Code book.
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",isbn:"978-1-83881-111-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-992-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-112-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"acb2875b3bfc189c9881a9b44b6a5184",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11865.jpg",keywords:"Linear Operators, Normal Operators, Spectral Theorem, Applications, Differential Operators, Integral Operators, Functional Calculus, Complex Variables, Complex Analysis, Theory, Recent Advances, Latest Trends",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé is a pioneering Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé. 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He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. 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It is an industry that is resilient and immune from the vagaries of the Nigerian political and economic climate (Odunfa [1]). The affordances of digital technology have, in no small measure, contributed in weaponizing the Nigerian rumour mill. Now, rumours, misinformation, disinformation and half-truths travel at the speed of light and reach a wider audience. This is the case of xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019 in which rumours, mis-and disinformation resulted in reprisal attacks on South African businesses in Nigeria. A typical example of how the Nigerian rumour mill works is the story of a Nigerian, who was among those that attacked South African-owned Shoprite at The Palms Mall in Lagos, Nigeria. When the young man was asked why he joined others to attack Shoprite and other South African businesses in Nigeria, he responded that xenophobia, a Nigerian living in South Africa had been killed by South Africans. Hence, attacking South African businesses was the only way he could get even with the death of xenophobia in South Africa. Even though this story has not been verified, it goes to show the potency of mis-and disinformation and how it could have adverse impact on the government-to-government as well as people-to-people relations between two countries. For instance, mis-and disinformation has been identified as factors responsible for reprisals attacks against South African businesses in other African countries (Osuagwu & Elebeke [2]; Somdyala [3]). Chenzi [4], p. 3 explained that “foreign nationals residing in South Africa share content with their relations who reside outside South Africa about their xenophobic experiences.” He emphasised that the social media content these foreigners often share about xenophobic violence in South Africa at times, turn out to be misinformation, leading to reprisal attacks [4]. However, there is limited academic investigation into the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on social media. This chapter provides an insight into factor (s) influencing Nigerians to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South. The finding has both academic and policy relevance for the literature on mis-and disinformation as well as South Africa-Nigerian relations.
Xenophobia has attracted widespread attention within and without the academic community. The reason is obvious; it is considered an anomaly that foreigners, particularly Africans, would face the magnitude of hatred that Xenophobia spews. The first major xenophobic outbreak in post-1994 South Africa happened on 11 May 2008 and there have several other outbreaks of violence against foreigners in South Africa. While recent incidents may not be of the same magnitude as the incident of 11 May 2008, its recurrence points to a troubling relationship between locals and foreigners. For instance, on 30 May 2013, 25-year-old Abdi Nasir Mahmoud Good, was stoned to death in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The violence was captured on a mobile phone and shared on the Internet.1 Again, on 7 June 2014, a Somali national was stoned to death and two others were seriously injured when an angry mob of locals attacked their shops in Mamelodi, South Africa. Three more Somalis were wounded by gunshots and their shops were looted.2 In April 2015, there was an upsurge in xenophobic attacks throughout the country. The attacks started in Durban and spread to Johannesburg. Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini was accused of igniting the attacks with his remarks that foreigners’ resident in the country “should go back to their countries.”3 In October 2015 the serene town of Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape recorded an outbreak of xenophobic attacks on foreigners. According to the news report, more than 500 people were displaced and more than 300 shops and homes looted. Muslims were identified as the target of the attacks.4 While South Africa witnessed a modicum of peace after the Grahamstown xenophobia outbreak, it ruptured in February 2017 when another xenophobia outbreak was recorded in Pretoria, South Africa. The incident took a new turn on 24 February 2017 when a large-scale anti-immigration protest suspected to have official approval, according to the Nelson Mandela Foundation, erupted in the capital city of Pretoria.5 The Protesters marched to the Foreign Ministry and handed a petition to government representatives. Protesters accused immigrants of taking jobs from South Africans, causing crime and complained that “they are arrogant and they don’t know how to talk to people, especially Nigerians.” The February xenophobia outbreak affected many Nigerians resident in Pretoria, who the locals accused of being “arrogant and don’t know how to talk to people.”6 However, xenophobic attacks on Nigerians in South Africa escalated in 2019 resulting in the repatriation of more than 600 Nigerians, who were flown home aboard Nigeria’s Air Peace.7 Both incidents resulted in reprisal attacks in Nigeria but it was more fatal in 2019 resulting in the closure of the South African High Commission, South African-owned Telco, MTN, Shoprite and other South African businesses in Nigeria.8 Even though the repatriation of Nigerians from South Africa incited reprisal attacks, it was mis-and disinformation on social media that worsened it and stoked tensions between South Africa and Nigerian relations. Hassan and Hitchen [5], p. 3 show that in Nigeria, disinformation is most effective when it draws on existing narratives and contexts to sharpen existing social divides and aimed at “delegitimising institutions, groups or personalities, glorifying a leader or, during elections, confusing voters, instigating apathy or marginalising women and other vulnerable groups.”
The occurrence of xenophobic violence has become a feature of the lived realities of foreigners who reside in South Africa. Xenophobia has been defined as a hatred for foreigners (Steenkamp [6]; Williams [7]). However, Harris [8], p. 2, contends that Xenophobia extends beyond hatred; rather, it should be redefined to “incorporate practice” because it is not just a “dislike or fear of foreigners but a violent practice that results in bodily harm and damage” [8].
The South African Migration Project (SAMP) identified several factors responsible for the outbreak of xenophobic violence. Some of these include isolation, relative deprivation, Nation Building, Public and official discourse, Legislative and policy Frameworks, Human Rights Education, Data and Information, Public and Officials Discourse, Opportunities for Interaction, Going beyond the Debate(s), Peer Education, and Establishing a Network (Crush et al. [9]). For his part, Harris [8] identified three hypotheses responsible for the occurrence of xenophobia in South Africa including the Scapegoating hypothesis; the isolation hypothesis and the biocultural hypothesis. However, the perception of African migrants as the economic threats has been identified as a major causative factor in the occurrence of xenophobic violence [9]. This was highlighted in the SAMP survey of 2006, which noted that attitudes towards foreigners as a national threat to the economic well-being of South Africans have hardened. For instance, the survey result showed that “the proportion of South Africans arguing that foreign nationals use up resources grew by 8% from 59% in 1999 to 67% in 2006. Furthermore, the survey also highlighted that migrants are being increasingly associated with crime rising from 45% in 1 1999 to 67% in 2006 as did the idea that migrants bring disease 24% in 1 1999 to 49% in 2006” [9], p. 3.
On the other hand, xenophobia does not apply to all categories of foreigners in South Africa. Black Africans bear the brunt of xenophobic violence outbreak in South Africa. Steenkamp [6], p. 442 explains that xenophobia is carried out along certain categories. The major targets of xenophobic attacks in South Africa are black migrants, who are perceived as economic threat to black South Africans. Therefore, the incidences of xenophobia in South Africa could be majorly considered as “Afrophobia” because it is majorly targeted at African migrants’ resident in the country.
Unfortunately, this contradicts the role of other Africans nations during the apartheid era when South African exiles were accommodated and educated in other African countries [6]. During this period, several high profile South African political leaders took shelter in other African countries, where they were accommodated, supported and encouraged to sustain the struggle against the Apartheid government in South Africa. For instance, Thambo Mbeki was posted to Nigeria as Deputy head of the ANC’s Department of Information and Propaganda. Additionally, many Nigerians were taxed to provide assistance to the ANC-led struggle against apartheid. In fact, it is estimated that the Nigerian government provided an annual subvention of $5million to the ANC and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) to aid the struggle against the Apartheid regime at the time.
Prinsloo [10], p. 130, explains that narrative is universal because it is “recognised as crossing all social and cultural divides.” Narrative is, therefore, a sense-making mechanism for understanding the real world (Fiske [11]; Wigston [12]). This study draws on structuralist approach to narrative analysis, which combines the syntagmatic and paradigmatic. Prinsloo [10], p. 133, explains that “the syntagmatic type of analysis identifies and describes the structure of formal organisation of the text following the chronological order or the linear sequence of the narrative while a paradigmatic type of analysis seeks to identify the deeper latent patterns or organisations which underpin the story.” Hence, a combination of syntagmatic and paradigmatic “approaches enable questions of positioning and power to be posed” (Prinsloo [10], p. 157). Also, structuralism “relies on binary opposition in order to transfer meanings in the easiest way because we make sense of concepts and ideas by contrasting them with their opposites [12], p. 142. Levi-Strauss explains that when “two characters are opposed in binary structure, their symbolic meaning is virtually forced to be both general and easily accessible because of the simplicity of the difference between them” [12], p. 152. Explaining further, Wigston [12], p. 154, pointed out that Levi-Strauss is not “interested in the sequential development of the narrative, but rather in the relationships between the various characters and their settings and hence, binary opposition then provide us with a means of undertaking a paradigmatic analysis of a text where we can determine these relationships.” Therefore, by analysing the binary oppositions in a text we can “uncover the ideological and manipulative structure of the values embodied in that message” as well as “reveal deep structures below the surface of the message that are not immediately clear but are implied in every opposition” [12], p. 172.
This study draws on Propp and Todorov narratives theories. Propp’s model like Todorov’s provides a means of identifying the conventional narrative structure in a text. While Propp and Todorov models are useful for comparing text, other analytical devices such as Levi-Strauss binary opposition is needed to gain deeper insight into the structure of a text [13]. Hence, this study combines Propp and Todorov narrative theories to analyse the framing of the February 2017 and August 2019 xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media. This chapter is concerned with the narrative of xenophobia on social media and how it influences emotion, rational and sentiments among Nigerians [10], p. 130.
The affordances of digital technology have resulted in the rise of mis-and disinformation with dire consequences for truth and credibility of the media (Wasserman [13]; Schifferes et al., [14]). Wasserman and Benequista [15], p. 35, explain that the “ease with which media can be produced online has made it possible for rumours, untruths, and disinformation to spread and threaten the credibility of the news media.” The use of social media to manipulate public opinion has become a global challenge and sub-Saharan Africa is not an exemption. The role of Cambridge Analytica in election manipulation in Kenya and Nigeria is a pointer to this reality (Granville [16]). For instance, it is estimated that “organized social media manipulation has more than doubled since 2017, with 70 countries using computational propaganda to manipulate public opinion” (Howard and Bradshaw [17]). This has adversely impacted the average level of trust in the news across all countries (Nielsen et al. [18]). Even leading religious leaders such as Pope Francis of the Catholic Church has acknowledged fake news is a “very serious sin.”9 Chenzi [4] explained that “fake social media content about the xenophobic violence in South Africa is one of the triggers of reprisal attacks against South African businesses and nationals in other parts of Africa [4]. This is because most the content they share with their loved ones back in their home countries are likely to be “fake news leading to reprisal attacks” (Chenzi, [4], p. 3). This study examines the motivations for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning Xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on social media.
This study is a netnograhpy involving a thematic analysis and focus group discussions. It uses narrative theories, thematic content analysis and focus group discussions with undergraduates and postgraduate students, adults under 40 and adults above 40. The two complementary methodologies enabled the author to collect comprehensive information on the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa (Sade-Beck [19], p. 49). In a netnograhpy three categories of data are recognised including archival data, elicited data, and fieldnote data (Kozinets [20], p. 4). This study uses archival data from messages posted on xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on Twitter and Facebook. First, the study developed a codebook for categorising Propp’s seven characters (see Table 1). Second, a total of 581 Facebook posts were harvested manually in relation the xenophobia outbreak of February 2017. Furthermore, the study focused on Facebook accounts with more than 2000 followers. This reduced the number of Facebook accounts to 100. These accounts were further coded using Google form. The Twitter analysis focused on the tweets of
Entries | Categorisation |
---|---|
South Africans are evil, south Africans are jealous of Nigerians, South Africans are lazy, they are ungrateful for the role Nigerians played in ending apartheid | Villain |
Nigerians are victims of South African wickedness, jealousy | Princess |
Seeks peace and reconciliation between Nigeria and South Africa | Hero |
Portrays themselves as the hero seeking for the betterment of Nigerians but they are fuelling the conflicts by posting fake news | False hero |
Calls on the Nigerian government to rescue Nigerian citizens leaving in South Africa | Dispatcher |
Code book.
Second, A total of eight focus group discussions were held across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. Each of the focus group discussions lasted between 50 and 90 minutes and were conducted in English. In instances where the Nigerian colloquial English was used it was translated to English language. A total of 68 participants joined the discussion in groups ranging from 8 to 10. The discussion guide was structured around five sections, each containing a list of key questions to be asked in all focus groups, and a set of additional questions to be asked at the discretion of discussion facilitator.
An analysis of the Facebook posts and tweets suggest there are five broad themes that dominated social media framing of xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa. The themes are:
The thematic analysis focused on a few accounts on Facebook and Twitter. The accounts were selected for relevance and reach. Three accounts were selected purposively including @Engr.Chris Moore, AY COMEDIA, and YAW on Facebook and @JJ Omojuwa on Twitter.
This post was accompanied by five gory pictures. Four of the pictures were from the 2008 xenophobic violence in South Africa. The fifth picture was from a scene of
The post by
Geographic location of social media handles.
On Twitter, the analysis is focused on @JJ
The responses in this category urge Nigerians to retaliate against South Africans by either attacking their businesses in Nigeria such as MTN, Shoprite or attacking South Africans that are resident in Nigeria. A Facebook post by
Words used to describe south Africans.
Messages in this category suggest that South Africans are ungrateful for the help rendered to them by the Nigerian government during apartheid, when some of their citizens were sheltered in Nigeria. For instance, @
In this category, South Africans are framed as being jealous of Nigerians because they are hardworking and attract the attention of South African women. A Facebook post by
The responses in this category frame the South African government as is responsible and doing nothing to arrest the attacks on foreigners living in the country. For instance,
In this category, South Africans are framed as barbaric and wicked. For instance,
The majority of participants in this category are likely to share misinformation on social media platforms if it involves the mistreatment of Nigerians in the diaspora as a means of group solidarity. This is evinced in the xenophobia outbreak in South Africa in 2019 when videos from the 2008 xenophobia attacks in South Africa were shared as that of 2019. This resulted in reprisal attacks on South African business interests in Nigeria. One participant in Lagos, Nigeria mentioned that she felt that sharing misinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa amounted to doing good. This suggests that Nigerian youths are likely to share mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa is a way of expression national solidarity with Nigerian victims.
In the northern part of Nigeria, Participants under the age of forty are also likely to share fake news to show solidarity with Nigerians being maltreated in the Diaspora. One participant said he shared fake videos on the 2019 xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa to make Nigerians know what was happening to fellow Nigerians in South Africa.
Also, for participants above 40 years of age in the northeast of Nigeria did not share misinformation on Xenophobic attacks against Nigerians because they felt it could result in reprisal attacks. So, most of the people in the age bracket of 40 years and above in the northern part of Nigeria are not likely to share such videos.,
In the southeast, the view that Nigerians are likely to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa as a form of national solidarity is valid. Some participants said they shared videos from the xenophobia outbreak of 2008 when it reoccurred in 2019 leading to reprisal attacks in parts of Nigeria. One participant mentioned that he shared misinformation concerning Xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa but pulled it when he found out it was false:
Nigerian undergraduate students are also likely to share trending misinformation that has elements of patriotism and emotions. For example, participants shared fake news on the July 2019 xenophobic attacks on Nigerians resident in South Africa without verifying it. This is because the xenophobia outbreak in South Africa was the trending news on social media especially Twitter at the time. So, for undergraduate students sharing videos of xenophobic attacks from 2008 as that of 2019 was part of trending on Twitter and garnering more followers. One participant said he did not care to verify the videos he shared on social media when he saw someone that someone was being burnt alive; it angered him and he shared it on social media but he later realised that it was from the 2008 xenophobic attacks in South Africa:
This student was one out of many undergraduate students who found it responsible to delete a misinformation posted on social media and also put up link showing it was fake news. This could be considered an isolated instance not the norm among undergraduate students in Nigeria. Another undergraduate student regurgitated a Nigerian stereotyping of South Africans of being lazy people who are jealous of hardworking Nigerians. This stereotyping happens on both sides of the divide. While South Africans tar Nigerians with the label of drug peddlers, Nigerians retort that South African men are lazy and jealous of Nigerian men, who are winning over their women:
This view correlates with one of the themes identified in the framing of xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media, Lazy and ungrateful. There is a perception among Nigerians that South Africans are lazy ad ungrateful for the role Nigeria played in bringing an end to apartheid in South Africa.
On the other hand, for postgraduate students, most of them said that they only share contents that are verified. Hence, they did not share fake videos on xenophobic attacks on Nigerians because they were unable to verify the authenticity of such content. The findings in this segment suggest that Nigeria youths are more likely to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobia as a form of national solidarity especially when it involves the ‘mistreatment’ of Nigerians in the diaspora such as the incident of Xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019.
This chapter answers the research question: What is the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation on xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media? The chapter answered this question through an analysis of social media-Facebook, Twitter framing of both incidents as well through focus group discussions across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. The findings suggest that the framing of the February 2017 xenophobic outbreak in South Africa was based mis-and disinformation and reproduction of stereotypes on social media platforms (see Figure 3). Alternative facts accounted for 65% of the framing while 35% was based on fact. For instance, 80% of the posts on social media-Facebook and Twitter- framed South Africans as villains while 16% were framed as the false hero (see Figure 4). An analysis of the geographic location of the social media accounts-Facebook and Twitter-suggests that majority of them are domiciled in Nigeria (see Figure 1). For instance, 75% of the social media accounts are resident in Nigeria and relied on secondary sources, to frame xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa; 13% are resident in South Africa and 7% are resident in America (see Figure 1). Consequently, the framing of the xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019 were based on rumours, untruths, mis-and disinformation emanating from the Nigerian rumour mill. Also, analysis of interview suggests that there is a general consensus among Nigerians that sharing mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa amount to some form of national solidarity; a show of patriotism to save Nigerians from the dangers of living in South Africa. This point is validated across the three dominant regions of Nigeria as well as among undergraduate students. Consequently, this results in reprisal attacks and diplomatic tension between the Nigerian and South African governments. For instance, the Senior Special Adviser to the President on International Affairs, Honourable Abike Dabiri rebuked South Africa’s Minister of Home Affairs, Malusi Gigaba’s that “it appears that Mr. Gigaba would rather dwell on and entertain himself with diplomatic niceties when the welfare of Nigerians resident in South Africa are at stake now more than any time in recent history. His response to the xenophobic attacks, which has now become a recurring decimal on Africans, most especially Nigerians living peacefully in their host country of South Africa was, indeed, unfortunate.”12 Additionally, the Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs followed up with a summon on the South African High Commissioner to Nigeria: “The High Commissioner of South Africa to Nigeria is being summoned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs during which government’s concerns on this matter will be brought to his attention.”13 The findings correlate with Chenzi’s [4] that mis-and disinformation about xenophobia on social media is a leading factor for reprisal attacks on South African businesses in Nigeria and diplomatic tension between Nigeria and South Africa.
Category of social media posts.
Categorisation of social posts.
Non-pharmacological interventions (NPI) are part of the chapter on therapeutics in the health sciences. Together with pharmacotherapy, ionising or non-ionising radiation, surgery and rehabilitative medicine they comprise the procedures used to prevent and treat diseases.
Non-pharmacological treatments (NPT) are used for many unconventional treatments in integrative medicine.
The need to use NPI is justified because it is a valid option if indicated as a preventive or curative measure. Side effects of medications are avoided, health costs are brought down and there is no significant environmental impact.
The use of medicines has entailed an important change for humankind. No one doubts the benefits of antimicrobials, vaccines, anti-inflammatories, analgesics, opotherapy and specific medicines for each health problem. Modern surgery has been possible thanks to the development of anaesthetics, anticoagulants and a large number of medicines that make it possible for each intervention to be performed. Many material and human resources have been devoted to the study of numerous drugs and a powerful pharmaceutical industry (PI) has developed which occupies the highest echelons in the economy of developed countries.
Although there are many benefits provided by PI and they continue to contribute to the health of humankind, a series of problems that have arisen due to the so-called medicalization of life must be taken into account [1].
Prescribing is far from being totally scientific and suffers from serious shortcomings for various reasons such as commercial interests, deficiencies in clinical trials and regulatory bodies, ethics and environmental problems. Sometimes as many medicines are prescribed as the client has symptoms, whereby it invites a follow-up for possible drug interactions and side effects [2].
Greater prescription of medicines (polypharmacy) is associated with poorer quality of life and higher morbidity. In some developed countries, iatrogenic drugs have displaced accidents as the third or fourth leading cause of death after cardiovascular disease and cancer [3].
The criteria of the prescribing physician, whether primary or specialised care, is important to avoid interactions, overdose, duplicates and other problems that may contribute to the onset of side effects. In addition, the criteria must avoid pressures from the PI and act with a cost criterion; effectiveness, safety and environmental sustainability. Due to this latter aspect, NPI should be taken into account since, in principle, they are more environmentally sustainable than medicines.
Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is the current benchmark when it comes to performing a healthcare intervention. Its influence also extends to the design of clinical trials and their reporting.
Since the onset of the 21st century, independent scientists from multinational pharmaceutical companies have denounced the inappropriate practices of the PI. Table 1 shows some of the irregular practices carried out by the PI for financial purposes, their consequences and solutions according to Ben Goldacre [4].
PI performance | Consequences | Solutions |
---|---|---|
Most clinical trials (CT) are sponsored by the PI | Large percentage of positive results | Legislation and greater control |
Negative results are not published | The scientific community is deprived of important information | It was approved that all clinical trials had to be registered (WHO, 2004) and/or Latin American Registry of CT in progress (Latinrec) |
PI sometimes manipulates CT results | The user of the medicine is harmed by side effects, etc. | Greater control of clinical trials (legislation) |
CT results are not always replicable | Concern | Legislation |
Bioethics committees and regulatory bodies are not always up to the task | They evaluate efficacy, quality and safety but not the medicine’s therapeutic value | Need for analysis by independent bodies |
Sometimes medicines for adults are prescribed at paediatric age | Greater chance of side effects | Further information from the laboratory |
CT are performed with the most disadvantaged population groups (homeless, illegal immigrants, Latin Americans, etc.) | Selection bias and uncertainty Ethics issues | Adequate legislation |
There are conflicts of interest in the study | New medicines are approved without sufficient knowledge of side effects | Greater control by regulatory bodies |
The PI distorts clinicians’ beliefs and substitutes marketing for testing | Increase in pharmaceutical spending due to inappropriate medication | Information transparency |
Criteria for approval of a new medicine are often ineffective | The user and health system are harmed | Adequate legislation |
Irregular pharmaceutical industry practices (taken from Goldacre and completed by A. Ursa).
During the medical procedure, all health professionals when prescribing within the scope of their competence, must choose the best therapeutic option for their client, always bearing in mind the NPI. The reality, however, is different because the future doctor is educated in the prescription of drugs. Because the current medical paradigm requires rapid, accurate and symptomatic actions. However, the side effects of the medicines also need to be tackled. Because of this, a powerful PI has been developed with major economic interests, the medicine has been overvalued and research, development and innovation (RDI) are targeted at these interests and not at NPI [5].
The PI generally spends more on marketing and marketing of medicines than on research [6].
Although it is true that the whole process that entails the launch of a new medicine on the market is lengthy and expensive, the PI often opts for a false innovation. That is how “me too” drugs arrive on the market [7], molecules similar to others in use, enantiomers, racemic mixtures, etc. The PI brings out “me too” drugs when the end of their drug patents approaches. These novelties that are not such, are usually expensive, not superior to the old drugs and are a source of major revenues for the PI [8].
Table 2 shows some methods used by researchers to obtain favourable results in clinical trials according to Sackett, Oxman, Smith, Peiró and Peralta [9].
Methods used by the PI to obtain favourable results in CT |
---|
Contrast the effects of the drug with placebo and not with other drugs |
Conduct a CT against a treatment known to be inferior |
Compare the new drug with doses that favour the study drug over the reference drug |
Not apply true uncertainty criteria |
Perform CT too small to reveal differences from the competitor |
Use multiple variables in the CT and select only those that provided favourable results for publication |
Perform multicentre trials and select only those from sites that obtained favourable results for publication |
Perform subgroup analyses and select only those that are favourable for publication |
Present results most likely to impress. Relative risk reduction is often used instead of absolute risk |
Selection of the population participating in the study inappropriately |
Using inappropriate routes of administration of the reference drug |
Use surrogate instead of clinically relevant variables |
Delay publication and retention of data |
Establish the primary endpoint at the end of the study |
Mask side effects |
Highlight data favourable to the funder and not publish unfavourable data |
Methods used to obtain favourable results in clinical trials [9].
The PI only finances research projects most likely to yield positive results. This breaches the uncertainty principle that establishes that the patient should be included in a CT only if there is substantial uncertainty about which treatment will benefit them the most [9].
The publishers that own the medical journals where the CT are published depend on the PI, since drug advertising, special issues, reprints, etc. are a source of revenue [10]. If an author publishes an unfavourable criticism against a drug or PI, he runs the risk of not receiving income for the above concepts [9].
The fact that certain medicines are included in a clinical practice guide (CPG) is of major interest to the PI, since these guidelines are drawn up by experts for their use [11]. A study published in JAMA in 2002 found a high number of financial relationships between CPG experts and PI. Serious omissions were found in the declarations of conflicts of interest [9].
Conflicts of interest and potential biases in the publication of scientific-medical research have cast doubt on the credibility of the PI [9].
According to Peter Gotzsche, from the University of Gopenhage and director of the Nordic Cochrane Centre, the PI “does not work to improve health, but to obtain the maximum benefits” and to do this “extorts, commits fraud, breaches legislation and lies” [3].
Non-pharmacological interventions (NPI) or non-pharmacological therapies (NPT) are defined as any non-chemical intervention, which is theoretically supported, targeted and replicable, performed on a patient or caregiver and potentially capable of obtaining a relevant benefit [12].
The adoption of a healthy lifestyle is perhaps the best NPI as it will contribute to better health, more life enjoyment and reduce, except for contingencies, health costs. Thus, the ideal place to recommend NPI, as a preventive and/or curative measure is Primary Health Care, in line with the Declaration of Alma Ata of 1978 [13] and ratified 40 years later in Astaná in 2018 [14].
A large number of the techniques used in physiotherapy such as massage, kinesitherapy, etc., manual techniques (joint manipulations, chiropractic, etc.), various techniques used in psychotherapy, yoga, meditation, and others framed under the term non- conventional medical therapies (NCMT) such as acupuncture, moxibustion, homoeopathy, etc., belong to the NPT chapter. Many act by stimulating the body’s healing power, sometimes because they stimulate the production of biogenic amines, neuropeptides, stimulate natural defences, produce neuroprotection, etc., which contributes to homeostasis [15].
Although herbal medicine or treatment with medicinal plants forms part of the treatments used in NCMT, it is not included in this section since it deals with chemical substances. This does not mean that they should not be used but rather that it would be desirable to supplement NPT with medicinal plants of proven efficacy and safety. Homoeopathic preparations, however, do fall under the NPT heading, since after several dilutions the original substance is not observed.
NPT seek to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life, which is why they are widely used in the management of dementias, especially Alzheimer’s dementia, both in institutions and at home. Applied exclusively or in combination with drugs, they aim to slow down the course of the disease [16].
NPT should meet safety and efficacy standards [17] and for this, studies and meta-analyses have had to be performed for scientific validation, as required by evidence-based medicine according to Sackett et al. [18].
Unfortunately, there is not always a company or entity that finances many of these studies. Therefore, there are fewer studies published than those offered by the PI.
Although NPT are used above all in the field of Gerontology, in many other disciplines they also have both preventive and curative applications, either alone or in combination with other therapies.
NPT began to be applied systematically for dementia, both in institutionalised patients (nursing homes, day care centres) and in their homes. The aim was to, alleviate these processes, since there is no curative treatment [19]. NPT in the field of social and health care are called psychosocial interventions (PSI).
In the 1980s, support programmes for caregivers of dementia patients, whether they were family members or individuals, needed to be performed. In recent years there has been a need to extend these programmes to professional caregivers [19].
Since the last century there have been several attempts to classify PSI. With regard to validating PSI in Alzheimer’s dementia, experts recommend basing their actions on systematic reviews and meta-analyses.
Alzheimer’s relatives’ patient associations consider the areas of intervention in terms of cognitive, functional, emotional and comprehensive aspects.
Some intervention programmes (IP) used in the field of Alzheimer’s disease are listed in Table 3 according to Gárate Olazábal [20].
Intervention programmes (IP) | Techniques | Person who applies it |
---|---|---|
IP focused on behaviour | Behavioural training Cognitive behavioural therapy | Psychologist |
Environmental IP | Adaptation of physical space Adaptation of the social environment | Clinical assistants |
IP focused on emotion | Montessori method Validation therapy Reminiscence Orientation to reality | Psychogeriatricians Occupational therapist Physiotherapist Nursing assistant |
Cognitive stimulation programme | Art therapy Music therapy Aromatherapy Physical exercise Light therapy | Psychogeriatrician Occupational therapist Physiotherapist Nursing assistant |
IP focused on stimulation | Massage Therapeutic touch | Physiotherapist |
Other IP | Relaxation, acupuncture, animal therapy, etc. | Psychologist, doctor |
Intervention programmes focused on Alzheimer’s disease (taken from Gárate Olazábal and completed by A. Ursa).
These interventions can be performed either individually or in groups. Those carried out individually are more effective.
The Montessori-Based Dementia Programming (MBDP) method enables adults with dementia to be given tasks initially designed solely for children. Dr. Cameron Camp and the Myers Research Institute are pioneers in the MBDP system, which began to be used in the late 1990s. It is applied at advanced stages and consists of performing scheduled activities based on activities of daily life (ADL). To achieve this, he uses cognitive rehabilitation techniques such as task division, guided repetition, progression from simple to complex, and progression from concrete to abstract. When applied properly, it improves motor skills and basic functional abilities within a reasonable period of time (included in the Barthel index) [21].
Many other NPI can be performed in the social health field and as a first choice, for common pathologies such as insomnia [22], anxiety and stress [23], etc.
Support groups, education techniques and cognitive-behavioural training, counselling and case management, and prevention of physical and/or chemical restraints have been devised among other interventions to reduce the morbidity associated with caring for these patients [24]. This is for the caregiver, whether family or non-family, due to the major burden that falls upon them.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the most common cause of mortality in Western countries and involve high health costs. Arteriosclerosis develops insidiously over many years and its clinical manifestations appear when the disease is advanced. The CVD burden has grown in recent decades, in parallel to an increased prevalence of risk factors such as obesity, smoking, type 2 diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure [25]. Prevention of CVD involves adopting a healthy lifestyle and intervening on biochemical modifiable factors, etc., by means of pharmacological and/or non-pharmacological treatments.
In recent years, a preventive strategy has been developed in clinical practice based on what is known as cardiovascular rehabilitation (CVR), which is defined according to the World Health Organisation as “the set of activities necessary to ensure people with cardiovascular diseases, an optimal physical, mental and social condition that allows them to occupy by their own means as normal a place as possible in society” [26]. A team of professionals is required to perform CVR, it has relatively little implementation and according to cost-effectiveness studies it is favourable [27].
The prevention of such common pathologies as arterial hypertension is based on dietary advice, practice of physical exercise appropriate to each situation [28], stress control, emotional management and avoiding both legal and illegal drugs.
Many other cardiovascular diseases can be treated as first intention with NPT or as an accompaniment to pharmacological treatment. Table 4 shows some of these pathologies, NPT and the healthcare professional who applies this.
Pathology | NPT | Professional who applies/supervises this |
---|---|---|
Hypertension | Physical exercise (Briones Arteaga) | General practitioner/specialist |
Acute heart failure [29] | Ventilation, ultrafiltration, mechanical circulatory support, myocardial revascularization, etc. [29] | Cardiologist and nursing staff |
Venous insufficiency of the lower limbs [30] | Dietary advice, hydrotherapy, physical exercise (Schneider) | Physician/nurse/physical therapist |
Primary arterial hypotension [30] | Dietary advice, hydrotherapy, physical exercise (Schneider) | Physician/nurse/physical therapist |
Some CVD and their non-pharmacological approach.
It would be desirable to implement cardiovascular pathology NPI in health systems to reduce the side effects of medication, polypharmacy, improve quality of life and reduce health costs.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma are common respiratory diseases and in many cases, they go undiagnosed, reduce quality of life and represent a high health cost.
NPT is essential in COPD patients. However, this treatment is sometimes not given adequate importance. Patients diagnosed with COPD should benefit from comprehensive care services (CCS), which are an articulated set of standardised actions aimed at meeting the COPD patient’s health needs, considering the environment and particular circumstances. Pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) is one of the essential components of non-pharmacological treatment in COPD. NPT is used as an adjunct to drug therapy [31] and has been shown to improve functionality [32].
Table 5 shows the pulmonary rehabilitation plan according to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (INCPS) [33].
Procedure | Purpose | Resources/professionals |
---|---|---|
Exercise training | Improve muscular endurance and strength | Treadmill, exercise bike, weights |
Nutritional advice | Eating to achieve a healthy weight | Periodic supervision by the nutritionist |
Health education | Knowledge of the disease, proposals for a healthy life, recognition of flare-ups, drug management, etc. | Specialist doctor/nursing team |
Tackling fatigue | Advice on how to perform daily tasks, stress management, sleep, etc. | Specialist doctor/nursing team |
Tips on breathing | Improve the quality of breathing and oxygenation | Specialist doctor/nursing team |
Psychological advice | Individual or group approach. Avoid anxiety/depression | Psychologist |
Pulmonary rehabilitation plan according to the INCPS.
Many other actions have been published for asthma (therapeutic education, massage, music therapy, etc.). However, results are not conclusive.
Gastrointestinal tract diseases are numerous, due to different causes and many are related to an inappropriate lifestyle. In addition to the pharmacological and/or surgical, dietary and psychological treatment from which a benefit can be derived, some are susceptible to improvement with physical treatments such as different applications of hydrotherapy (washes, damp cloths plus drug substance, jets, etc.), physical exercise, relaxation techniques, etc., within the context of personalised medicine.
Table 6 shows some NPT applied in the most common digestive tract disorders (taken from Schneider and Pizzorno et al. [34, 35]).
Condition | NPT | Effects |
---|---|---|
Caries and periodontal disease | Mechanical cleaning of teeth with dental floss | Removes the bacterial plaque causing the disease |
Gastroesophageal reflux esophagitis (from hiatus hernia, etc.) | Postural when lying down (head elevated) Physical exercise | Prevents passage of acid from the stomach |
Chronic gastritis | Compresses, damp cloths plus drug substance, wraps, jets, etc. according to disease stage | Reduce discomfort, improve functionality |
Gastrointestinal ulcer | Flax seed/clay plasters on abdomen, wraps and compresses for the first 4 weeks. After dry brushing of the skin, jets at alternate temperatures, etc. | Shortens course, relieves symptoms (pain, etc.) and reduces medication |
Irritable bowel syndrome | Diet (fibre, etc.) Stress reduction (yoga, meditation) Physical exercise | Improves annoying symptoms (pain, etc.) |
Functional constipation (no organic cause) | Diet, physical exercise, hydration Warm sitz baths. Chamomile enema. Belly massage. Abdominal wraps, etc. | Adoption of a healthy lifestyle improves the frequency of defecation and avoids associated diseases (haemorrhoids, etc.) |
Haemorrhoids (internal and/or external) | Depending on scope they can benefit from a sitz bath at an alternating temperature, homoeopathy, etc. | Reduce congestion, relieve discomfort, etc. |
NPT in some of the most common digestive tract diseases (taken from the book health by nature and natural medicine manual).
In the section on hepatobiliary diseases, there are many accompanying measures to pharmacological, hygienic and dietary treatments that can be performed. Given the characteristics of the book, it is not possible to elaborate in this context.
Obesity and diabetes mellitus are among the most common of the many endocrine-metabolic disorders in Western countries. Both constitute a public health problem since they cause major morbidity and mortality, which increases the country’s health expenditure. The first measure in tackling obesity consists of adopting a healthy lifestyle that enables maintaining an optimal weight. Diet, physical exercise and medical advice should not be lacking when the body mass index is higher than 30. Individualised treatment should take precedence over guidelines or protocols. In the case of type 2 diabetes mellitus, the most common, hygienic-dietary advice needs to be strengthened as an aid to pharmacological treatment if needed [36].
For dyslipidaemia, good results have been achieved with the application of cardio-healthy diets, especially for secondary dyslipidaemia [37].
Physical exercise is the first indication in metabolic syndrome with the aim of reducing abdominal fat deposition and adverse cardiovascular effects. The remaining associated conditions are managed with medical advice, drug therapy, and a correct diet [38].
Bone mineral density (BMD) gradually decreases with age and is more evident in women when menopause begins. Physical exercise in conjunction with dietary and hygiene advice has been shown to improve BMD in postmenopausal women [39].
Rehabilitation medicine and physiotherapy as members of the health sciences are the paradigm of NPT, since a large part of their actions are based on physical procedures.
Some symptoms and signs that accompany many osteoarticular, neurological, psychiatric and other diseases are the usually associated inflammation and pain. Table 7 includes some procedures used in rehabilitation medicine and physiotherapy taken from Miranda Mayordomo [40].
Technique/procedure | Effect | Indications |
---|---|---|
Kinesitherapy in its different variants | Gain in strength and mobility | Various injuries of the locomotor system, neurological, etc. |
Therapeutic exercise (active kinesitherapy) | Improved proprioception | Indicated in many osteoarticular processes/injuries |
Heat/Cold | Analgesia, etc. | See text below |
Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TENS) | Analgesia | Many musculoskeletal and other conditions (oncology, etc.) |
Cervical traction | Analgesia | Cervical spondylosis, disc prolapse, cervical injuries, torticollis, etc. |
Massage | Mobilises contracted tissues, relieves pain, reduces inflammation and induration in trauma | Sprains, muscle strain, contusion, peripheral nerve injuries, lower back pain, arthritis, peri-arthritis, bursitis, fibromyalgia, hemiplegia, paraplegia, tetraplegia, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy and amputation |
Acupuncture | Analgesia | Conditions that present with acute or chronic pain |
Homoeopathy | Analgesia, reduces inflammation and oedema in trauma | Sprain, painful shoulder, osteoarthritis, bursitis, epicondylitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, etc. |
Some physical therapies used in rehabilitation/physiotherapy (taken from Miranda Mayordomo’s book, Medical Rehabilitation and completed by A. Ursa).
The choice between heat and cold treatment is governed by principles and is sometimes applied empirically.
Heat provides transient relief in subacute and chronic inflammatory and traumatic disorders, such as sprains, muscle strains, fibrositis, tenosynovitis, muscle spasms, myositis, lower back pain, neck injuries, various forms of arthritis, arthralgia, neuralgia, etc. Heat increases blood flow, and helps relieve inflammation, oedema and exudates from connective tissue injuries. Heat can be applied either superficially (infrared, hot compresses, paraffin bath, hydrotherapy) or deep (ultrasound). The intensity and duration of physiological effects depend primarily on the temperature of the tissue, the rate of temperature rise, and the area treated [40].
Cold can help relieve muscle spasms, myofascial or traumatic pain and acute inflammation (sprain, low back pain, etc). As of a certain temperature, cold induces a certain local anaesthesia (cryotherapy). Cold is usually used for a few hours after a muscle or tendon injury, up until evaluation [40].
Hydrotherapy in rehabilitative medicine is used in many conditions. Stirred hot water stimulates blood flow and debrides burns and wounds. This treatment is performed in a Hubbar tank with water between 35.5°C and 37.7°C. Full immersion in water heated to between 37.7°C and 40°C can also help relax muscles and relieve pain. Hydrotherapy is particularly useful for range-of-motion exercises [41, 42].
Electrotherapy in rehabilitative medicine plays an important role in many locomotor system disorders, either exclusively or as a complement to other techniques [43].
The various areas of physiotherapy, such as paediatric, respiratory, pelvic floor, neurological or sports - with their preventive, curative and rehabilitative approach – tackle numerous conditions that I do not address given the characteristics of this chapter.
Although pharmacological therapy has played an important role in psychiatric conditions since its introduction, sometimes it is difficult to comply with the therapy due to the disease itself, due to side effects or due to access to medication, either during hospitalisation or domiciliary care. Because of this, a series of non-pharmacological techniques and procedures to treat the most common neuropsychiatric pathologies have been developed. NPT in psychiatry should generally be used before drug treatment. However, the reality is usually different. Table 8 reports some of the most frequent techniques and procedures used in the most common neuropsychiatric conditions, taken from various authors.
Condition | Technique/procedure | Author(s) |
---|---|---|
Anxiety | Cognitive-behavioural therapy [44], relaxation techniques [44], yoga [44], meditation [45], contact with nature [46] | Galve, Ursa Herguedas |
Insomnia | Cognitive-behavioural therapy, physical exercise during the day, etc. [47, 48] | Díez González, et al., Baides Noriega et al. |
Depression | Physical exercise [49], phototherapy [50] | Alonso López et al., Tuunainen et al |
Cerebral palsy | Equestrian therapy [51] | Jiménez de la Fuente |
Equestrian therapy | Music therapy [52] | Acebes de Pablo et al |
Most common neuropsychiatric pathologies and non-pharmacological approach (compiled by A. Ursa).
There are NPT for neurological conditions such as migraine, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, etc., which have been implemented in recent years. These require further studies for their validation.
Among the eyeball conditions, the Bates method for improvement of vision without glasses is notable. This work was published for the first time in 1919 in the USA [53].
After several years of observation, Dr. William H. Bates (1860–1931), an American ophthalmologist, devised some exercises to restore normal vision in some eye problems and dispense with using glasses. He started from the hypothesis that the tension caused by certain visual habits were the main cause of poor eye vision. This method helps patients become aware of use of their visual organ by means of a series of eye and non-eye exercises. Table 9 shows some of these exercises according to Roselló [54].
Technique | Procedure | Effect |
---|---|---|
Oscillations | Rotate the trunk with the feet on tiptoes. The opposite heel lifts on every turn | ? |
Palming | Cover the eyes with the palms of the hands so that no light penetrates | Facilitates eye relaxation |
Sunning | Look at the sun with closed eyes, alternating light and shadow | ? |
Neck rotation/flexion-extension | Rotate the neck to both sides alternately and cervical flexion and extension | Activation of muscle chains |
Shoulder movement | Roll shoulders in a clockwise and anticlockwise direction | Activation of muscle chains |
Targeting exercise | Fix vision alternately at a near (outstretched arm) and distant point | The lens ligaments are exercised |
Eyeball rotation back and forth | Clockwise and anticlockwise rotation | The eye muscles are exercised |
Some Bates method exercises (taken from Roselló’s book see well without glasses).
The Bates method is indicated for all vision refractive problems such as myopia, astigmatism, hyperopia and presbyopia. It is contraindicated in the event of macular degeneration, eye infection or eyeball tumour [53].
In the last few years, the Bates method has been taught on postgraduate courses at some European universities and recommended by some ophthalmologists. However, there are detractors of the method [55].
Although we cannot dispense with medicines, medical protocols and guidelines must be urgently reviewed. This is because most are based on medicines as a first line treatment option.
Bioethics committees in clinical trials should be comprised of independent staff. Conflicts of interest in scientific publications should be more closely monitored.
The acquisition of a healthy lifestyle must be promoted through Primary Healthcare, as part of a primary prevention programme.
Non-pharmacological treatments (NPT) are especially indicated for chronic diseases. However, many acute conditions can also benefit.
Numerous conditions of most bodily systems can be treated with NPT. Implementing this modality would contribute to reducing the adverse effects of medicines, bring healthcare expenditure down and lead to environmental sustainability.
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Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11072",title:"Sample Preparation Techniques for Chemical Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38fecf7570774c29c22a0cbca58ba570",slug:"sample-preparation-techniques-for-chemical-analysis",bookSignature:"Massoud Kaykhaii",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11072.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"349151",title:"Prof.",name:"Massoud",middleName:null,surname:"Kaykhaii",slug:"massoud-kaykhaii",fullName:"Massoud Kaykhaii"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10443",title:"Accenting Lipid Peroxidation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"783b476008fbd1917ab059fb9f07b93c",slug:"accenting-lipid-peroxidation",bookSignature:"Pınar Atukeren",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10443.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54960",title:"Dr.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Atukeren",slug:"pinar-atukeren",fullName:"Pınar Atukeren"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10776",title:"Cellulose Science and Derivatives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"947660259ce1915c3cac58bf7d990424",slug:"cellulose-science-and-derivatives",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Sangita Banga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10776.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10701",title:"Alkenes",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6dd394ef1ca2d6472220de6a79a0d9a",slug:"alkenes-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Reza Davarnejad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88069",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Davarnejad",slug:"reza-davarnejad",fullName:"Reza Davarnejad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:190,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"36171",doi:"10.5772/36942",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:9225,totalCrossrefCites:130,totalDimensionsCites:375,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko"}]},{id:"36178",doi:"10.5772/36323",title:"Applications of FTIR on Epoxy Resins - Identification, Monitoring the Curing Process, Phase Separation and Water Uptake",slug:"applications-of-ftir-on-epoxy-resins-identification-monitoring-the-curing-process-phase-separatio",totalDownloads:20806,totalCrossrefCites:84,totalDimensionsCites:254,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"María González González, Juan Carlos Cabanelas and Juan Baselga",authors:[{id:"107857",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Baselga",slug:"juan-baselga",fullName:"Juan Baselga"},{id:"138113",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"González",slug:"maria-gonzalez",fullName:"María González"},{id:"138114",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas",fullName:"Juan C. Cabanelas"}]},{id:"53973",doi:"10.5772/66927",title:"Phenolic Compounds in Water: Sources, Reactivity, Toxicity and Treatment Methods",slug:"phenolic-compounds-in-water-sources-reactivity-toxicity-and-treatment-methods",totalDownloads:7253,totalCrossrefCites:74,totalDimensionsCites:158,abstract:"Phenolic compounds exist in water bodies due to the discharge of polluted wastewater from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities into water bodies. They also occur as a result of natural phenomena. These compounds are known to be toxic and inflict both severe and long‐lasting effects on both humans and animals. They act as carcinogens and cause damage to the red blood cells and the liver, even at low concentrations. Interaction of these compounds with microorganisms, inorganic and other organic compounds in water can produce substituted compounds or other moieties, which may be as toxic as the original phenolic compounds. This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. Govender",authors:[{id:"195237",title:"Dr.",name:"Messai",middleName:"A.",surname:"Mamo",slug:"messai-mamo",fullName:"Messai Mamo"},{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku"},{id:"196466",title:"Dr.",name:"Penny",middleName:null,surname:"Govender",slug:"penny-govender",fullName:"Penny Govender"}]},{id:"36184",doi:"10.5772/36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",totalDownloads:7792,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:150,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández"}]},{id:"53128",doi:"10.5772/66368",title:"Phenolic Compounds: Functional Properties, Impact of Processing and Bioavailability",slug:"phenolic-compounds-functional-properties-impact-of-processing-and-bioavailability",totalDownloads:9318,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:142,abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss the influence of the processing methods on the content of phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables. The intake of fruits and vegetables based‐foods are associated with delayed aging and a decreased risk of chronic disease development. Fruits and vegetables can be consumed in natura, but the highest amounts are ingested after some processing methods, such as cooking procedures or sanitizing methods. These methods are directly methods are directly related to alteration on the phenolic content. In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12377,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6879,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4493,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:7983,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82358",title:"Water Defluoridation Methods Applied in Rural Areas over the World",slug:"water-defluoridation-methods-applied-in-rural-areas-over-the-world",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105102",abstract:"Overexposure to fluoride (F) through drinking water is the most widespread water problem in the world, but it has now exacerbated due to rapid population growth rates, adverse climatic changes, and increasing levels of water scarcity. Thus, despite the large amounts of data, which has accrued on mitigation methods of high F is still the primary impediment to drinking water programs among many developing nations. The current review chapter on F mitigation techniques applied world-over is aimed at providing a succinct overview of water defluoridation techniques and strategies being used to combat the impact of human F overexposure. It represents a starting point to understand the prospects of reducing the global F impact. It is anticipated that this work will lay a strong foundation for this and also inform strategies for safeguarding public health and the environment from F pollution.",book:{id:"11209",title:"Fluoride",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11209.jpg"},signatures:"Enos Wamalwa Wambu, Franco Frau, Revocatus Machunda, Lilliane Pasape, Stephen S. Barasa and Giorgio Ghiglieri"},{id:"82221",title:"Solvent Catalysis in the Sensitizer-Mediator Redox Kinetics",slug:"solvent-catalysis-in-the-sensitizer-mediator-redox-kinetics",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105393",abstract:"The sensitizer-mediator redox reaction is a vital component of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The efficiency and stability of dye-sensitized solar cells are aided by the kinetics of this redox process. Several reaction parameters influence the kinetics of a reaction, and if those parameters are controlled, the rate of the process and its results can be controlled. One of the most important aspects of the sensitizer-mediator interaction is the reaction medium. Aqueous DSSCs are unquestionably a good replacement when it comes to taking a green approach to avoiding toxic, flammable, and volatile organic solvents and their mixtures, which are commonly used in DSSCs and are known to harm the environment while also reducing the lifetime and stability of the DSSCs. The catalytic role of a small volume fraction of organic solvent in the aqueous electron transfer kinetics of a few putative sensitizer-mediator reactions is discussed in this chapter. In binary solvent media including dilute tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)-water and dilute 1,4-dioxane-water, the reduction of dicyanobis(2,2′-dipyridyl)iron(III) and dicyanobis(1,10-phenanthroline)iron(III) was investigated. The reactions were carried out in a 10% TBA or dioxane to water media with a volume-volume fraction of both solvents using iodide as a reducing agent. The effect of several parameters on the rate constant was also calculated and analyzed.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"82282",title:"Pyridine Nucleus as a Directing Group for Metal-Based C–H Bond Activation",slug:"pyridine-nucleus-as-a-directing-group-for-metal-based-c-h-bond-activation",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105544",abstract:"Carbon-hydrogen (C–H) bond activation involves a methodology for the construction of carbon-X (C–X) bonds where X can be carbon (C), oxygen (O), or the nitrogen (N), allowing the formation of C–C, C–O, or C–N bonds. Among them, the construction of the C–C bond within the aromatic moiety has remained a bottleneck because the abundance of C–H bonds in aromatic molecules possesses almost similar bond dissociation energies comparable to the C–C bond allowing leading to the poor reactivity and selectivity. Secondly, C–H bonds possess low polarity and thus confer them inertness. Considering this, directing group strategy came into existence, where the coordination ability of the heteroatoms such as O and N atoms within the ring was utilized for the direction of the reaction. The use of the heteroatom for the regioselective C–H bond activation is quite advantageous that could be explored immensely for their functionalization. In this chapter, we have congregated the information and put forth the evidence of C–H activation leading to the C–C bond formation in pyridine and pyridine-containing entities.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Purohit Priyank, Joshi Gaurav and Aggarwal Meenu"},{id:"82236",title:"Alternatives to Soluble Phosphorus Fertilizers in Indian Context",slug:"alternatives-to-soluble-phosphorus-fertilizers-in-indian-context",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105561",abstract:"Phosphorus is one of the primary nutrients required in crop production. Rock phosphate is the raw material required for the manufacturing of soluble phosphorus fertilizers, which is nonrenewable in nature and expected to last for 50–400 years. The restriction of resources to few geographical locations makes its supply more vulnerable. In India, 90% of the rock phosphate for fertilizer manufacturing is imported. However, the low quality of rock phosphate deposits available in India can be utilized with certain modifications in the form of addition of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, addition of gypsum, and in the form of phospho-enriched compost. Agriculture, livestock, urban and industrial waste can also prove to be a source of phosphorus through crystallization of struvite. There are encouraging results of struvite compared with soluble phosphorus fertilizers. This will reduce the import dependency in India as well as encourage the Atmanirbhar initiative in phosphorus fertilizer.",book:{id:"11906",title:"Phosphate Minerals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11906.jpg"},signatures:"Alok Singh Jayara, Rajeew Kumar, Priyanka Pandey, Manoj Kumar Bhatt, Sharad Pandey and Roshan Lal Meena"},{id:"82251",title:"Potassium Persulfate as an Eco-Friendly Oxidant for Oxidative Transformations",slug:"potassium-persulfate-as-an-eco-friendly-oxidant-for-oxidative-transformations",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104715",abstract:"The formation of carbon-carbon/carbon-heteroatom bonds by oxidative transformations is a hotly debated topic in chemistry. K2S2O8 has emerged as a cost-effective inorganic oxidant for a wide range of oxidative reactions in this setting. This book chapter covers oxidative reactions facilitated by K2S2O8 in the absence of a metal catalyst in detail. Organic chemists may find this book chapter valuable in formulating the mechanistic pathways involving the sulphate radical anion, as well as in the quick and environmentally friendly synthesis of novel chemical species.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Bilal Ahmad Mir and Suresh Rajamanickam"},{id:"82242",title:"Monitoring Brain Activities Using fNIRS to Avoid Stroke",slug:"monitoring-brain-activities-using-fnirs-to-avoid-stroke",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105461",abstract:"Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an emerging wearable neuroimaging technique based on monitoring the hemodynamics of brain activity. First, the operation principle of fNIRS is described. This includes introducing the absorption spectra of the targeted molecule: the oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin. Then, the optical path formed by emitters and detectors and the concentration of the molecules is determined using Beer-Lambert law. In the second part, the advantages of applying fNIRS are compared with other neuroimaging techniques, such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. The compared parameters include time and spatial resolution, immobility, etc. Next, the evolution of the fNIRS devices is shown. It includes the commercially available systems and the others under construction in academia. In the last section, the applications of fNIRS to avoid stroke are presented. The challenges of achieving good signal quality and high user comfort monitoring on stroke patients are discussed. Due to the wearable, user-friendly, and accessibility characteristics of fNIRS, it has the potential to be a complementary technique for real-time bedside monitoring of stroke patients. A stroke risk prediction system can be implemented to avoid stroke by combining the recorded fNIRS signals, routinely monitored physiological parameters, electronic health records, and machine learning models.",book:{id:"11564",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11564.jpg"},signatures:"Yun-Hsuan Chen and Mohamad Sawan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:76},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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