique surface properties, which may have important applications as templates for biomedical, environmental or industrially relevant materials.
\nThis research was undertaken in part on the IRM beamline at Australian Synchrotron (Victoria, Australia), part of ANSTO. The development of the macro ATR-FTIR device mentioned here was funded as part of the Science Projects at the Australian Synchrotron and has been made available to users of the IRM beamline. The authors wish to acknowledge Mr. Alan Easdon from the Australian Synchrotron, for his substantial contribution to the design and mechanical works associated with the development of this device.
\nThe authors declare no conflicts of interest in this work.
Among the estimated 300,000 patients per year worldwide undergoing radiotherapy for pelvic malignant diseases such as carcinoma of the uterine cervix and corpus, bladder and prostate, nine out of 10 will develop a permanent change in their bowel habit [1]. Furthermore, this UK group and an Australian group of clinician scientists have independently reported that 50% of all patients report an adverse impact on activities of daily living (ADL) after pelvic radiotherapy [1, 2].
The radiation induced bowel symptoms which have the greatest adverse effect on ADL are anorectal symptoms such as increased frequency and urgency of defecation, fecal incontinence and rectal bleeding collectively referred to as Chronic Radiation Proctitis (CRP) [1, 2, 3].
The prevalence of CRP is uncertain. Studies using physician based questionnaires such as the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) scales report a prevalence of only 5–10% [4]. However, because these scales do not evaluate common anorectal symptoms such as urgency of defecation and fecal incontinence, physician based scales probably under-estimate the prevalence of CRP. In support of this, studies that have included patient-based questionnaires such as the Late Effect Normal Tissue – Subjective Objective Management Analytic (LENT – SOMA) scales have reported that up to 78% of patients have persistent anorectal symptoms after radiotherapy for prostate carcinoma [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Although persistent anorectal symptoms impair the daily activities of 50% of all patients 5 years after pelvic radiotherapy, the pathophysiology of anorectal dysfunction has not been fully characterized and its treatment is unsatisfactory. Previous physiological studies in patients with anorectal dysfunction after radiotherapy have been limited either by methodological inadequacies [10] or lack of follow-up studies beyond 2 years [11, 12].
The rationale for the selection of each of the 4 listed studies for discussion in this chapter are provided under the sub-headings below:
Pathophysiology and natural history of anorectal sequelae following radiation therapy for carcinoma of the prostate [2]
In view of the limitations of previous physiological studies of anorectal function after radiotherapy for prostate carcinoma, 5 year data from an Australian prospective, longitudinal study of a subset of patients who participated in a Phase III randomized trial comparing a 4 week course of (hypofractionated) radiotherapy with the then conventional 6.5 week schedule of radiotherapy for carcinoma of the prostate [13] will first be presented.
A retrospective study of the effects of pelvic irradiation for gynecological cancer on anorectal function [14])
As at least a third of patients, who have had pelvic radiotherapy for gynecological cancer are reported to suffer significant radiation bowel sequelae [1], anorectal function data from the above retrospective study will be presented next.
Argon Plasma Coagulation Therapy versus Topical Formalin for intractable rectal bleeding and anorectal dysfunction after radiation therapy for prostate carcinoma [15]
As rectal bleeding is the second most common reason for referral to a gastroenterologist after pelvic radiotherapy even though it impairs the ADL’s of only 6% of patients [1], data from the only randomized trial of two current approaches used in the treatment of haemorrhagic radiation proctitis above will follow.
Pudendal nerve injury impairs anorectal function and health related quality of life measures ≥2 years after 3D conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer [16]
Previous studies of the pathophysiology of anorectal dysfunction after radiotherapy for carcinoma of the prostate including our own have implicated weakness of the external anal sphincter (EAS) and internal anal sphincter (IAS), decreased rectal compliance, increased rectal sensitivity and faster distal colonic transit [2, 17, 18]. The underlying pathogenesis proposed for the observed changes in anorectal dysmotility is either myogenic or neurogenic. However, as muscle tissue particularly striated muscle constituting the EAS is more resistant to radiation damage than neural tissue [2], evidence of pudendal nerve injury after radiotherapy for prostate cancer is presented in the above study [16]. In addition, the editorial accompanying the publication states that the findings show the way forward for the restoration of bowel health of patients who have been adversely affected following pelvic radiotherapy for urological and gynecological malignant diseases [19].
The 34 patients, median age = 68 (range 54–79) years, selected for the above study met the following eligibility criteria:
Were part of the 217 total patient population participating in a previous Phase III randomized trial of two radiation dose schedules [13]
Have completed (7) serial evaluations (before radiotherapy, at 1 month and at 1 yearly intervals to 5 years after completion of radiotherapy) of anorectal function using the same manometric assembly
Have not needed treatment intervention likely to influence anorectal function such as a constant requirement for antidiarrhoeal medication and argon plasma coagulation therapy (APC) for rectal bleeding
Have provided signed informed consent
Of the total patient population of 217 patients, 86 patients (57 completed two serial evaluations of anorectal function using an earlier manometric assembly which meant that later serial measurements were no longer comparable, 5 started radiotherapy before baseline evaluation and 24 patients died before 5 years), failed to meet eligibility criterion (ii), 12 patients, who required APC for rectal bleeding after radiotherapy, failed eligibility criterion (iii) and 85 patients, who withdrew consent for anorectal manometry after radiotherapy because of distant domicile from the laboratory, failed eligibility criterion (iv).
Each of the 34 patients meeting all eligibility criteria for the study underwent evaluations of (i) gastrointestinal symptoms (modified LENT-SOMA scales including effect on activities of daily living (ADL), (ii) anorectal motor and sensory function (manometry with a perfused sleeve and multiport assembly incorporating a highly compliant polyethylene bag in the rectum) and (iii) anal sphincteric morphology (endoanal ultrasound) before radiotherapy and at 1 month, then yearly for 5 years after completion of radiotherapy.
Total GI symptom scores increased after radiotherapy and remained above baseline levels at 5 years (Table 1). At this time, 48% of patients reported impairment of ADL [2].
Baseline | 1 mo | 1 y | 2 y | 3 y | 4 y | 5 y | ANOVA P value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stool frequency | 0(0–2) | 1(0–2) | 1(0–2) | 1(0–2) | 1(0–1) | 1(0–2) | 1(0–1) | 0.05 |
Stool Consistency | 0(0–1) | 0(0–2) | 0(0–2) | 0(0–2) | 0(0–2) | 0(0–1) | 0(0–2) | ns |
Rectal Pain | 0(0–1) | 0(0–3) | 0(0–1) | 0(0–1) | 0(0–1) | 0(0–1) | 0(0–2) | <.01 |
Rectal mucous discharge | 0(0–2) | 0(0–4) | 0(0–3) | 0(0–3) | 0(0–3) | 0(0–3) | 0(0–3) | <.01 |
Urgency of defecation | 0(0–3) | 0(0–4) | 1(0–3) | 1(0–3) | 1(0–4) | 1(0–3) | 1(0–3) | ns |
Rectal bleeding | 0(0–2) | 0(0–2) | 0(0–2) | 0(0–3) | 0(0–3) | 0(0–2) | 0(0–4) | ns |
Total GI symptom | 2(0–4) | 3(0–10) | 3(0–9)* | 3(0-9)* | 3(0-7)† | 3(0–9)* | 3(0-9)* | <.01 |
Median (range) anorectal symptoms at baseline and 1 month, annually to 5 years after radiation therapy for prostate carcinoma.
P < .05 Compared with baseline.
P < .01 Compared with baseline.
From Yeoh et al. [2], with permission.
The prevalence of persistent urgency of defaecation (44%) was doubled that of rectal bleeding (21%) at 5 years. The % of patients free from the risk of urgency of defecation was significantly less than that of rectal bleeding (Figure 1).
Percent of patients free from urgency of defaecation vs. rectal bleeding 5 years after radiation therapy. GI = gastrointestinal. (From Yeoh et al. [
All measures of anorectal motor function remained below baseline levels at 5 years (Table 2). Furthermore, anal pressures in response to voluntary squeeze and increased intra-abdominal pressure progressively decreased after radiotherapy.
Baseline | 1 mo | 1 y | 2y | 3y | 4y | 5y | ANOVA | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Basal pressure (mm Hg) | 65 ± 3 | 63 ± 3 | 59 ± 3 | 60 ± 3 | 54 ± 3† | 57 ± 3 | 56 ± 3* | <.001 |
Squeeze Pressure (mm Hg) | 128 ± 10 | 126 ± 9 | 106 ± 6* | 105 ± 6† | 104 ± 5† | 103 ± 6† | 99 ± 6‡ | <.0001 |
Increased intra-abdominal Pressure (mm Hg) | 104 ± 5 | 99 ± 4 | 96 ± 5 | 99 ± 5 | 94 ± 4 | 92 ± 5 | 90 ± 5* | <.05 |
First Perception (mL) | 24 ± 2 | 17 ± 1† | 17 ± 1† | 15 ± 1‡ | 14 ± 1‡ | 14 ± 1‡ | 15 ± 1‡ | <.0001 |
Desire to defecate (mL) | 63 ± 7 | 44 ± 5 | 58 ± 6 | 40 ± 4* | 42 ± 3 | 51 ± 6 | 60 ± 8 | <.0001 |
Rectal compliance(mL) | 8.2 ± 0.6 | 7.4 ± 0.5 | 6.8 ± 0.7 | 6.2 ± 0.8* | 6.4 ± 0.7 | 5.7 ± 0.5† | 5.5 ± 0.6† | <0.001 |
IAS thickness(mm) | 2.4 ± 0.1 | 2.2 ± 0.1 | 2.2 ± 0.2 | 2.1 ± 0.1 | 2.1 ± 0.1 | 2.2 ± 01 | 2.3 ± 0.1 | ns |
EAS thickness (mm) | 10.7 ± 0.5 | 11.2 ± 0.5 | 11.2 ± 0.5 | 10.5 ± 0.5 | 10.3 ± 0.7 | 9.6 ± 0.4 | 9.7 ± 0.7 | Ns |
Mean (± SE) anal pressurres (sleeve), rectal sensory volumes, rectal compliance, and anal sphincter thickness at baseline and I month, annually to 5 years after radiation therapy for prostate carcinoma.
P < .05 compared with baseline.
P < .01 compared with baseline.
P < .0001 compared with baseline.
From Yeoh et al. [2], with permission.
The volume for first perception of rectal distension and that associated with the desire to defaecate both decreased after radiotherapy although only threshold volumes for sensory perception at 5 years remained below those recorded at baseline (Table 2). Rectal compliance progressively reduced with time after radiotherapy and remained persistently lower at 5 years compared with that recorded at baseline Table 2).
Radiotherapy had no effect on the thicknesses of the IAS and EAS (Table 2).
There were no differences in any of the GI symptoms nor in any anorectal functional and anal sphincteric morphological measurements between patients randomized to the 2 radiation dose schedules.
5 years after radiotherapy for carcinoma of the prostate, persistent GI symptoms continue to have a significant impact on ADL of almost 50% of all patients. At this time, the prevalence of urgency of defecation (44%) was doubled that of rectal bleeding (21%). Increased GI symptoms after radiotherapy were associated with progressive or persistent reductions of basal anal pressures and pressures in response to voluntary squeeze and increased intra-abdominal pressures, rectal compliance and volumes of sensory perception and desire to defaecate. These physiological changes, which suggest weakness of the IAS and EAS as well as stiffness of the rectal wall and consequent increased rectal sensitivity, are the pathogenetic basis for anorectal dysfunction after radiotherapy for carcinoma of the prostate. The etiology of the motility changes is likely to be neurogenic in the intrinsic neural network in the bowel wall and/or extrinsic nerve supply such as the pudendal nerves since muscle tissue, particularly striated muscle is more resistant to radiation damage.
The 15 patients, median age = 67 (range 47–84) years, selected for the study met the following eligibility criteria:
Were part of the 33 total patient population who completed pelvic and abdominal irradiation 5–10 years earlier for carcinoma of the cervix (n = 30) and endometrium (n = 3) who participated in a previous prospective longitudinal study of changes in gastrointestinal function after pelvic radiotherapy [20]
Had not needed treatment intervention likely to influence anorectal function such as a constant requirement for antidiarrhoeal medication
Had provided signed informed consent
Of the original total patient population of 33 patients, 6 had died and 2 had been lost to follow-up since completing the previous study [20]. The 25 remaining patients were invited to participate in this study, 10 refused including two patients who had intermittent episodes of rectal bleeding.
9 healthy females, median age = 63 (range 41–70) years served as control subjects.
The following parameters were assessed in each subject: (i) anorectal symptoms (questionnaire), (ii) anorectal motor and sensory function (manometry with a perfused sleeve and multiport assembly incorporating a highly compliant latex balloon in the rectum and concurrent electromyography of the anal sphincters) and (iii) anal sphincteric morphology (endoanal ultrasound).
Total anorectal symptom scores was significantly greater in the patients compared with the control subjects (Table 3). Urgency of defaecation was the most frequent symptom, occurring in 10 of the 15 patients (67%). Four of these patients also had fecal incontinence [14]. Urgency of defecation in eight of the 10 patients resulted in changes in lifestyle such that the patients were either housebound or could only go out if there was a toilet nearby [14].
Parameters/subjects | Fecal incontinence | Urgency of defecation | Symptom score* | No. of bowel actions/week* | No. of babies* | No. with large babies | No. who had forceps | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diurnal | Nocturnal | Both | |||||||
Patients | 3/15 | 1/15 | 10/15 | 10/15† | 3‡(0-8) | 13(13-28) | 3(0–12) | 4/15 | 3/15 |
Normal | 0/9 | 0/9 | 1/9 | 1/9 | 0(0) | 7(7–14) | 3(0–4) | 2/9 | 2/9 |
Anorectal symptoms including bowel habits and obstetric parameters in patients and normal subjects.
Median (range).
From Yeoh et al. [14], with permission.
Basal minimum pressures just proximal to the anal canal (4 cm from the anal verge) were lower in the patients than the control subjects (p = 0.05) and there was a trend for lower basal maximum pressures at the same site (p = 0.07, Table 4).
Normal | Patients | ||
---|---|---|---|
EAS (mm) | 8.8 ± 0.5 | 9 ± 0.4 | 0.78 |
IAS (mm) | 2.8 ± 0.2 | 2.3 ± 0.2 | 0.65 |
Anal 0.5 cm† | 64 ± 12.5 | 45.1 ± 5.5 | 0.13 |
Sleeve | 58.7 ± 6.3 | 53.3 ± 6.2 | 0.58 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 22 ± 5.8 | 12.1 ± 1.9 | 0.07 |
Anal 0.5 cm† | 32.2 ± 8.2 | 33.1 ± 5.0 | 0.93 |
Sleeve | 44.3 ± 5.6 | 41.5 ± 5.9 | 0.75 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 14.1 ± 3.3 | 8.1 ± 1.0 | 0.05 |
Anal 0.5 cm† | 108.2 ± 21.6 | 70 ± 10.0 | 0.08 |
Sleeve | 103 ± 10.2 | 68.1 ± 7.2 | 0.01 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 26.4 ± 4.6 | 16.3 ± 1.8 | 0.03 |
Change EMG activity (mm) | 6.7 ± 1.8 | 6.2 ± 0.8 | 0.75 |
Anal 0.5 cm† | 61.8 ± 11.6 | 49.4 ± 0.8 | 0.35 |
Sleeve | 70.1 ± 7.5 | 65.6 ± 7.8 | 0.7 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 35.8 ± 3.7 | 30.5 ± 2.2 | 0.21 |
Change EMG activity (mm) | 3.8 ± 1.0 | 3.4 ± 0.5 | 0.75 |
Maximum thickness of IAS and EAS and anorectal pressures (basal, in response to voluntary squeeze and blowing up a party balloon).
Data are mean values ±SEM.
Manometric port distances from anal verge.
From Yeoh et al. [14], with permission.
Squeeze pressures measured at the sleeve sensor and at 4 cm from the anal verge were lower in the patients (p < 0.05, Table 4) and were below the control range in five patients [14].
In the patients, residual anorectal pressures measured at 0.5 cm from the anal verge in response to rectal distension were less (p ≤ 0.05) at volumes of 10 ml, 20 ml and 40 ml (Table 5). There was also a trend for lower pressures in the patients at the highest (100 ml) volume (p = 0.09).
Normal | Patients | ||
---|---|---|---|
Anal 0.5 cm† | 47.3 ± 10.8 | 27.7 ± 4.1 | 0.05 |
Sleeve | 41.6 ± 7.9 | 30.8 ± 4.3 | 0.2 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 8.6 ± 1.5 | 8.1 ± 0.6 | 0.77 |
Anal 0.5 cm* | 40.2 ± 5.9 | 24.6 ± 3.0 | 0.02 |
Sleeve | 34.2 ± 7.5 | 26.7 ± 3.4 | 0.31 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 10.4 ± 1.9 | 9.1 ± 0.7 | 0.44 |
Anal 0.5 cm† | 35.6 ± 4.8 | 23.1 ± 3.2 | 0.04 |
Sleeve | 30.2 ± 4.7 | 30.3 ± 3.7 | 0.99 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 12 ± 1.7 | 10.2 ± 0.8 | 0.3 |
Anal 0.5 cm† | 43.5 ± 12.0 | 29.9 ± 7.6 | 0.33 |
Sleeve | 31.1 ± 6.0 | 30.9 ± 4.0 | 0.98 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 17 ± 2.5 | 12.8 ± 1.3 | 0.12 |
Anal 0.5 cm† | 43.8 ± 11.8 | 20.1 ± 6.3 | 0.09 |
Sleeve | 30.5 ± 6.9 | 35.5 ± 5.7 | 0.59 |
Anorectal 4 cm† | 13.7 ± 2.5 | 19 ± 6.6 | 0.49 |
A higher proportion of patients perceived the desire to defecate at lower rectal volumes than the controls (p < 0.05, Figure 2). The slope of the pressure/volume relationship associated with rectal distension volumes of 20 ml, 40 ml, 60 ml, 100 ml and overall slope was greater in the patients (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001, p < 0.001 and p < 0.05 respectively than the controls, suggesting that rectal compliance was reduced in the patients (Figure 3).
Rectal volumes at which patients and normal subjects felt desire to defaecate. (From Yeoh et al. [
Pressure/volume relationship in patients and controls associated with rectal distension (from Yeoh et al. [
There were no differences in external anal sphincteric electrical activity between the patients and control subjects in response to voluntary squeeze and blowing up a party balloon (Table 4). Either basal pressures, pressures generated in response to rectal distension, voluntary squeeze and blowing up a party balloon were below the control range in 14 of the 15 patients, including all 10 patients with anorectal symptoms [14].
There was no difference in mean EAS and IAS thickness between the two groups (Table 4) nor difference in thicknesses of the EAS and IAS in patients with and without urgency of defaecation [14].
The data indicate that (i) urgency of defaecation, occurring in 10 out 15 (67%) of patients 10–15 years after pelvic irradiation for gynecological cancer resulted in eight of the 10 patients being either housebound or only able to go out if there was a toilet nearby, (ii) anorectal symptoms were associated with multiple parameters of anorectal dysfunction including weakness of the external anal sphincter, stiffness of the rectal wall and consequent increase in rectal sensitivity.
The 30 patients, median age = 72 (range 49–87) years selected for the study met the following eligibility criteria:
Had completed radiotherapy for prostate carcinoma ≥6 months previously
had intractable rectal bleeding (defined as ≥1x per week and/or requiring blood transfusions) attributed to CRP at colonoscopy
had no constant requirement for medications likely to influence anorectal motility such as opioid analgesics and anti-diarrhoeal agents
Had provided signed informed consent
The 30 eligible patients were randomized to treatment with APC (n = 17) or topical formalin (n = 13).
Each patient underwent evaluations of (i) anorectal symptoms (validated questionnaires including modified LENT-SOMA scales for GI symptoms and visual analogue scales for rectal bleeding), (ii) anorectal motor and sensory function (manometry with a perfused sleeve and multiport assembly incorporating a highly compliant polyethylene bag in the rectum) and (iii) anal sphincteric morphology (endoanal ultrasound) before and after the treatment endpoint (defined as reduction of rectal bleeding to 1x per month or better, reduction of visual analogue scales to ≤25 mm, no longer needing blood transfusions). Cross-over to the other therapy was allowed if the treatment endpoint was not reached after 4 treatment sessions.
Rectal bleeding was controlled in twenty nine of the 30 patients after a median of 2 treatment sessions of APC or topical formalin. One patient, initially treated with APC, failed after 4 treatment sessions but achieved control after 3 sessions of cross-over topical formalin, Control of rectal bleeding was evidenced by reductions of its frequency to ≤1x per month, VAS ≤ 25 mm (Figures 4 and 5, Table 6) and no further requirement for blood transfusion in the 2 patients (1 each in APC and topical formalin groups) needing this before randomization to therapy.
Visual analogue scale (VAS) before (pre) and after (post) APC treatment. (From Yeoh et al. [
Visual analogue scale (VAS) before (pre) and after (post) topical formalin treatment. (From Yeoh et al. [
Wilcoxon rank sum test for listed parameters | Before APC | After APC | Before formalin | After formalin | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No. of bowel actions per week | 14(4–39) | 16(7–46) | NS | 16(3–32) | 14(4–42) | NS |
Fecal incontinence scores | 0(0–10) | 0(0–4) | NS | 0(0–3) | 0(0–2) | NS |
Urgency of defecation scores | 3(0–6) | 4(0–6) | NS | 4(0–6) | 4(0–6) | NS |
Rectal bleeding scores | 3(1–4) | 1(0–2) | .0001 | 3(2–4) | 1(0–2) | .001 |
VAS for rectal bleeding (mm) | 52(22–75) | 14(0–34) | .05 | 50(32–100) | 13(0–25) | .01 |
Effect on anorectal symptom parameters of argon plasma coagulation therapy (APC) and topical formalin treatment.
Abbreviations: NS, not significant; VAS, visual analogue scale; Values are median (range).
From Yeoh et al. [15], with permission.
The durability of control of rectal bleeding by APC and topical formalin was evidenced by only 1 patient in each group needing further therapy after a median (range) follow-up of 111 (29–170) months [15].
No effect on other anorectal symptoms, such as increased frequency and urgency of defecation and fecal incontinence, was observed (Table 6).
Other than a reduction in rectal compliance and volumes of sensory perception after APC, no effects on parameters of anorectal function and anal sphincteric morphology were observed (Table 7).
Student’s | Before APC | After APC | Before formalian | After formalin | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Basal pressure (mm Hg) | 52 ± 4 | 58 ± 2 | NS | 58 ± 5 | 51 ± 3 | NS |
Squeeze pressure (mm Hg) | 95 ± 8 | 100 ± 9 | NS | 97 ± 6 | 89 ± 6 | NS |
Increased intra-abdominal pressure (mm Hg) | 85 ± 4 | 88 ± 6 | NS | 87 ± 6 | 92 ± 6 | NS |
Threshold of perception pressure (mm Hg) | 16 ± 1 | 17 ± 1 | NS | 18 ± 2 | 19 ± 2 | NS |
Threshold of perception volume (mL) | 19 ± 2 | 14 ± 1 | .05 | 17 ± 3 | 14 ± 1 | NS |
Desire to defecate (mL) | 61 ± 10 | 48 ± 5 | NS | 45 ± 11 | 47 ± 9 | NS |
Rectal compliance (mm Hg/mL) | 4.2 ± 0.4 | 3.3 ± 0.4 | .01 | 8.1 ± 2.6 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | NS |
IAS thickness (mm) | 2.4 ± 0.1 | 2.2 ± 0.1 | NS | 2.4 ± 0.1 | 2.4 ± 0.2 | NS |
EAS thickness (mm) | 10.0 ± 0.5 | 10.5 ± 0.5 | NS | 11.5 ± 0.6 | 11.2 ± 0.6 | NS |
Effect on anorectal function and anal sphincteric morphology parameters of argon plasma coagulation therapy (APC) and topical formalin treatment.
From Yeoh et al. [15], with permission.
APC and topical formalin had comparable efficacy in the durable control of rectal bleeding associated with chronic radiation proctitis but no beneficial effect on anorectal dysfunction.
The 25 patients, median age = 76 (range 64–83) years, selected for the above study met the following eligibility criteria:
Were part of 80 patients still attending follow up ≥2 years after 3D conformal radiotherapy ± high dose rate brachytherapy (HDR) for localized prostate carcinoma under the supervision of the same tertiary institution based Radiation Oncologist
Had no clinical or radiological signs of relapse
Had not needed treatment intervention likely to influence anorectal function such as a constant requirement for antidiarrhoeal medication nor argon plasma coagulation therapy (APC) for rectal bleeding
Had provided signed informed consent
Of the 80 patients invited to participate in the study, 48 refused, 7 were ineligible (6 had APC for rectal bleeding, 1 patient had received 2D radiotherapy).
25 age matched patients with localized prostate carcinoma in a recent randomized radiotherapy study served as control subjects [21].
Each subject underwent the following evaluations: (i) GI symptoms (modified LENT-SOMA scales), (ii) generic and disease specific HRQoL measures (EORTC QLQ-C30 and EORTC QLQ-PR25 questionnaires), (iii) anorectal motor and sensory function (manometry with a perfused sleeve and multiport assembly incorporating a highly compliant polyethylene bag in the rectum), (iv) pudendal nerve function (terminal motor nerve latency) and (v) anal sphincteric morphology (endoanal ultrasound).
The data of the 25 patients ≥2 years after 3D conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer were compared with the before radiotherapy (baseline) data of the 25 control subjects.
The data of symptomatic (defined as patients with Total LENT-SOMA GI symptom scores ≥5, n = 13) and asymptomatic (defined as patients with Total LENT-SOMA GI symptom scores ≤4, n = 12) patients among the 25 patients ≥2 years after 3D conformal radiotherapy were also compared.
Patients in this study had significantly higher modified LENT – SOMA frequency and urgency of defaecation, rectal bleeding and mucous discharge scores ≥2 years after 3D conformal radiotherapy compared to the age matched control subjects before radiotherapy (Table 8). The patients also had worse (lower) EORTC QLQ-C30 cognitive functioning scores and worse (higher) EORTC QLQ-PR25 bowel symptom scores compared to the controls before radiotherapy (Table 8).
LENTSOMA | Whole Patient Group | Age Matched Patient Group | p value |
---|---|---|---|
1 (0–3) | 0 (0–1) | <0.01 | |
0 (0–2) | 0 (0–1) | ns | |
0 (0–2) | 0 (0–2) | ns | |
0 (0–3) | 0 (0–1) | <0.05 | |
2 (0–4) | 1 (0–2) | <0.001 | |
0 (0–3) | 0 (0–0) | <0.0001 | |
100 (60–100) | 93 (47–100) | ns | |
100 (50–100) | 100 (17–100) | ns | |
83 (58–100) | 83 (67–100) | ns | |
83 (50–100) | 83 (67–100) | <0.05 | |
100 (50–100) | 100 (33–100) | ns | |
83 (17–100) | 83 (33–100) | ns | |
0 (0–33) | 0 (0–100) | ns | |
33 (0–100) | 33 (0–100) | ns | |
0 (0–33) | 0 (0–33) | ns | |
0 (0–17) | 0 (0–33) | ns | |
0 (0–67) | 0 (0–67) | ns | |
0 (0–100) | 0 (0–33) | ns | |
22 (0–44) | 22 (0–78) | ns | |
0 (0–100) | 0 (0–100) | ns | |
0 (0–33) | 0 (0–67) | ns | |
17 (0–58) | 13 (0–67) | ns | |
8 (0–42) | 0 (0–17) | <0.01 | |
6 (0–50) | 6 (0–50) | ns |
Comparison of modified LENT-SOMA GI symptoms and EORTC generic (QOL-C30) and disease specific (QLQ-PR25) HRQoL data between whole patient group and age matched patients before radiotherapy.
From Yeoh et al. [16], with permission.
Symptomatic patients had significantly higher (i) modified LENT SOMA urgency of defaecation and rectal bleeding scores and (ii) EORTC QLQ-PR25 bowel and urinary symptom scores compared with asymptomatic patients (Table 9). Symptomatic patients also had worse (lower) EORTC QLQ-C30 social and emotional functional as well as global health scores compared to asymptomatic patients (Table 9).
LENT-SOMA | Symptomatic patients | Asymptomatic patients | |
---|---|---|---|
Frequency | 1(0–3) | 1(0–1) | ns |
Diarrhea | 1(0–2) | 0(0–2) | ns |
Pain | 0(0–2) | 0(0–2) | ns |
Mucous | 1(0–3) | 0(0–1) | ns |
Urgency | 3(1–4) | 1(0–4) | <.01 |
Bleeding | 1(0–3) | 0(0–1) | <.001 |
Physical functioning | 87(60–100) | 100(73–100) | ns |
Role functioning | 100(50–100) | 100(67–100) | ns |
Emotional functioning | 75(58–100) | 96(67–100) | =.05 |
Cognitive functioning | 83(50–100) | 83(67–100) | ns |
Social functioning | 83(50–100) | 100(67–100) | <.001 |
Global health status | 67(50–83) | 83(17–100) | <.05 |
Dyspnea | 0(0–33) | 0(0–33) | ns |
Insomnia | 33(0–100) | 33(0–33) | ns |
Appetite loss | 0(0–33) | 0(0–0) | ns |
Nausea of vomiting | 0(0–17) | 0(0–17) | ns |
Constipation | 33(0–67) | 33(0–33) | ns |
Diarrhea | 0(0–100) | 0(0–33) | =.05 |
Fatigue | 33(0–44) | 11(0–33) | <.05 |
Pain | 0(0–33) | 0(0–100) | ns |
Financial difficulty | 0(0–33) | 0(0–0) | ns |
Urinary symptoms | 25(0–58) | 10(0–25) | <.05 |
Bowel symptoms | 25(8–42) | 0(0–25) | <.001 |
Hormonal treatment-related symptoms | 11(0–50) | 6(0–33) | ns |
Comparison of modified LENT-SOMA GI symptoms and EORTC generic (QOL-C30) and disease specific (QLQ-PR25) HRQoL data between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients.
From Yeoh et al. [16], with permission.
All parameters of anorectal motor and sensory function except for threshold volumes for sensory perception were significantly worse ≥2 years after 3D conformal radiotherapy compared to age matched control subjects before radiotherapy (Table 10).
ARM | Whole patient group | Age matched patient group | |
---|---|---|---|
Basal pressure (mmHg) | 46 ± 4 | 63 ± 3 | <.01 |
Squeeze pressure (mmHg) | 105 ± 8 | 154 ± 8 | <.0001 |
↑Intra-abdominal pressure (mmHg) | 82 ± 5 | 106 ± 5 | <.01 |
IAS (mm) | 2.1 ± 0.1 | 2.6 ± 0.1 | <.05 |
EAS (mm) | 8.0 ± 0.3 | 9.3 ± 0.3 | <.01 |
Threshold perception (mL) | 14 ± 1 | 16 ± 2 | ns |
Desire to defecate sensation (mL) | 68 ± 8 | 97 ± 9 | <.05 |
Rectal compliance (mL/mmHg) | 3.3 ± 0.3 | 5.1 ± 0.4 | <.01 |
FI score | 2(0–8) | 0(0–1) | <.001 |
Urgency score | 2(0–6) | 0(0–3) | <.001 |
Number of bowel actions/week | 10.5(7–24.5) | 7(3.5–21) | <.05 |
Comparison of anorectal function and anal sphincter morphology data between whole patient group and age matched patients before radiotherapy.
From Yeoh et al. [16], with permission.
Unilateral and/or bilateral pudendal nerve responses were delayed in 13/24 (54%) of the patients compared to only 2/20 (10%) aged matched controls before radiotherapy (p < 0.0001, data not shown).
The thickness of both IAS and EAS was significantly less in the patients compared to the control subjects before radiotherapy (Table 10).
Fecal incontinence scores were worse in the symptomatic compared to the asymptomatic patients but no differences were detected in thickness of either IAS or EAS in the patient sub-groups (Table 11).
ARM | Symptomatic patients | Asymptomatic patients | |
---|---|---|---|
Basal pressure (mmHg) | 42 ± 5 | 51 ± 6 | ns |
Squeeze pressure (mmHg) | 92 ± 9 | 119 ± 11 | ns |
↑Intra-abdominal pressure (mmHg) | 78 ± 7 | 86 ± 8 | ns |
IAS (mm) | 2.3 ± 0.2 | 2.1 ± 0.2 | ns |
EAS (mm) | 8.4 ± 0.4 | 7.6 ± 0.3 | ns |
Threshold perception (mL) | 15 ± 2 | 13 ± 1 | ns |
Desire to defecate sensation (mL) | 55 ± 8 | 81 ± 14 | ns |
Rectal compliance (mL/mmHg) | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 3.2 ± 0.4 | ns |
FI score | 3(0–8) | 0(0–3) | <.01 |
Urgency score | 3(0–6) | 0(0–5) | ns |
Number of bowel actions/week | 14(7–24.5) | 10.5(7–17.5) | ns |
Comparison of anorectal function and anal sphincter morphology data between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients.
From Yeoh et al. [16], with permission.
Unilateral and/or bilateral pudendal nerve responses were delayed in 9/13 (69%) of symptomatic compared to only 4/11 (36%) of asymptomatic patients (p < 0.0001, data not shown).
Rectal and anal (i) V40Gy > 65%, (ii) Dmax >60 Gy, (iii) pudendal nerve Dmax >60 Gy and (iv) Anal V60 Gy >40% were associated with a greater prevalence of pudendal nerve function [16].
3D radiotherapy ± high dose rate brachytherapy (HDR) for localized prostate carcinoma impairs functional measures including HRQoL, anorectal and pudendal nerve function ≥2 years after treatment. Radiation dose constraints are proposed for reducing the prevalence of pudendal nerve dysfunction.
The data presented in this chapter, based on studies spanning over two decades examining gastrointestinal effects of pelvic radiotherapy for prostate and gynecological cancer, indicate that despite advances in radiotherapy technology, anorectal dysfunction persist or progressively worsen over a period of 5–10 years after treatment. The multiple deteriorations in anorectal function, consisting of weakness of the anal sphincters, stiffness of the rectal wall and consequent increase in rectal sensitivity, result in ∼50% of patients being housebound and only able to go out if there is a toilet nearby. The studies also show that the prevalence of rectal bleeding is half that of urgency of defaecation. In addition, results of the first randomized trial of Argon Plasma Coagulation Therapy versus topical formalin for intractable rectal bleeding after radiotherapy for prostate cancer indicate that durable control is achieved in 94–100% of patients after a median of 2 sessions of either treatment, only 7% of patients requiring re-treatment after a median follow-up of 9 years [15]. In contrast, therapeutic options for anorectal dysfunction are limited to medications such as loperamide and nicardipine based on pathophysiological evaluation of bowel disorders which include chronic radiation proctitis. For example, nicardipine which increases the rectal threshold for desire to defecate in patients with irritable bowel syndrome and reported to be effective in the treatment of urgency of defecation has been proposed for the treatment of urgency of defecation associated with chronic radiation proctitis since threshold volumes for desire to defecate are also reduced in CRP [14]. Similarly, loperamide, by increasing basal anal and squeeze pressures in patients with fecal incontinence of diverse aetiologies including radiation bowel disease, has been proposed for the treatment of fecal incontinence associated with CRP [14]. However, loperamide reduces stool bulk potentially increasing the risk of rectal bleeding and a lower dose than that prescribed for other bowel disorders is recommended [2]. Whilst the most advanced radiation treatment technique of intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) was not used in the studies here, the prevalence of anorectal toxicity after IMRT for prostate cancer has been reported to be 65%, worse or no different from that reported in studies using less advanced treatment techniques including those reported here [1, 2, 6, 14, 16]. A likely explanation for the failure of IMRT to reduce anorectal dysmotility after treatment is that its underlying pathogenesis is damage to neural tissue in the bowel wall and/or the pudendal nerves [2, 16]. As discussed in the editorial accompanying the published findings of the final study of this chapter [19], the pudendal nerves are not considered as normal tissues at risk of radiation damage and therefore could potentially receive the same if not higher doses of radiation as the prostate target of irradiation. Radiation dose constraints for normal tissues at risk including the pudendal nerves have been proposed (Section 2.4 above) and if applied now that IMRT has been adopted almost universally, patients who need pelvic radiotherapy for urological and gynecological cancer can look forward to a future free of distressing bowel morbidity. Furthermore, the daily insertion of endorectal balloons during radiotherapy (Figure 6), which have been shown to be very well tolerated and to further reduce radiation exposure of the rectal and anal wall (and the anatomically closely related pudendal nerves) by IMRT [5] means a bowel complication free cure of pelvic malignant disease can be realistically achieved in the foreseeable future.
Transverse (top) and sagittal dose distributions of IMRT plans for prostate cancer without (left) and with (right) endorectal balloon in place. Contours: Rectal wall (green), anal wall (purple). (From Smeenk et al. [
The work reported in this chapter is based on 4 published studies of the effect of radiotherapy for prostate and gynecological cancer on anorectal function. All studies were performed in the Departments of Radiation Oncology, Gastroenterology and Colorectal Surgery, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Australia, affiliated with the University of Adelaide with substantial technical expertise for the performance of pudendal nerve terminal motor latency provided by the Department of Gastroenterology and Surgery, Flinders Medical Centre, Australia, affiliated with Flinders University.
The names of the contributors to the 4 published studies, listed as co-authors in the references section, are acknowledged although none of these co-authors contributed to the writing of this chapter.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
",metaTitle:"Publishing Process Steps and Descriptions",metaDescription:"This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with InTechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Publishing Process Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/publishing-process-steps",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
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\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Extreme weather conditions and changes in humidity rates significantly affect the concrete compressive strength development. Concrete as one of the substantial material used in residential buildings and infrastructures is subjected to a massive strength change under extreme weather conditions. For understanding, the different concrete’s behavioral aspects, various commercial cement types under different temperatures, and humidity rates are investigated in this chapter. The experiments are aimed to investigate the concrete strength development over time when the material is cast at lower to mild temperatures and different humidity index rates. Results show that reducing the curing temperature more than 15° could result in 20% reduction in total compressive strength, while decreasing humidity rates by 50% leads to less than 10% drop in ultimate strength. To understand the strength developing process, maturity tests are conducted. It is shown that concrete is not able to reach to the expected ultimate strength if the temperature is significantly low regardless of curing time. The effect of temperature change during the curing process is more tangible on strength development compared to cement type and humidity rate values.",book:{id:"8757",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",fullTitle:"Compressive Strength of Concrete"},signatures:"Alireza Farzampour",authors:null},{id:"51720",doi:"10.5772/64574",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4908,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"51861",doi:"10.5772/64779",title:"Concretes with Photocatalytic Activity",slug:"concretes-with-photocatalytic-activity",totalDownloads:2860,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is a short review about the modified concretes with photocatalytic activity. In the beginning, the photocatalysis process is explained; the authors are focused on the mechanism of organic contamination and nitrogen oxide decomposition. Next the three main methods for concretes modification are presented: the first group is when the concrete is covered by thin layer of TiO2 materials, e.g., paints or TiO2 suspensions. The second group is the concretes with thick layer of photoactive concrete on the top. The third group constitutes concretes modified in mass with TiO2. The two main methods for photocatalytic activity of the modified concrete determination were shown: an air purification by a nitrogen oxide decomposition and the self-cleaning properties by dyes decomposition. Also in this chapter the mechanical properties of the modified concrete are presented. In the end, the examples of the buildings made of photocatalytic concretes are shown.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Magdalena Janus and Kamila Zając",authors:[{id:"180824",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Janus",slug:"magdalena-janus",fullName:"Magdalena Janus"}]},{id:"64801",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82489",title:"Bitumen and Its Modifier for Use in Pavement Engineering",slug:"bitumen-and-its-modifier-for-use-in-pavement-engineering",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter focuses on bitumen specifically. This chapter consists of several parts that can be mentioned, including the history of the appearance of bitumen and the types of constituent elements, as well as its mechanical properties and chemical structure and its thermal sensitivity. In all parts, the effects of bitumen on asphalt are discussed. In the following sections, the bitumen modification mechanism, polymer modifiers, and their behavior on the bitumen resistance to asphalt failures are also discussed. This chapter is very suitable for students and researchers interested in improving polymerization asphalt and bitumen and will help them to carry out research and concepts.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Mehrdad Honarmand, Javad Tanzadeh and Mohamad Beiranvand",authors:[{id:"268734",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mehrdad",middleName:null,surname:"Honarmand",slug:"mehrdad-honarmand",fullName:"Mehrdad Honarmand"},{id:"271251",title:"Prof.",name:"Javad",middleName:null,surname:"Tanzadeh",slug:"javad-tanzadeh",fullName:"Javad Tanzadeh"}]},{id:"64787",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82525",title:"A Decade of Research on Self-Healing Concrete",slug:"a-decade-of-research-on-self-healing-concrete",totalDownloads:1484,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The main findings of a decade of research on the design and development of the first self-healing concrete are summarized in this chapter. The autonomous healing concept is introduced, and plethora of design campaigns is enlisted. Healing agent encapsulation and agent tubes vascular networks are reported as the most efficient healing configurations for laboratory-scale and real-size applications, respectively. Crack formation, closure after healing and further damage are phenomena tracked by using advanced experimental monitoring methods and their performance is critically revised. The effect of self-healing technology on concrete mechanical response, durability and long-term response to damage are critically discussed. The study contributes to the open discussion in the scientific research community regarding self-healing concrete upscaling feasibility and finally it aims to contribute as a base for the future studies dealing with concrete design optimization.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Eleni Tsangouri",authors:[{id:"263163",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Tsangouri",slug:"eleni-tsangouri",fullName:"Eleni Tsangouri"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70605",title:"Designing a Tunnel",slug:"designing-a-tunnel",totalDownloads:2790,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Designing a tunnel is always a challenge. For shallow tunnels under cities due to the presence of buildings, bridges, important avenues, antiquities, etc. at the surface and other infrastructures in the vicinity of underground tunnels, parameters like vibrations and ground settlements must be tightly controlled. Urban tunnels are often made in soils with very low values of overburden. Risks of collapse and large deformations at the surface are high; thus negative impact on old buildings are likely to occur if appropriate measures are not taken in advance, when designing and constructing the tunnel. For deep tunnels with high overburden and low rock mass properties, squeezing conditions and excessive loads around the excavation can jeopardize the stability of the tunnel, leading to extensive collapse. The aim of the chapter is to give details on advance computational modelling and analytical methodologies, which can be used in order to design shallow and deep tunnels and to present real case studies from around the world, from very shallow tunnels in India with only 4.5 m overburden to a deep tunnel in Venezuela with extreme squeezing conditions under 1300 m overburden.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Spiros Massinas",authors:[{id:"295762",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Massinas",slug:"spiros-massinas",fullName:"Spiros Massinas"}]},{id:"70990",title:"Engineering Geology and Tunnels",slug:"engineering-geology-and-tunnels",totalDownloads:1991,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Currently, knowledge and understanding of the role of geological material and its implication in tunnel design is reinforced with advances in site investigation methods, the development of geotechnical classification systems and the consequent quantification of rock masses. However, the contribution of engineering geological information in tunnelling cannot be simply presented solely by a rock mass classification value. What is presented in this chapter is that the first step is not to start performing numerous calculations but to define the potential failure mechanisms. After defining the failure mechanism that is most critical, selection of the suitable design parameters is undertaken. This is then followed by the analysis and performance of the temporary support system based on a more realistic model. The specific failure mechanism is controlled and contained by the support system. A tunnel engineer must early assess all the critical engineering geological characteristics of the rock mass and the relevant mode of failure, for the specific factors of influence, and then decide either he or she will rely on a rock mass classification value to characterise all the site-specific conditions. Experiences from the tunnel behaviour of rock masses in different geological environments in Alpine mountain ridges are presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Vassilis Marinos",authors:[{id:"298713",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassilis",middleName:null,surname:"Marinos",slug:"vassilis-marinos",fullName:"Vassilis Marinos"}]},{id:"51720",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4905,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"77899",title:"Review of Existing Methods for Evaluating Adhesive Bonds in Timber Products",slug:"review-of-existing-methods-for-evaluating-adhesive-bonds-in-timber-products",totalDownloads:248,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gluing is an integral part of the majority of production processes in the timber industry. The effectiveness of adhesive application, glue bond development and glue penetration into the wood structure is becoming more and more important as more structural glued timber products are used in construction and other applications. The continued increase in utilisation of mass timber products (MTPs) such as CLT, glulam and LVL in tall timber buildings requires an accurate and in-depth understanding of adhesive roles and their performance effectiveness during the life span of any of those products in relation to the type of loading applied, environmental effects (e.g. RH and temperature) and in-service condition of elements (e.g. exposure to major wet events and degradation from decay). This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of existing imaging and other visualisation methods used to assess the glue line properties and examine the performance of glue lines in relation to factors such as species, product type and environmental conditions during manufacture and in-service life.",book:{id:"10584",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",fullTitle:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction"},signatures:"Maryam Shirmohammadi and William Leggate",authors:[{id:"346973",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Shirmohammadi",slug:"maryam-shirmohammadi",fullName:"Maryam Shirmohammadi"},{id:"426650",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Leggate",slug:"william-leggate",fullName:"William Leggate"}]},{id:"78315",title:"Engineered Wood Products as a Sustainable Construction Material: A Review",slug:"engineered-wood-products-as-a-sustainable-construction-material-a-review",totalDownloads:438,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Engineered wood products are considered as best building materials due to environmentally friendly. Huge change to the way in which wood has been utilized in primary application of construction in the course of the most recent 25 years are in light of decreased admittance to high strength timber from growth forests, and the turn of events and creation of various new design of manufactured wood products. Engineered wood products are available in different variety of sizes and measurements like laminated veneer lumber, glued laminated timber, finger jointed lumber, oriental strand board etc. It is utilized for rooftop and floor sheathing, solid structure, beams and the hull of boats. This review objectively explores not only the environmental aspects of the use of different engineered wood composites as a building material, but also their economic aspects, to understand their effect on sustainability.",book:{id:"10584",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",fullTitle:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction"},signatures:"Ranjana Yadav and Jitendra Kumar",authors:[{id:"335083",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"jitendra-kumar",fullName:"Jitendra Kumar"},{id:"354856",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr Ranjana",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"dr-ranjana-yadav",fullName:"Dr Ranjana Yadav"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"284",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81503",title:"The Data Representations of a Building Project: BIM Model, and IFC or IFCXML Data Standard",slug:"the-data-representations-of-a-building-project-bim-model-and-ifc-or-ifcxml-data-standard",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104580",abstract:"Building regulations in the construction industry are legal documents written in human language. These are interpreted and implemented by people and generally controlled by local governments. Traditional building regulation control and supervision methods emerge as a time-consuming and error-prone process for architects, engineers, and public authorities. Therefore, BIM\\'s effective building regulation control is considered a promising field of study in the construction industry. Automated Code Compliance Checking (ACCC) method is a rule-based method that provides simultaneous control of the computer’s building regulations. ACCC takes into account the characteristics of the building elements and related building regulations. BIM is recognized as the most effective platform for information exchange of building projects in the construction industry. It supports the development of various software. It facilitates automated or semi-automated ACCC of the building projects for compliance with building regulations and standards for the participants involved in the building production process. The data of the building project are represented in two ways in the ACCC. These are BIM Model, and IFC or IFCXML Data Standard. In this study, the BIM, IFC, and IFCXML representations of the building project data were explained over the sample housing project in the ACCC process.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Murat Aydın"},{id:"81506",title:"Bentonite Clay Modified Concrete",slug:"bentonite-clay-modified-concrete",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103803",abstract:"Replacing cement with pozzolanic materials to some extent in construction is found to be one of the sustainable approaches in the construction industry. Pozzolanic materials of industrial origin like fly ash and Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag will have to be replaced with natural pozzolanic materials once the world moves towards renewable energy sources. Bentonite is one such pozzolanic clay material that is rich in SiO2 content. A little research was made to assess the performance of bentonite modified concrete. Based on those, an improvement in the fresh, hardened, durability properties was reported. This chapter presents the current scenario on the development of bentonite modified concrete. It also reviews the literature about the physical & chemical properties of bentonite, bentonite blended cement mortar, bentonite modified cement concrete, and reinforced concrete. The history and development of Bentonite modified concrete were also briefly presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Metta Achyutha Kumar Reddy and Veerendrakumar C. Khed"},{id:"81381",title:"Oil Contaminated Sand: Sources, Properties, Remediation, and Engineering Applications",slug:"oil-contaminated-sand-sources-properties-remediation-and-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:26,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103802",abstract:"Oil leakage during the exploration, production, and transportation of crude oil is a significant issue worldwide because crude oil spills severely impact the physical and chemical properties of the surrounding soil. A range of remediation methods for oil-contaminated soil is recommended, consisting of sand washing, bioremediation, electro-kinetic sand remediation, and thermal desorption; however, none are cost-effective. To find a suitable alternative remediation method, oil-contaminated sand utilisation in construction was considered. Several researchers found that oil contamination generally has an adverse effect on the mechanical properties of sand, but certain levels of contamination have beneficial effects on some of the important properties of the sand and its produced concrete. This chapter reviews the main sources of oil contamination and the existing remediation methods for this waste material. It analyses the different factors that affect the properties of oil-contaminated sand and concrete, including the type of crude oil and permeability of sand, like its properties, absorption, chemical composition, and spillage quantity. Furthermore, the intensive evaluation results of light crude oil effects on the geotechnical properties of fine sand, cement mortar and concrete were presented. Potential applications for oil-contaminated sand were also identified for the re-use of this material in engineering and construction.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Rajab Abousnina and Rochstad Lim Allister"},{id:"81175",title:"Thermal Conductivity and Mechanical Properties of Organo-Clay-Wood Fiber in Cement-Based Mortar",slug:"thermal-conductivity-and-mechanical-properties-of-organo-clay-wood-fiber-in-cement-based-mortar",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102321",abstract:"This paper orientated to study the compressive resistance and thermal conductivity of compressed and stabilized clay blocks in the cement matrix. The effect of the content of wood fiber (WF) became studied as a reinforcement material in cement mortars. The porosity, compressive energy, thermal conductivity and composite of cement hydration had been investigated. The addition of NFC suggests a very good pore reduction, and the fine result becomes acquired with the emulsion of a combination incorporating 2%wt of WF inside the presence of an anionic surfactant (SDBS). The results revealed that used in this study were a mix of water with ordinary portland cement and organo-clay (OC) modified with Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide at water-to-solid ratios 1%. The effect depending on w/s ratio of OC used samples with cement substitution for organoclay showed from 2% higher compressive strength results than that of the plain cement paste and a decrease of the thermal conductivity by addition of 2%wt of WF from 2.26 to 0.8 W/m °C. It was also observed that with increasing w/s ratio higher amount of cement can be replaced by OC. These analyses have revealed that the presence of WF promoted the hydration, by producing more portlandite and calcium silicate gel.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Fadhel Aloulou and Habib Sammouda"},{id:"80651",title:"The Effects of Mill Conditions on Breakage Parameters of Quartz Sand in the District of Şile on the Black Sea Coast of İstanbul",slug:"the-effects-of-mill-conditions-on-breakage-parameters-of-quartz-sand-in-the-district-of-ile-on-the-b",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102554",abstract:"Casting, glass, ceramic, construction, plastic, dyeing, and abrasive industries are the main consumption areas of quartz sand, which are formed as a result of the weathering of igneous metamorphic rocks. In such industries, it is very important to select the correct ball size in order to grind the raw material to the desired particle size in optimum time. In this study, the changes in the specific rate of breakage of the quartz sand sample were investigated by using alloy steel balls of five different sizes. For this purpose, three different mono-size samples were prepared according to 4√2 series in the range of 0.090–0.053 mm. The quartz sand prepared in these three intervals was ground with 6.35, 7.94, 9.52, 12.70, and 19.05 mm alloy steel balls for different durations. The specific rate of breakage values was obtained from the particle size distributions acquired after various grinding periods. As a result of grinding tests, an increase in the rate of breakage is observed due to the increase in ball diameter.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Serhan Haner"},{id:"80288",title:"The Role of Sand in Mortar’s Properties",slug:"the-role-of-sand-in-mortar-s-properties",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102489",abstract:"Mortars are diachronic composite materials used in masonry construction to serve multiple roles. Their durability and esthetic harmonization in constructions of the different eras were the reasons why numerous research works have been realized over recent decades. Each time, the role of the mortars’ components revealed significant pieces of information on the technology used. Despite the indisputable role of the binders on the mortar’s quality, aggregates of different characteristics had a significant role in the behavior of mortars. The addition of aggregates to a binding system in mortars technology has proved to confer technical advantages as they contribute to volume stability, durability, and structural performance. Apart from the different types of aggregates, as their mineralogy and origin are concerned, the volume content in the mixture, the maximum size, and their gradation influences the structure of a binder—aggregate mixture and the performance of mortars overall. In the present article, the diachronic presence of mortars is presented. The role of aggregates is emphasized to understand their impact on the longevity and durability of the mortars.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Stefanidou and Parthena Koltsou"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",issn:null,scope:"\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA and her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11974,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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