Main parameters of the Rotax series in Poland.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8178",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Water Chemistry",title:"Water Chemistry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Water, which plays an important role in every aspect of our daily lives, is the most valuable natural resource we have on this planet. Drinking, bathing, cooking, regeneration, cleaning, production, energy, and many other uses of water originate from some of its versatile, useful, basic, and unique features. The access, purification, and reuse of water on our planet, which is of course not endless and not available for direct use, is directly related to the water chemistry that explores its inimitable properties. This book includes research on water chemistry-related applications in environmental management and sustainable environmental issues such as water and wastewater treatment, water quality management, and other similar topics. The book consists of three sections, namely, water treatment, wastewater treatment, and water splitting, respectively, and includes 11 chapters. In these chapters, water-wastewater remediation methods, nanomaterials in water treatment, and water splitting processes are comprehensively reviewed in terms of water chemistry.The editors would like to record their sincere thanks to the authors for their contributions.",isbn:"978-1-78985-558-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-557-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-429-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78128",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"water-chemistry",numberOfPages:250,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"18595695f271583e06b7c2d33b670e56",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8178.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12640,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:53,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:81,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.png",biography:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz is an associate professor in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor and reviewer for many indexed journals. Dr. Eyvaz has four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"176701",title:"Prof.",name:"Ebubekir",middleName:null,surname:"Yüksel",slug:"ebubekir-yuksel",fullName:"Ebubekir Yüksel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176701/images/system/176701.png",biography:"Prof. Ebubekir Yüksel is a faculty member of the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, watershed management, flood control, deep-sea discharges, membrane processes, spectrophotometric analyses, chromatographic analyses, and geographic information systems. He has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He has produced more than thirty peer-reviewed publications in indexed journals. He has one patent on pump/turbine design and four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"127",title:"Environmental Chemistry",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"67607",title:"Suitability and Assessment of Surface Water for Irrigation Purpose",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86651",slug:"suitability-and-assessment-of-surface-water-for-irrigation-purpose",totalDownloads:917,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surface water is an important resource that can create tensions between different countries sharing the same water sources to know that the agriculture is considered as the last sector that exploits less water compared to the industry which uses very large water quantities. The future strategies of agricultural development in the most of these countries depend on the ability to maintain, improve and expand irrigated agriculture. In this light, this chapter is written in the way to show some steps of the evaluation of surface water for irrigation purpose. The results obtained from this research make it possible to evaluate the suitability of surface water for irrigation and to draw useful recommendations for dam managers and farmers.",signatures:"Ammar Tiri, Lazhar Belkhiri, Mammeri Asma and Lotfi Mouni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67607",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67607",authors:[{id:"214668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ammar",surname:"Tiri",slug:"ammar-tiri",fullName:"Ammar Tiri"},{id:"289827",title:"Dr.",name:"Belkhiri",surname:"Lazhar",slug:"belkhiri-lazhar",fullName:"Belkhiri Lazhar"},{id:"289828",title:"Ms.",name:"Mammeri",surname:"Asma",slug:"mammeri-asma",fullName:"Mammeri Asma"},{id:"289830",title:"Dr.",name:"Mouni",surname:"Loutfi",slug:"mouni-loutfi",fullName:"Mouni Loutfi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68502",title:"Water Chemical Remediation for Simultaneous Removal of Phosphate Ion and Blue-Green Algae From Anthropogenically Eutrophied Pond",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88490",slug:"water-chemical-remediation-for-simultaneous-removal-of-phosphate-ion-and-blue-green-algae-from-anthr",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent organic pollution is caused primarily by the decay of blue-green algae, Microcystis aeruginosa, which is seriously multiplied due to phosphorus-based anthropogenic eutrophication. In eutrophic water, the phenomenon of pH rising in the surface water occurs due to photosynthesis by M. aeruginosa (rising over pH 10). Such pH value is enough to produce calcium phosphate precipitation. The M. aeruginosa cells form colonies and have the outer layer of which is surrounded by a gelatinous sheath. Thus, we considered simultaneous removal of phosphate ion and blue-green algae using calcium chloride from water surface of eutrophic pond. In the present chapter, a simultaneous removal method employing water chemical remediation (WCR) is described. In this method, a flow system was constructed by equipment of a calcium chloride injector and a sand filtration column. As a result, both calcium phosphate and agglutinated algae could be removed from the eutrophic pond water. These water nutrients are removed, phosphorus is concerned about exhaustion as a resource, and the collected algae can be used in various ways as biomass resources. Thus, our system showed the future ability to improve water quality, to remove contaminants, and to recover nutrients from eutrophic water.",signatures:"Hideaki Nakamura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68502",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68502",authors:[{id:"301766",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",surname:"Nakamura",slug:"hideaki-nakamura",fullName:"Hideaki Nakamura"}],corrections:null},{id:"68571",title:"Pollution of Water Sources from Agricultural and Industrial Effluents: Special Attention to NO3ˉ, Cr(VI), and Cu(II)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86921",slug:"pollution-of-water-sources-from-agricultural-and-industrial-effluents-special-attention-to-no-sub-3-",totalDownloads:999,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"One of the most important challenges facing humanity today is to conserve and sustain water resources (either surface water or groundwater). This challenge became more pronounced with the increase of urban, agricultural, and industrial activities that discharge a considerable amount of wastewater. Therefore, the preservation of water sources from pollutants is a major concern, shared by all, public, industrial, scientific, researchers, and decision-makers. This chapter analyzes in more detail the pollution and pollutants caused by agricultural and industrial activities. Particular attention is given to pollution via nitrogen and heavy metals (NO3−, Cr(VI), and Cu(II)) in either international or national level. The effect of these pollutants on human health and environment, their standards/regulations, and the different current methods used for their detection and treatment are all discussed in the chapter.",signatures:"Majda Breida, Saad Alami Younssi, Mohamed Ouammou, Mohamed Bouhria and Mahmoud Hafsi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68571",authors:[{id:"238951",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",surname:"Alami Younssi",slug:"saad-alami-younssi",fullName:"Saad Alami Younssi"},{id:"244049",title:"Ms.",name:"Majda",surname:"Breida",slug:"majda-breida",fullName:"Majda Breida"},{id:"303258",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Ouammou",slug:"mohamed-ouammou",fullName:"Mohamed Ouammou"},{id:"303259",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Bouhria",slug:"mohamed-bouhria",fullName:"Mohamed Bouhria"},{id:"303260",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Hafsi",slug:"mahmoud-hafsi",fullName:"Mahmoud Hafsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"67735",title:"Modeling Accumulated Evapotranspiration Over Time",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86913",slug:"modeling-accumulated-evapotranspiration-over-time",totalDownloads:683,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The knowledge of accumulated evapotranspiration by seasonal vegetation crops throughout their life cycle can be an important tool in decision-making when considering the economic viability of the crop. This knowledge can help understand how much the plants, subject to specific management, can evapotranspirate at the end of their cycle. This information assists in estimating the quantity of a production variable, for example, the mass of shoot fresh matter, besides indicating a more interesting period for its harvest. The objective of this chapter is, from the daily evapotranspiration estimative throughout the cycle, to model the accumulated evapotranspiration over the entire growth period of the crop. In order to do so, we must understand that the behavior of the response variable, i.e., the accumulated evapotranspiration, over time is not linear and keep in mind that the several observations performed in the same experimental unit have correlations and these correlations are more intense the closer temporally the measurements are. This understanding leads us to the analysis of longitudinal data from the nonlinear mixed effect models perspective.",signatures:"Omar Cléo Neves Pereira and Altair Bertonha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67735",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67735",authors:[{id:"294695",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar Cléo",surname:"Pereira",slug:"omar-cleo-pereira",fullName:"Omar Cléo Pereira"},{id:"302645",title:"Dr.",name:"Altair",surname:"Bertonha",slug:"altair-bertonha",fullName:"Altair Bertonha"}],corrections:null},{id:"68365",title:"Sustainability Assessment of Wastewater Treatment Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88338",slug:"sustainability-assessment-of-wastewater-treatment-plants",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is thought that this chapter will make a significant contribution to the literature or at least will fill the space on the wastewater treatment plant’s effect on climate change. It demonstrates the potential climate change impact of a sequential batch reactor (SBR) and constructed wetland on treating domestic wastewater by giving methods for calculation of their greenhouse gas emissions in terms of N2O and CH4. Are wastewater treatment plants sustainable? What aspects determine sustainability? Do tertiary wastewater treatment plants and constructed wetlands (CWs) have less global warming potential (CO2 emissions) and less energy use than conventional treatment? In accordance with the literature, greenhouse gas calculations of this study showed that CWs and SBR WWTPs do not contribute to global warming negatively.",signatures:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68365",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68365",authors:[{id:"302014",title:"Prof.",name:"Başak",surname:"Kılıç Taşeli",slug:"basak-kilic-taseli",fullName:"Başak Kılıç Taşeli"}],corrections:null},{id:"67637",title:"The Use of Industrial Waste for the Bioremediation of Water Used in Industrial Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86803",slug:"the-use-of-industrial-waste-for-the-bioremediation-of-water-used-in-industrial-processes",totalDownloads:861,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently the interest in the remediation of liquid effluents from industries such as paint manufacturing, leather tanning, etc. has increased, because the quality of the water used in these processes is highly compromised and is generally discarded without any process of purification, causing an inadequate use of water and contributing to the hydric stress of the planet. Therefore, it is necessary to find alternatives for the remediation of water used in industrial processes; one of the methods that has been widely accepted given its high efficiency, low cost, and versatility compared to others is the bioadsorption using materials derived from various processes used for the elimination of metals such as Cr, Co, Cu, Ni, etc. from liquid effluents. Among the materials used for this purpose are rice husk, orange, and wheat as well as apatite (hydroxyapatite and brushite), derived from animal bones, which have shown good capacity (>90%) to adsorb metals from aqueous solutions. Through the characterization by DRX, FTIR, and SEM, of the brushite and studies in equilibrium and kinetics of adsorption, it has been demonstrated that this material has a good capacity to remove metals present in water.",signatures:"Rosa Hernández-Soto, José A. Hernández, Alba N. Ardila-Arias, Mercedes Salazar-Hernández and María del Carmen Salazar-Hernandeza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67637",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67637",authors:[{id:"191277",title:"Prof.",name:"Mercedes",surname:"Salazar-Hernández",slug:"mercedes-salazar-hernandez",fullName:"Mercedes Salazar-Hernández"},{id:"194827",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Salazar-Hernández",slug:"carmen-salazar-hernandez",fullName:"Carmen Salazar-Hernández"},{id:"296566",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Hernández-Soto",slug:"rosa-hernandez-soto",fullName:"Rosa Hernández-Soto"},{id:"296684",title:"Prof.",name:"José Alfredo",surname:"Hernámdez-Maldonado",slug:"jose-alfredo-hernamdez-maldonado",fullName:"José Alfredo Hernámdez-Maldonado"},{id:"296800",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba N.",surname:"Ardilas",slug:"alba-n.-ardilas",fullName:"Alba N. Ardilas"}],corrections:null},{id:"70455",title:"Contamination of Water Resources by Food Dyes and Its Removal Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90331",slug:"contamination-of-water-resources-by-food-dyes-and-its-removal-technologies",totalDownloads:1088,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Food dyes comprise different groups which impart color to a wide range of food products. Food products are mainly purchased and consumed by people because they are nutritive and flavorsome and have an attractive color. Food color stimulates appetite and enhances its esthetic appeal of food on table for customer. With sky rocketing industrialization and modernization, the worldwide production of dyes in 2010 was forecasted to be 2.1 metric tons. It has been estimated that 15% of total dyes produced worldwide are discharged to water bodies which adversely affect aquatic ecosystem. Dyes in water reduces its transparency, thereby declining light penetration in the water, hence influencing photosynthesis which consequently reduces dissolved oxygen which is an alarming situation for both aquatic flora and fauna. Dyes wastewater discharged from huge number of industries like textile, leathers, paint, food, pharmaceutical etc. and deteriorating the aquatic environment and pose threat to living organism. The presence of dye molecules in water channels is an emerging alarm to an environmental scientist. An environmental friendly and self-sustainable treatment method should be explored to address this problem. Therefore, this work elaborates the various methods used for removal and degradation of dyes in water, although some processes have a common shortcoming like production of secondary pollution to the environment. This chapter have tried to highlight the important application of food dyes, their contamination and their toxic effect. Herein we also focus on remediation techniques like separation (adsorption, filtration, etc.) and degradation (chemical, biological and electrochemical oxidation) of dyes in aqueous solution. The mechanism and pros and cons of different methods are explored and discussed briefly.",signatures:"Sajjad Hussain, Nadeem Khan, Saima Gul, Sabir Khan and Hammad Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70455",authors:[{id:"277306",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabir",surname:"Khan",slug:"sabir-khan",fullName:"Sabir Khan"},{id:"300798",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",surname:"Hussain",slug:"sajjad-hussain",fullName:"Sajjad Hussain"},{id:"309481",title:"Dr.",name:"Saima",surname:"Gul",slug:"saima-gul",fullName:"Saima Gul"},{id:"309482",title:"MSc.",name:"Nadeem",surname:"Khan",slug:"nadeem-khan",fullName:"Nadeem Khan"},{id:"314514",title:"Dr.",name:"Hammad",surname:"Khan",slug:"hammad-khan",fullName:"Hammad Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"67837",title:"Bi-Functionalized Hybrid Materials as Novel Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Removal from Aqueous Solution: Batch and Fixed-Bed Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86802",slug:"bi-functionalized-hybrid-materials-as-novel-adsorbents-for-heavy-metal-removal-from-aqueous-solution",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, two new mesoporous hybrid gels were synthesized. The structural order, morphology, and textural properties of the prepared hybrid materials have been studied by 13C CP MAS NMR, SEM, FTIR, and nitrogen adsorption–desorption analysis. The application for the heavy metal uptake from aqueous solution using the as-synthesized hybrid materials as an adsorbent is explored. Operating parameters influencing the adsorption procedure, for instance, solution pH, contact time, and temperature are contemplated. In order to gain an insight into the adsorption mechanism and reveal the rate-controlling steps, three models pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intra-particle diffusion have been studied to fit. Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) models are assigned to portray the adsorption isotherms. Besides, the feasibility of the synthesized adsorbents for a continuous process in fixed-bed column was investigated. Prior tests produced on electroplating effluents reveal that the as-prepared xerogel could be strongly used for the heavy metal uptake from real wastewater.",signatures:"Yasser Hannachi, Afifa Hafidh and Salwa Ayed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67837",authors:[{id:"297155",title:"Prof.",name:"Hannachi",surname:"Yasser",slug:"hannachi-yasser",fullName:"Hannachi Yasser"},{id:"297157",title:"Prof.",name:"Hafidh",surname:"Afifa",slug:"hafidh-afifa",fullName:"Hafidh Afifa"},{id:"302006",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayed",surname:"Salwa",slug:"ayed-salwa",fullName:"Ayed Salwa"}],corrections:null},{id:"68671",title:"Formulation of Corrosion Inhibitors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88533",slug:"formulation-of-corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:2693,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Corrosion inhibitors are widely used in the production process due to their significant effect. In this chapter, the formulation of typical corrosion inhibitors in acid solution, near-neutral solution, alkaline solution, and oil and gas systems will be discussed, respectively. Firstly, the importance of pickling corrosion inhibitors for thermal equipment in industrial production in different situations is discussed in the “Inhibitors for acid solution” section, and the types of pickling inhibitors are mainly applied in different kinds of acid media, such as sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, hydrofluoric acid, citric acid, and sulfamic acid. Secondly, in the “Inhibitors for near-neutral solution” section, the cooling water inhibitors principally include chromate, stabilized phosphate, alkaline zinc/organic, molybdate, all organic, soft and lean water, and environmental and closed-loop programs. The hot-water inhibitor is also mentioned here. Then in the “Inhibitors for alkaline solution” section, boiler water inhibitor, oxygen scavenger, and corrosion inhibitors for condensate line are talked over. Finally, in the “Inhibition for oil and gas systems” section, drilling fluid, fracturing acidizing, oil and gas well, and oil field which produced water treatment inhibitors are introduced here. The corrosion inhibition mechanism and development trend of inhibitors are also discussed.",signatures:"Yun Chen and Wenzhong Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68671",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68671",authors:[{id:"299905",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yun",surname:"Chen",slug:"yun-chen",fullName:"Yun Chen"},{id:"300440",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenzhong",surname:"Yang",slug:"wenzhong-yang",fullName:"Wenzhong Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"69592",title:"On the Limits of Photocatalytic Water Splitting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89235",slug:"on-the-limits-of-photocatalytic-water-splitting",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The major drawbacks on the limited H2 and O2 evolution activities of one-step photocatalytic water splitting systems are given here with the emphasis on charge recombination, back-oxidation reactions, and mass transfer limitations. Suppression of these unwanted phenomena is shown to be possible with the usage of small crystal-sized photocatalysts with low defect concentrations, presence of phase junctions, selection of co-catalyst that would be active for H2 evolution but inactive for O2 reduction, coating of the co-catalyst or the whole photocatalyst with selectively permeable nanolayers, and usage of photocatalytic systems with high solid–liquid and liquid–gas surface areas. The mass transfer limitations are shown to be important especially in the liquid–gas interfaces for agitated and suspended systems with estimated H2 transfer rates in the range of ∼200–8000 μmol/h.",signatures:"Bahar Ipek and Deniz Uner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69592",authors:[{id:"68248",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",surname:"Uner",slug:"deniz-uner",fullName:"Deniz Uner"},{id:"299212",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahar",surname:"Ipek",slug:"bahar-ipek",fullName:"Bahar Ipek"}],corrections:null},{id:"68442",title:"Water Splitting Electrocatalysis within Layered Inorganic Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88116",slug:"water-splitting-electrocatalysis-within-layered-inorganic-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:865,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The conversion of solar energy into chemical fuel is one of the “Holy Grails” of twenty-first century chemistry. Solar energy can be used to split water into oxygen and protons, which are then used to make hydrogen fuel. Nature is able to catalyze both the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) required for the conversion of solar energy into chemical fuel through the employment of enzymes that are composed of inexpensive transition metals. Instead of using expensive catalysts such as platinum, cheaper alternatives (such as cobalt, iron, or nickel) would provide the opportunity to make solar energy competitive with fossil fuels. However, obtaining efficient catalysts based on earth-abundant materials is still a daunting task. In this chapter, we review the advancements made with zirconium phosphate (ZrP) as a support for earth-abundant transition metals for the OER. Our studies have found that ZrP is a suitable support for transition metals as it provides an accessible surface where the OER can occur. Further findings have also shown that exfoliation of ZrP increases the availability of sites where active species can be adsorbed and performance is improved with this strategy.",signatures:"Mario V. Ramos-Garcés, Joel Sanchez, Isabel Barraza Alvarez, Yanyu Wu, Dino Villagrán, Thomas F. Jaramillo and Jorge L. Colón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68442",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68442",authors:[{id:"298832",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Colón",slug:"jorge-colon",fullName:"Jorge Colón"},{id:"305771",title:"Mr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Ramos-Garcés",slug:"mario-ramos-garces",fullName:"Mario Ramos-Garcés"},{id:"305876",title:"Mr.",name:"Joel",surname:"Sanchez",slug:"joel-sanchez",fullName:"Joel Sanchez"},{id:"305878",title:"Ms.",name:"Isabel",surname:"Barraza-Alvarez",slug:"isabel-barraza-alvarez",fullName:"Isabel Barraza-Alvarez"},{id:"305879",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanyu",surname:"Wu",slug:"yanyu-wu",fullName:"Yanyu Wu"},{id:"305880",title:"Dr.",name:"Dino",surname:"Villagrán",slug:"dino-villagran",fullName:"Dino Villagrán"},{id:"305881",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Jaramillo",slug:"thomas-jaramillo",fullName:"Thomas Jaramillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"70398",title:"Strategies in Absorbing Materials Productivity (H2O) of Renewable Energy Utilization by a Solar Still to Enhancement of Water Flowing over Glass Cover with the Influence of PCM and Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88114",slug:"strategies-in-absorbing-materials-productivity-h-sub-2-sub-o-of-renewable-energy-utilization-by-a-so",totalDownloads:732,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The solar thermal applications existing to investigative relationships of absorbing materials of water flowing over glass cover through the influence of PCM and nanoparticles for the enhancement of a single-slope single-basin solar still are presented and discussed. The results are compared with and without PCM and nanoparticles summer days for a conventional solar still. Numerically designed and experimental annotations have been written for the investigative solutions for the temperature of flowing water, glass cover, absorbing materials (FWCW and FWJW) and PCM and nanoparticles basin liner, respectively. The 24 h distillate manufacture rate of the solar still has been enhanced to usage of drip button through pure saline water to absorptive influence of FWCW capability is 70.02% and during (24 hours) daily distillate harvest of FWCW is 9.429 kg/m2 day, water flowing glass cover influence is 13.37%, respectively. A solar still analysis of Fourier coefficients with (6 to −6) harmonics Fourier series has been used for enhancement, and it is found to be a good representation of the observed variation. It is a good treaty among theoretical and experimental annotations of the structure.",signatures:"S. Shanmugan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70398",authors:[{id:"218278",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.",surname:"Dr. Shanmugan",slug:"s.-dr.-shanmugan",fullName:"S. Dr. Shanmugan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6732",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eee2f03e0328f289e68fde28738c333f",slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6732.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8804",title:"Water and Wastewater Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccb46d6518786712b3184b2498fb0cab",slug:"water-and-wastewater-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8804.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6665",title:"Advances In Hydrogen Generation Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99ccb9f2118953ff45f33ec391868157",slug:"advances-in-hydrogen-generation-technologies",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6665.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7693",title:"Green Chemistry Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9db61c9d52045d034f1ee6b769acccd5",slug:"green-chemistry-applications",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7693.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7237",title:"Energy-Efficient Approaches in Industrial Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7b403a3af7828987f078b91334839bb",slug:"energy-efficient-approaches-in-industrial-applications",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz, Abdülkerim Gok and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7237.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6137",title:"Biosorption",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3f1ce467c2d1349eb5b68d7aca025503",slug:"biosorption",bookSignature:"Jan Derco and Branislav Vrana",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6137.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80852",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Derco",slug:"jan-derco",fullName:"Jan Derco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8867",title:"Salt in the Earth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cc787e2ea65a4de53b298023451c07e",slug:"salt-in-the-earth",bookSignature:"Mualla Cengiz Çinku and Savas Karabulut",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8867.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199925",title:"Dr.",name:"Mualla",surname:"Cengiz",slug:"mualla-cengiz",fullName:"Mualla Cengiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7718",title:"Water Quality",subtitle:"Science, Assessments and Policy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7433952368240a0d55bfdcb148ff89e",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",bookSignature:"Kevin Summers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7718.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. 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Kevin Summers"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10030",title:"Emerging Contaminants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cec08ab5f7b88e8dbe3c8541d3555121",slug:"emerging-contaminants",bookSignature:"Aurel Nuro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14427",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurel",surname:"Nuro",slug:"aurel-nuro",fullName:"Aurel Nuro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{},chapter:{},book:{}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10698",leadTitle:null,title:"Elemental Mass Spectrometry - Basic Principles and Analytical Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tAll matter, living and non-living, is composed of chemical elements. Typically, elements are associated in the form of molecules and it is these molecules that are mostly subject to analysis. However, elemental analysis (i.e. the analysis of individual elements) is of great importance in the most diverse areas, from the quality control of water for human consumption to the analysis of clinical samples to detect eventual deficiencies or the detection of metallic impurities in pharmaceuticals.
\r\n\r\n\tElemental mass spectrometry evolved from classic atomic spectroscopy techniques (flame and plasma atomic emission spectrometry; flame and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry). In the version plasma-mass spectrometry (particularly inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry / ICP-MS), it has become an almost perfect tool for elemental analysis: it allows rapid (almost simultaneous) analysis of almost all elements of the periodic table; it has high sensitivity (it allows to obtain the lowest detection limits, in the order of ng/L or even lower) and allows to individually analyze the different isotopes of the same element (isotopic analysis). Thus, it paved the way for a variety of new applications, such as the elemental mapping of surfaces with laser ablation-ICP-MS, the quantification and characterization of metallic particles, and the study of the elemental composition or uptake of metals (and in particular nanoparticles) at the individual cell scale.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the basic principles and the recent advances of elemental analysis using ICP-MS and to highlight the increasing expansion of elemental analysis in different areas (food, environment, clinical/toxicology, forensic), including reference to current state-of-the-art applications.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"2b139aeb749b1a8d8453a1326b48ff20",bookSignature:"Dr. Edgar Pinto and Prof. Agostinho Almeida",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10698.jpg",keywords:"Metallomics, Ionomics, Soil Chemistry, Water Analysis, Air Quality, Heavy Metals, Nutrients Deficiencies, Toxicity, Postmortem Analysis, Sample Collection, Permitted Daily Exposure, Nanoparticles",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An internationally recognized researcher in the fields of food, environmental and analytical chemistry, co-author of more than 50 peer-reviewed publications, and reviewer of several high-impact journals. Dr. Pinto is a Professor at the School of Health - P.Porto and a researcher at LAQV/REQUIMTE, a Portuguese research center for Sustainable Chemistry.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A researcher focused on trace elements analysis, with over 25 years of experience, especially in the clinical-toxicological, forensic, and environmental areas, head of a specially dedicated laboratory unit. Dr. Almeida is the author of more than 90 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and presented about 70 lectures and oral communications in scientific events. He is a member of the Editorial Board of three journals.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345122",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",middleName:null,surname:"Pinto",slug:"edgar-pinto",fullName:"Edgar Pinto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345122/images/system/345122.jpg",biography:"Prof. Edgar Pinto graduated in Environmental Health (2009) at the Polytechnic Institute of Porto and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Sustainable Chemistry (2014) at the University of Porto. He is a Professor at the School of Health - P.Porto and a researcher at LAQV/REQUIMTE, a Portuguese research center for Sustainable Chemistry. He has vast experience in the fields of analytical, food, and environmental chemistry, and his main interests are the study of nutrients and contaminants transfer in the soil-water-plant system under abiotic stress and the use of mass spectrometry techniques (in particular, LC-MS/MS and ICP-MS) in the analysis of both nutrients and contaminants in food and environmental matrices. His highly-interdisciplinary research covers the areas of food, clinical, environmental, and analytical chemistry. For the last 10 years, he has been a researcher in 10 projects with competitive funding. He is the author of more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:"Polytechnic Institute of Porto",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Polytechnic Institute of Porto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"236498",title:"Prof.",name:"Agostinho",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida",slug:"agostinho-almeida",fullName:"Agostinho Almeida",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRRmIQAW/Profile_Picture_1610624531563",biography:"Agostinho Almeida (1962) is a Professor at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Portugal, in the fields of Analytical/Bioanalytical Chemistry and Instrumental Methods of Analysis. He graduated in Pharmaceutical Sciences (1986), with specialization in Clinical Analysis, and received his Ph.D. degree in Analytical Chemistry from the University of Porto in 2000. He is a researcher at LAQV/REQUIMTE, a Portuguese research center for Sustainable Chemistry, where he leads a unit of trace element analysis. His main research interests are trace elements in health and disease, focusing on the development and validation of analytical procedures using atomic spectrometry and plasma-mass spectrometry, microwave-assisted samples preparation and environmental, pharmaceutical, clinical/toxicological and forensic applications. For the last 10 years, he has been a researcher in 6 projects with competitive funding. He is the author of more than 90 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and presented about 70 lectures and oral communications in scientific events. He is a member of the Editorial Board of three journals.",institutionString:"University of Porto",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Porto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347259",firstName:"Karmen",lastName:"Daleta",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"karmen@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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At that time, electric vehicles competed with combustion and steam engine ones not only on the streets but also on racetracks. The world land speed record of 105.88 km/h was established by the Belgian Camille Jenats in 1899 with an electric vehicle and was unbeaten for another 3 years [1, 2]. The Paris-Bordeaux-Paris race was attended by the French electric constructor Charles Jeantud. His car offered great performance, but its 950-kg batteries had to be replaced 15 times during the race [3]. The problem with storing electricity was the reason why electric vehicles have disappeared from the streets and from motorsport for a long time.
Rising awareness of ecology and the search for new fields of experiments in motorsport have led to the development of hybrid technology, which was the first sign of a return to electricity. In the F1 racing series, fuel efficiency regulations have been intensified and the share of hybrid energy recovery systems has increased [5]. In 2006, regulations were announced, and in 2009, a kinetic energy recovery system was introduced in the F1 racing series. The system called kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) allowed the release of energy up to 400 kJ on one lap [6, 8] and no more than 60 kW. In long-distance races, the importance of the hybrid system has been confirmed during the most prestigious race. In the LeMans race on June 16–17, 2012, two Audi hybrid cars were classified in the first two places. This was the first long-distance race for hybrid vehicles; apart from the Audi LMP1 e-tron, Toyota also entered its TS030 hybrid vehicle [7].
Another step toward ecological motorsport was the creation of the electric Formula E series [4]. In Formula E, the race takes about 50 min, and the problem of storing a sufficient amount of energy has been resolved by the obligatory pit stop and car replacement. Formula E takes advantage of easy energy control and makes the sport more entertaining. In racing mode, maximum power is limited to 170 kW. However, the three drivers who win a fan online vote can receive an additional 100 kJ, increasing maximum power to 200 kW for couple of seconds [9].
Formula E has received credit from racing drivers. Former F1 driver and current Formula E driver, Nelson Piquet Jr., said that “if you care about the fame and flashes the F1 is the best racing series, but equally exciting for racing drivers is competing in Formula E. Formula E was created to boost electric motorsport, but still very few series are purely electric.”
To get to F1, each driver has to start from karting between the ages of 5 and 8, but present-day go-karts are only powered by combustion engines. In order to introduce the possibility of racing small green electric racing vehicles for young drivers, the so-called eKarts, combustion engines have to be replaced with electric motors. It was assumed that for eKarts to gain a foothold, they should provide similar parameters to those of combustion engine go-karts. Therefore, to determine the required power of the electric motors and the capacity of the batteries in eKarts for different age categories, the technical parameters of the different age categories of combustion engine racing go-karts have been analyzed.
The Rotax Max Challenge series has been chosen for analysis due to the fact that it is one of the most popular karting series in the world and also in Poland. Table 1 shows the main features of selected Rotax categories [19].
MicroMax | MiniMax | JuniorMax | SeniorMax | DD2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Driver age (years) | 8–10 | 10–13 | 13–16 | 15+ | 15+ |
Min. mass of vehicle with driver (kg) | 110 | 130 | 147 | 165 | 173 |
Chassis type, wheelbase (mm) | 950 | 1050 | 1050 | 1050 | 1050 |
Power max. (kW/rpm) | 6/7500 | 11/8500 | 17/8500 | 22/8500 | 25/8500 |
Torque (Nm/rpm) | 9/6000 | 13/8000 | 19/8500 | 21/9000 | 22/10500 |
Mass of drive train (kg) | 21.6 | 23.0 | 23.0 | 23.1 | 28.8 |
Mass of fuel (kg) | ~4.0 | ~5.0 | ~6.0 | ~7.0 | ~7.0 |
Race distance (km) | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 20 |
Main parameters of the Rotax series in Poland.
An analysis of the power used by go-karts was made on the basis of data from racing and official trainings on the following certified karting tracks:
Speedworld in Bruck, Austria—length 1060, 1120, 1140 m (depending on configuration), 8–10 m wide, clockwise direction.
Goethe Stadium in Kecskemet, Hungary—length 935 m, 7 m wide, anticlockwise.
Pann Ring in Ostffyasszonyfa, Hungary—length 1071 m, 8 m wide counterclockwise direction.
Autodromo Vysoke Myto in Vysoke Myto, Czech Republic—length 1142 m, 8 m clockwise directional width.
Tor Radom, in Radom, Poland—length 820 m, 8–12 m in clockwise direction (possibly also in the opposite direction).
Bydgoszcz in the city of Bydgoszcz, Poland—length 1017 m, 8–10 m wide counterclockwise direction
7 Laghi Kart—International Circuit in Castelletto di Branduzzo, Italy—length 1017 m, 8–10 m in clockwise direction (Figure 1—Picture of 7 Laghi Kart—International Circuit)
Picture of 7 Laghi Kart—International Circuit © Google Maps.
In each of the age categories, data from a dozen race laps were analyzed, and for each six races were selected, three fastest and three slowest lap times for three different racetracks. An Off Camber Data tool for Unipro devices was used for the analysis. Figure 2 shows the Off Camber Data analysis panel.
Analytical panel Off Camber Data application.
In order to determine energy requirements, the model assumes that the energy stored in batteries EB must provide the possibility to finish a maximum duration race (based on the Rotax Max Challenge 2016 Cup) with the go-kart using maximum power, which was experimentally derived on different racetracks in Poland and Europe:
where EB—energy stored in batteries (kWh), WRmax—work done by running go-kart during the race with maximum energy consumption (kWh), n—coefficient of securing sufficient level of energy (%).
In simplified terms, it was assumed that WRmax is the work done by the combustion engine of a go-kart of average power POmax throughout the maximum duration of the race tRmax.
where tRmax—the maximum duration of the race based on an analysis of the Rotax Max Challenge 2016 Polish Championships (s), POmax—average power used by go-kart during a lap with the highest power usage (kW).
POmax was obtained by selecting the highest value from the calculated average power POs, for six different cases of go-kart racing in a given age category. We chose the shortest and longest run times on three racetracks with different characteristics.
The model assumes that the energy used on one lap PO is equal to the sum of instantaneous power calculations in tenths of a second of the lap.
where PO—average power value used during lap (kW), Pch—instantaneous power (kW), NO—number of measurements (measurement in 0.1-s intervals).
In the presented approach, it was assumed that Pch—instantaneous power is calculated based on instantaneous engine rpm and the engine power/rpm specification curve presented in Figure 4. Due to the permanent coupling of the engine with the drive axle, in the course of the analysis, braking periods during the lap were identified and excluded from the calculation of average power. Based on observations and analysis, it was assumed that braking is a decrease in engine speed of at least 300 rpm with at least three measuring periods, that is, over 0.3 s and is associated with a significant decrease in vehicle speed, that is, at least 2 km in 0.1 s.
Following Eq. (2), it was necessary to analyze the duration of races tRmax to calculate the work performed by the power train. This analysis is based on the duration of go-kart races in the 12 rounds of the Rotax Max Challenge Poland Championships in 2016.
The analysis allowed us to determine maximum race times for the drivers who had completed full races in each of the age categories. Figure 3 shows the time intervals in which the drivers finished the races of the given round of the Rotax Max Challenge Poland Championships in 2016. The data for wet races of the first round of the Rotax Max Challenge Poland Championships in 2016 are shown separately.
Race durations in Rotax Max Challenge Poland Championships 2016 for given categories.
The MicroMax Rotax Max Challenge category according to Table 1 is a category for children aged 8–10. In this category of go-karts, maximum engine power is 6 kW with engine power/rpm curve shown in Figure 4.
Rotax engine power/rpm curve for different categories [
The chassis of this category is the so-called “small frame” with a wheelbase of 950 mm, with brakes only on the rear axle. Maximum race distance for this category is 14 km, which translates to a maximum race time of 12 min and 54.576 s.
The data for the analysis were collected during official races and trainings on the following tracks:
Speedworld
Go-kart Stadion
Pannónia Ring
Two lap times from the session on August 12, 2015, on Speedworld track with the configuration of 1120 m shown in Figure 5 were selected:
49,940 (s)—the fastest one
50,577 (s)—the slowest one
Race data from MicroMax category during Speedworld session on August 12, 2015, and track configuration Off Camber Data tool.
The power usage diagram for lap (i) and (ii) is shown in Figure 6.
The power usage diagram for lap (i) and (ii) on Speedworld track, session on August 12, 2015.
Based on Figure 6, the average levels of power used for laps were calculated:
5.58 (kW)
5.64 (kW)
The maximum power was determined for both laps at the same level, that is, 6 kW.
Further laps were selected from the following sessions on the following tracks:
Gokart Stadion session on June 21, 2015, data from two laps:
41,232 (s)—the fastest lap
41,760 (s)—the slowest lap
Pannónia Ring session on September 20, 2015, data from two laps:
50,626 (s)—the fastest lap
52,015 (s)—the slowest lap
The average power value used during laps and the maximum power achieved in the MicroMax category were summarized in Table 2.
Lap (i) | Lap (ii) | Lap (iii) | Lap (iv) | Lap (v) | Lap (vi) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average power used (kW) | 5.58 | 5.64 | 5.81 | 5.83 | 5.64 | 5.78 |
Maximum power (kW) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
Average power used and maximum power of MicroMax category in six different laps of three sessions.
Lap (i) | Lap (ii) | Lap (iii) | Lap (iv) | Lap (v) | Lap (vi) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Session | Speedworld August 14, 2015 | Motodrom Vysoke Myto July 12, 2015 | Pannónia Ring May 28, 2016 | |||
Lap time (s) | 46,520 | 47,224 | 49,315 | 50,165 | 49,252 | 50,027 |
Fastest/slowest lap | Fastest | Slowest | Fastest | Slowest | Fastest | Slowest |
Average power used (kW) | 9.15 | 9.12 | 8.91 | 8.95 | 9.29 | 9.21 |
Maximum power (kW) | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 |
Session | Pannónia Ring May 29, 2016 | Tor Radom May 22, 2016 | Tor Bydgoszcz May 1, 2016 | |||
Lap time (s) | 47,152 | 48,356 | 32,480 | 33.34 | 46,331 | 46,821 |
Fastest/slowest lap | Fastest | Slowest | Fastest | Slowest | Fastest | Slowest |
Average power used (kW) | 13.70 | 13.41 | 13.64 | 14.00 | 13.45 | 13.75 |
Maximum power (kW) | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 16.99 | 17 |
Session | Speedworld May 21, 2015 | Pannónia Ring September 19, 2015 | — | |||
Lap time (s) | 44,086 | 45,597 | 45,786 | 46,532 | — | — |
Fastest/slowest lap | Fastest | Slowest | Fastest | Slowest | — | — |
Average power used (kW) | 17.63 | 18.44 | 17.22 | 16.71 | — | — |
Maximum power (kW) | 22 | 21.99 | 22 | 21.99 | — | — |
Session | Speedworld August 29, 2015 | 7 Laghi Kart May 16, 2016 | Pannónia Ring May 29, 2016 | |||
Lap time (s) | 56,173 | 57,048 | 49,568 | 51,918 | 45,455 | 46,527 |
Fastest/slowest lap | Fastest | Slowest | Fastest | Slowest | Fastest | Slowest |
Average power used (kW) | 19.05 | 18.80 | 20.16 | 19.59 | 20.79 | 20.16 |
Maximum power (kW) | 24.99 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 24.99 | 25 |
Summarized sessions and laps information with average power used and maximum power on the lap for rest of Rotax max challenge categories, that is, MiniMax, JuniorMax, SeniorMax and DD2 [17].
Maximum power of electric motors for MicroMax category was defined on the level of Pmax = 6 kW. Average power value used during the lap with the highest power requirements POmax = 5.83 kW.
Knowing that the maximum race time is tRmax = 12: 54,576, the work done by the MicroMax go-kart drive systems according to Eq. (2) WRmax:
Similar analyses and calculations were conducted for each Rotax Max Challenge category, and the results are presented in condensed form.
Knowing the value of average power used during a lap for each of the categories POmax and knowing maximum race time tRmax based on Figure 3, and Section 2.1. Analysis of race durations in the Rotax Max Challenge Poland Championships in 2016, we calculated the work done by a running go-kart during the race with maximum energy consumption WRmax. The results are presented in Table 4.
8–10 | 10–13 | 13–16 | 15+ | 15+ gears | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
POmax (kW) | 5.83 | 9.29 | 14.00 | 18.44 | 20.79 |
tRmax (mins:s) | 12:54,576 | 14:22,744 | 15:31,520 | 17:39,315 | 16:41,609 |
tRmax (h) | 0.21516 | 0.23965 | 0.25876 | 0.2942 | 0.2783 |
WRmax (kWh) | 1.25 | 2.23 | 3.62 | 5.42 | 5.79 |
Work done by running go-kart during the race with maximum energy consumption for every Rotax Max Challenge category.
Based on the analysis of go-kart power usage presented in Section 2.2, the average power calculated based on Eq. (3) is assumed to be the minimum power that an eKart should generate. Maximum power for each category of eKarts is the maximum power achieved in a given age category for safety reasons. The engine power ranges for each eKart age category are shown in Figure 7.
Power range of eKart drive system for different age categories.
Knowing the work done by a running go-kart during the race with maximum energy consumption for every Rotax Max Challenge category in Table 4, we can assume to conserve the same energy for each of the age categories of eKarts.
However, in order to calculate the practical value of energy stored in batteries in accordance with Eq. (1), it is assumed that n should be 120%.
This assumption was stated because of the necessity to provide energy for additional formation laps and potentially higher consumption during rain races. On average, a rain race is longer than a race in normal conditions by 18% (Figure 3).
It was assumed that eKarts will be equipped with Li-ion batteries due to their best energy-to-weight ratio [11]. Degradation of Li-ion depends on the conditions, but it is up to 10% less capacity already at 300 charging-discharging cycles and 20% at about 1000 cycles [12, 13]. Therefore, it was proposed that the batteries should have 20% larger capacity than the expected EA energy needed for an eKart race. Such a solution in addition will provide optimum, fast loading and braking capability from the first lap. The above can be described as:
where QB—battery capacity (kWh).
Therefore, we can rewrite Table 4 for the eKart categories as following in Table 5.
MicroMax | MiniMax | JuniorMax | SeniorMax | DD2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average power used by eKart on lap, POmax (kW) | 5.83 | 9.29 | 14.00 | 18.44 | 20.79 |
Expected race time, tRmax (min:s) | 12:54,576 | 14:22,744 | 15:31,520 | 17:39,315 | 16:41,609 |
Expected race time, tRmax (h) | 0.21516 | 0.23965 | 0.25876 | 0.2942 | 0.2783 |
Work expected to be done during the race, WRmax (kWh) | 1.25 | 2.23 | 3.62 | 5.42 | 5.79 |
Energy stored in batteries, EB (kWh) | 1.50 | 2.68 | 4.34 | 6.50 | 6.95 |
Capacity of batteries, QB (kWh) | 1.75 | 3.12 | 5.07 | 7.59 | 8.11 |
Capacity of batteries for different age categories of eKarts.
An additional guideline for the selection of detailed electrical system parameters was the current weight of the go-kart in each age category. It was assumed that the weight of the eKart drive train system and the batteries should not exceed the weight of the current kart drive train system and weight of the fuel for the race shown in Table 1.
Based on battery capacity QB (6), we analyzed the options for designing eKarts for each category, within the limits of the maximum mass of the drivetrain system and the battery. We took into consideration the energy density of today’s most efficient Li-ion battery technology (250 Wh/kg) and the technology expected in 3 years time (350 Wh/kg). The analysis is shown in Figure 8.
Maximum weight of drive train unit of eKart with batteries compared to potential mass of the batteries in Li-ion technology nowadays and in 3-year time for given age categories.
For working out creation of the concept, it was assumed that the eKart design should be a simple four-wheeled vehicle with rear-wheel drive, using advantages of an electric drive. The key advantages of the electric drive are the compact size, power-to-weight ratio, high torque of the drive, and the ability to provide almost identical output parameters (speed, power, and torque) [18].
The ability to provide identical driving parameters like ICE go-kart has also become the basis for vehicle chassis design. It was assumed that for the simplicity of the eKart, a tubular flat frame without suspension element will form the chassis.
In the eKarta project, it was decided to use the compact dimensions of the electric motor. It was assumed that each wheel of the rear axle would be driven by a separate engine. This solution will allow to vary the speed of the inner wheel and the outer rear axle while cornering. This will help to achieve better stability with a similar balance of eKart versus the ICE go-kart [15].
The use of an electronic differential is an advantage of the electric motor to provide the same or better driving performance. In the case when the ICE go-kart is moving in a turn with rigidly join left and right wheel by rear axle, forces a large understeer as the inner wheel moves at a higher speed than that vehicle trajectory and the outer wheel moves at a lower speed than the trajectory. Thanks to the torque vectoring correction of independent rear axle motors, eKart handling will be neutral. Disconnection of rear axle wheels and powering them by separate motors make possible to adjust its settings so that, depending on the track, the effect can be configured under or above the steering.
According to the assumptions, the following solution was proposed.
eKart chassis is ICE go-kart chassis with two modifications shown in Figure 9.
Sketch of modification of the ICE go-kart chassis for the eKart construction.
The first modification marked 1 in Figure 9 is the additional rear axle support to the left side of the chassis. Support is symmetrical longitudinally to the existing double supports on the right side, in a way that the rear axle can be divided into two components.
The second modification marked 2 in Figure 9 is the division of the rear axle into two independent elements. Because the rear axle in ICE go-karts connects its fulcrum points (shown in Figure 10, marked 2), it is also the structural component of the rear frame of the vehicle. In the ICE go-karts, the rear axle has different stiffness parameters so allow to adjust the rear traction of the vehicle. The traction of the rear axle of the eKart will be adjusted by strut bar between the inner axle support points (not present ICE go-karts) and the spacer between the outer support points (solution in go-karts marked 2 in Figure 10).
Rear suspension elements of Kosmic MERCURY MY15 [
Since in the ICE go-kart support of the rear axle on the right-hand side are at the same time structural parts of the engine mounting, modification marked 1 in Figure 9 will allow the installation of separate motors for both wheels of the rear axles. At the design stage, it will be determined whether the motors are located ahead of or behind the rear axle of the vehicle; as illustrated in Figure 11, both variants are possible.
Potential position of the main components of eKart.
eKart will be equipped with electric motors of different power depending on the age category. There can be also different kinds of motor cooling, air cooled and liquid cooled, depending on its power.
Potential position of batteries is also shown in Figure 11. It was indicated to ensure the best balance of eKarts. The position of the batteries must at the same time ensure maximum protection due to poisoning or burns in case of damage. The position of the batteries has been proposed in places least exposed to other eKarts and track elements (barriers) during the crash. The proposed battery position at the rear of the vehicle is located between the rear axles and is protected by a rear bumper, and lateral side seats are secured with side chassis, aerodynamic elements, and a bumper. The front battery compartment is located at the fuel tank of ICE go-kart. The advantage of rear or side mounts is the distance to the motor, while the advantage of the front position is a better eKart static balance.
For proving the concept of eKart, prototype of eKart was designed and built according to the concept [13]. After design phase where different technologies and component were analyzed, eKart was built with following parameters:
Power transmission Synchronous toothed belt
Maximum power of electric motors 2×5 kW
Maximum torque of electric motors 2×14 Nm
Protection class IP54
Operating voltage 39–58 V
Battery capacity 108 Ah
Vehicle mass 97.3 kg
Dimensions 1870 × 1340 mm
Wheelbase 1050 mm
Battery mass 23.2 kg
The construction of the eKart was realized in cooperation with car enthusiast student club from Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the Technical University of Lodz. In Figure 12, assembly of eKart is presented.
Assembly of eKart.
The purpose of the test was to verify the concept and the design assumptions in experimental research. Test run was conducted on the Tor Łódź circuit in Stryków, Poland 596 m short track, 8–12 m wide, clockwise direction (Figure 13).
Short track of Tor Łódź © circuit.
Test runs were carried out on November 19, 2016, air temperature 11°C and atmospheric pressure ~ 992 hPa. The surface at the start of the tests was wet, while the test surface was mostly wet.
The analysis was based on data from RaceCapture Pro2 as shown in Figure 14.
Data from eKart road tests on Tor Łódź © circuit.
The maximum speed on the test section was 52.64 mph, that is, 84.75 km/h (Figure 9). The maximum measured acceleration measured on a straight run was 13,787 s from 0 to 100 km/h. Acceleration was extrapolated from an increase in speed from 40.41 km/h to 84.75 km/h in 6.12 s, on a straight line allowing maximum acceleration. In Figure 15 the extrapolated acceleration of the eKarts with comparison to three categories of the Rotax Max Challenge Series.
Comparison of extrapolated accelerations of eKart and the category Rotax Max.
Comparing the maximum speed and acceleration of the eKart with ICE go-kart of the Rotax Max Challenge categories shown in Table 6; not considering the movement resistance and air resistance, it can be assumed that, by increasing the gear ratio by 22% in eKart, eKart would have similar parameters to the MiniMax category of the Rotax Max Challenge series.
Acceleration (0–100 km/h) | Max velocity (km/h) | Acceleration diff. eKarta (%) | Max velocity diff. eKarta (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
eKart | 13.79 | 84.75 | — | — |
MicroMax | 22.34 | 91.23 | 162 | 108 |
MiniMax | 16.87 | 103.07 | 122 | 122 |
JuniorMax | 13.74 | 110.67 | 100 | 131 |
Comparison of speed and acceleration of eKart with ICE go-karts of Rotax Max Challenge categories.
During the tests, eKart sound loudness was measured. At a distance of 5 m from the track axis, the Benetech GM1356 was used, with the range of 30–130 dB and tolerance of ± 1.5 dB. In three tests, the noise level was measured at 80.3 dB; measurement is shown in Figure 16.
eKart noise intensity measurement.
The measured value of the eKart noise is about six times lower than the noise level generated by the comparable class of ICE go-kart from Rotax Max Challenge series which is 90 dB [14].
With existing Li-ion battery technology, it is possible to construct eKarts for children and junior categories. With the current technology, it is not possible to create eKarts for senior categories in line with the current regulations for go-karts as the mass of the battery exceeds the weight of the entire drive train system of the go-kart. In order to provide a solution for senior categories, it would be necessary to change the regulations, for example, race time and vehicle weight, or wait for emerging battery technology to provide an energy density of at least 350 Wh/kg, which should take place within 3 years.
In this chapter, author proves that current technology is enabled to create eKart which is competitive and more efficient to ICE go-kart MiniMax category from Rotax Max Challenge series. eKart also has better functional parameters; for example, noise generated by eKart is about six times lower than that for ICE go-kart MiniMax category from Rotax Max Challenge series. Due to electronic differential, which can actively manage torque and power on each of the rear wheels, called torque vectoring, eKart with 10 kW has parameters comparable with 12 kW ICE go-kart. That means that positive influence on natural environment is not only caused by applied electric motor but also due to algorithm in so-called green electronic differential. Due to electronic differential, which can actively manage torque and power on each of the rear wheels, called torque vectoring, eKart with 10 kW has parameters comparable with 12 kW ICE go-kart. That means that positive influence on natural environment is not only caused by applied electric motor but also due to algorithm in so-called green electronic differential.
About 7% of the population >65 years suffer from a painful heel, even though younger people are often affected, too [1]. The most common cause of this symptom is the so‐called “plantar fasciitis” [2]. This term is widely used, although “plantar fasciopathy” or “plantar fasciosis” would be a better description to point out the degenerative nature of the disease. However, as more than 1100 citations in Pubmed quote “plantar fasciitis” (in comparison with only 50), we will use the traditional term in the following.
Plantar fasciitis has been associated with obesity, with acute or chronic work overload, or with work on hard surfaces [2, 3]. It seems that physiological degeneration of the fascia at the calcaneal insertion exacerbates due to repetitive microtraumas caused by vertical compression [4]. This causes inflammatory tissue reactions. As a result, the fascia is thickened with an associated fluid collection to 4.0 mm and more in ultrasonography [5]. Furthermore, this inflammation may trigger bone formation, the so‐called “plantar heel spur.” This process has been studied intensively by Kumai and Benjamin [6]. They proposed three stages of spur growth: “(a) an initial formation of cartilage cell clusters and fissures at the plantar fascia enthesis; (b) thickening of the subchondral bone plate at the enthesis as small spurs form; and (c) development of vertically oriented trabeculae buttressing the proximal end of larger spurs” [6]. The first description of this spur formation and correlation with the clinical symptoms was carried out by Plettner in 1900 [7]. However, not every heel spur is associated with heel pain, as these spurs are found in 11–16% of the normal asymptomatic population [4]. On the other hand, some patients with painful plantar fasciitis do not have a radiographic confirmation of a spur formation.
A similar mechanism (although caused by longitudinal traction and not by vertical compression) of bone formation has been described at the insertion of the Achilles tendon [8].
According to the American clinical practice guidelines from 2010, diagnosis is established by the typical anamnesis and the characteristic localizations of tenderness. Still, weight‐bearing radiographs are also recommended [9].
Single doses of external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) in the range of 0.3–1 Gy are called “low dose EBRT” (LD‐EBRT). These single fractions are applied two or three times a week until a total dose of about 3–6 Gy is reached. Such radiotherapeutic concepts are used for diverse nonmalignant conditions, e.g., osteoarthrosis, tendinopathy, epicondylitis, or bursitis. A comprehensive review of the historical developments in LD‐EBRT for benign diseases is given by Trott [10].
In contrast, EBRT in oncology is characterized by much higher single and total doses. “Normofractionation” describes single doses of 1.8–2 Gy, applied about five times a week. To treat breast cancer, the total doses of about 62 Gy are necessary, in prostate cancer even more than 72 Gy. From a radiobiological point of view, these high cumulative doses are used to induce DNA double strand breaks. Due to errors in a repair mechanism (nonhomologous end joining), dicentric chromosomes can occur. These can result in unfinished mitoses, the so‐called “mitotic catastrophe,” the main mechanism to reduce clonogenic survival in tumor cells [11]. High doses of EBRT induce local inflammation and tissue reactions.
The much lower doses of LD‐EBRT act via different mechanisms. In the last two decades, several anti‐inflammatory effects have been discovered, contrary to the effects of the above‐mentioned high EBRT doses.
Furthermore, doses between 0.1 and 0.5 Gy reduced the adhesion of PBMC significantly to endothelial cells (ECs)
A third mechanism was the suppression of nitric oxide (NO) production in activated macrophages by LD‐EBRT between 0.3 and 1.25 Gy [18]. As the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthases (iNOS) proteins was not altered, the LD‐EBRT seemed to act at the translational or posttranslational level. Furthermore, a dose of 0.5 Gy significantly reduced oxidative burst and superoxide production of stimulated macrophages [19]. A diminished release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can also contribute to the anti‐inflammatory effects of LD‐EBRT.
Taken together, all of these pathways and mechanisms showed a similar dose dependence with a maximum effect between 0.3 and 0.7 Gy regarding a discontinuous dose‐effect relation [20].
There are several
Since 1937 [21] for decades, large retrospective studies on the efficacy of LD‐EBRT in calcaneodynia have been published (overview in 22). In 1970, one negative randomized trial was reported and heavily criticized but had not been repeated [23]. Starting in the 1980s, patients were systematically clinically examined and interrogated in a structured manner to try to control for diverse risk factors and to compare the efficacy of different fractionation schemes and total doses [24].
It took until the past decade to perform and report prospectively randomized trials to proof the efficacy of LD‐EBRT and to identify the optimal dose fractionation schedule. In the following, we report the design and the results of these trials. Table 1 gives a short overview of the studied dose concepts and the results. Due to methodological reasons, we will describe the studies not following their publications dates, but according to a systematic order.
Since the publication of the first randomized trial on LD-EBRT in 1970, the efficacy of LD‐EBRT was questioned [23]. Goldie et al. randomized 399 patients, however, only nine patients suffered from calcaneodynia. This is why these results cannot be extrapolated to LD‐EBRT of a painful heel spur. Furthermore, endpoints were not clearly defined, and therapy was started in an acute stage of the disease [25].
The landmark study to prove the efficacy of LD‐EBRT was performed by the German cooperative group on the radiotherapy for benign diseases (GCGBD) under the responsibility of Niewald et al. [26]. A very low dose EBRT (6 × 0.1 Gy applied twice a week up to a total dose of 0.6 Gy) was randomized to a standard dose LD‐EBRT (6 × 1 Gy twice a week up to a total dose of 6 Gy). In the case of an unfavorable response after 3 months, the patient was offered a second treatment series (“reirradiation”) applying a standard dose. The dosage of the experimental arm was chosen to examine if very low doses are effective at all. Second, it acted as a placebo irradiation, as a sham irradiation was regarded unethical. LD‐EBRT was applied using a linear accelerator (4‐ to 6‐MV photons) using lateral parallel opposing fields.
Inclusion criteria were tenderness of the calcaneus with a limitation of the painless walking distance and duration of the symptoms for more than 6 months. Furthermore, a radiological proof of a heel spur was required, and the patients had to be least 40 years of age. Patients with previous traumata to the foot, rheumatic or vascular diseases, lymphatic edema, pregnancy, or breastfeeding were excluded. Concomitant therapy with oral analgesics was not limited. However, local injections with steroids during the study period were not permitted.
Initially, 200 patients were planned [27] to detect a difference of 10% in the quality of life (QOL) sum score (SF‐12) [28] and calcaneodynia sum score (CS) [29] (Table 2) with a power of 80% and an error probability of 5%. Furthermore, the visual analogue scale (VAS) to evaluate pain intensity was used. However, after randomization of 66 patients and interim analysis of 62 patients (4 had to be excluded due to a withdrawal of informed consent or violation of the inclusion criteria), the differences in efficacy between the two treatment arms were so pronounced, that the trial was closed early.
Author | Year | N | Standard arm | Experimental arm | Results | Conclusions |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2012 | 66 | 6 × 1 Gy twice a week | 6 × 0.1 Gy | 3 months: VAS/CS/SF12 sig. better with standard | 1. Dose‐response relationship | |
1 year: less second treatment series with standard | 2. Proof of therapeutic effect of LD‐EBRT | |||||
2007 | 130 | 6 × 1 Gy twice a week | 6 × 0.5 Gy | 6 months: CS no sig. differences | 6 × 0.5 Gy as standard fractionation | |
2014 | 457 | 6 × 1 Gy twice a week | 6 × 0.5 Gy | 6 weeks, 2.5 years: VAS/CS no sig. differences | 6 × 0.5 Gy as standard confirmed | |
2015 | 127 | 6 × 1 Gy twice a week | 12 × 0.5 Gy thrice a week | 3 months: VAS/CS/SF12 no sig. differences | Efficacy not increased with 12 × 0.5 Gy standard still 6 × 0.5 Gy |
Summary of contemporary randomized trials on LD‐EBRT of painful heel spurs: tested schedules, results, and conclusions.
Criteria | Extent of symptoms/alteration | Points |
---|---|---|
S = Pain at | 6 / 4 / 2 / 0 | |
(total: 30%) | N = Pain during D = Pain during R = Pain at I = Pain at none = 6 ; slight = 4 ; moderate = 2 ; severe = 0 points ⇨ | 6 / 4 / 2 / 0 6 / 4 / 2 / 0 6 / 4 / 2 / 0 6 / 4 / 2 / 0 |
per single criterion | ||
(total: 15%) | None Orthopedic shoe, insoles, heel cushion One cane or crutch Two canes or crutches ⇨ | 15 10 5 0 |
(total: 20%) | No limitation, maximum professional strain possible Slight limitation, normal professional work possible Moderate limitation, reduced professional activity Severe limitation, daily professional work impossible ⇨ | 20 10 5 0 |
(total: 15%) | No limitation of daily and leisure activities and sports Slightly limitation/reduced leisure activities and sports Moderate limitation/no leisure activities and sports Complete limitation of any daily and leisure activities ⇨ | 15 10 5 0 |
(total: 20%) | No limp, normal walking is possible without a limitation Slightly altered, limp after walking Moderately altered, limp after walking Severely altered, normal walking is impossible ⇨ | 20 10 5 0 |
The mean age of patients was 54 years in the standard dose group and 58 years in the 6 × 0.1 Gy group. Sixty‐one patients had a plantar, one patient a dorsal heel spur. In mean, patients in the standard dose group suffered for 15.3 months before the start of LD‐EBRT, in the 6 × 0.1 Gy group for 18.8 months. Twenty‐one patients had symptoms on both sides. In 28 patients the pain irradiated into the calf, only in 18 patients it was localized to the sole of the foot. Two patients had received surgery for LD‐EBRT.
Three months after therapy VAS values, CS‐ and QOL‐scores were significantly better after the standard dose in comparison with the very low dose treatment arm. The higher pain relief resulted in a better QOL. Twelve months after therapy about 64% of the patients after 6 × 0.1 Gy had to receive a second treatment series due to insufficient treatment results, in comparison with only 17% of the patients in the standard dose treatment group. As the second series was applied with a standard dose (6 × 1 Gy), patients in the 6 × 0.1 Gy group who were reirradiated showed equally favorable results compared with those in the standard‐dose group who did not receive a second course [26]. This is why the second treatment series in this clinical setting acted as a “salvage therapy.” Another interesting finding was that patients with a good response already at 3 months remained stable or even improved at 12 months. Furthermore, this underlines the long‐lasting efficacy of LD‐EBRT.
Acute side effects or long‐term toxicity did not occur.
In conclusion, this randomized trial established a dose‐response‐relationship of the analgesic effect of LD‐EBRT, thus providing a clinical and methodological proof of the efficacy of 6 × 1 Gy LD‐EBRT on the clinical course of painful heel spurs. The early termination of the study was justified due the interim analysis showing significant differences in the clinical outcome between both treatment arms. Still, the trial was not blinded, so both the patients and the staff were aware of the received dose. With modern linear accelerators, a complete blinding of the staff is nearly impossible. The only option would be a shame irradiation with closed collimator jaws, reducing the dose to the unavoidable “leakage” radiation. A much easier and straight forward way was used in the above‐mentioned study by application of a minimal physical dose with 0.1 Gy. Another critical point might be that only half of the patients were examined 12 months after therapy (
Another potential confounder not only in this study but also in all other published prospective and retrospective case series might be that a lot of the patients had received diverse and other conservative therapies before being referred to LD‐EBRT. An interaction between one of these other treatments and LD‐EBRT cannot be ruled out due to methodological reasons. This reflects clinical reality. Still, an interaction between one of these therapies and LD‐EBRT is rather unlikely and counter‐intuitive, as patients were referred to LD‐EBRT after the clinical failure of all the other conservative treatments.
Two randomized studies investigated the efficacy of 0.5 Gy single dose in comparison to 1 Gy.
The first trial was conducted by Heyd et al. [30]. They randomized 130 patients between 6 × 0.5 Gy twice weekly (low dose) and 6 × 1 Gy (standard dose). A linear accelerator was used, applying a single field technique.
Inclusion criteria were clinical signs of a painful heel spur, radiological evidence of spur formation, patient age ≥30 years and a relapse after previous conservative treatments, in patients >45 years LD‐EBRT could be used as the primary treatment. Endpoints of the study were changes in the “original” calcaneodynia score [31], that was documented before LD‐EBRT, at the end of the course, and 6 weeks and 6 months afterward.
One hundred and thirty patients were randomized. Mean age was 58.4 years. A 102 patients suffered from a plantar, one patient from a dorsal, and 27 patients from combined spurs. In mean, patients had been suffering from symptoms for 9.8 months. The symptoms had been present in 58 patients for less than 6 months, in 72 patients for a longer time. In 7 heels LD‐EBRT was the first therapeutic approach.
At the end of LD‐EBRT, 66% in the low dose group vs. 59% in the standard dose experienced an improvement in symptoms, 6 weeks later 80 vs. 85%. At this time point, 1.5% in each group reported an increase in symptoms, 19 vs. 14% no change. No statistically significant differences were noted. In case of insufficient treatment results patients were offered a second EBRT series. Thus 26 vs. 37% were treated a second time. Six weeks after that, 71 vs. 79% of these patients reported a further improvement. Six months after LD‐EBRT 88% of the patients in both groups had an amelioration of their symptoms, the remaining patients reported no change. During the EBRT series a slight increase in pain was reported by 26 vs. 29% of the patients. No other acute or late toxicity occurred.
In conclusion, 6 × 0.5 Gy twice weekly was as effective as 6 × 1 Gy.
These results were confirmed by a second randomized trial [32, 33]. Ott et al. randomized 457 patients between 6 × 0.5 Gy (low dose) and 6 × 1 Gy (standard dose). In contrast to the above‐cited “Heyd‐study” [30] an X‐ray unit (orthovoltage) and not linear accelerators was used. Patients received a single field (6 × 8 cm on the plantar calcaneus) with 150 kV, 15 mA, 1 mm Cu‐filter, with source‐to‐skin distance (SSD) of 40 cm. Six weeks after the LD‐EBRT a second series was offered to patients with an insufficient response. The endpoint was pain reduction. CS score and VAS values were measured before and at the end of LD‐EBRT (early response), 6 weeks (delayed), and 2.5 years (long‐term) afterward.
With a median follow‐up of 32 months the mean VAS values before treatment, for early, delayed, and long‐term response for the 0.5 and 1.0 Gy groups were 65.5 ± 22.1 and 64.0 ± 20.5 (
Taken together, the above‐mentioned studies proofed an equivalent clinical efficacy of 6 × 0.5 Gy in comparison to 6 × 1 Gy, thus defining a new clinical treatment standard with six times 0.5 Gy twice weekly as the minimum effective dose.
Before proofing 0.5 Gy as the new standard single dose, another randomized study tried to increase efficacy in reaching the “old” cumulative dose of 6 Gy with a single dose of 0.5 Gy. Niewald et al. randomized between 6 × 1 Gy twice a week (old “standard dose”) and 12 × 0.5 Gy three times a week (“experimental dose”) [25]. The aim was not just to get comparable results, but to further improve the analgesic effects. Linear accelerators (6 MV photons) applying a lateral opposing field technique were used.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria were quite similar to the ones used in the landmark study [26]: Clinical evidence of a painful heel spur, and duration of the symptoms for more than 6 months; radiological proof of a spur formation; age at least 40 years; Karnofsky‐Index at least 70%. Patients with previous radiotherapy or previous trauma to the foot, rheumatic or vascular diseases, lymphatic edema, pregnancy, breastfeeding, or severe psychiatric disorders were excluded. Concomitant therapy with analgesics was allowed. However, patients receiving surgery or shock wave therapy after randomization were excluded.
Endpoints were the SF‐12 sum score, the CS sum score (Table 2), and VAS. Follow‐up was scheduled every 6 weeks for 1 year.
Two‐hundred and forty patients were calculated to detect a difference of 15% in the VAS and CS score, with a power of 80%, and an error probability of 5%. After randomization of 127 patients and an interim analysis of 107 patients, the study was closed early, as the intended increase in analgesic efficacy by the experimental treatment was very unlikely to be achieved.
The mean age of the patients in the standard group was 56.1 Gy in comparison with 58.1 Gy in the experimental group. The mean duration of symptoms before initiation of LD‐EBRT was 17 vs. 16 months. In 98% of the standard group and 93% of the experimental group a plantar spur was treated, in 2 and 7% a combined (plantar and dorsal) spur.
Results after 3 months have been issued so far [25], longer follow‐up has yet to be published. After 3 months, there were no significant differences neither in the VAS (standard 42.3 vs. experimental 44.4) nor the CS sum score (28 vs. 28.4) nor in the QOL (SF‐12) scores. Although longer follow‐up has to be awaited, a further increase in the analgesic effect by applying 12 × 0.5 Gy three times a week is unlikely. This is why this fractionation schedule is currently not recommended, as it does not follow the “as low as reasonable achievable” principle of radiation protection.
Further reduced single doses in LD‐EBRT (with the exception of 0.1 Gy [26]) have never been tested in a prospectively randomized clinical trial. In radiotherapy of degenerative joint disorders, single doses of about 0.3–0.4 Gy were established by von Pannewitz in the late 1920s and published in 1933 and 1970 [34, 35]. However, two studies on calcaneodynia have raised serious concerns on single doses as low as 0.3 Gy.
Seegenschmiedt et al. analyzed treatment efficacy in 141 patients (170 irradiated heels), who were treated from 1984–1994 with X‐ray units (250 kV/200 kV, 20 mA, 40 cm SSD), applying a single field of 6 × 8 cm [24]. Seventy‐two heels received 12 Gy with 6 × 1 Gy (three times a week) –6 weeks break – 6 × 1 Gy (group A), 50 heels were treated with 10 × 0.3 Gy every day (group B1), and 38 heels 10 × 0.5 Gy every day (group B2). The endpoint was the value of a semiquantitative pain score 3 months and in mean 4 years after LD‐EBRT.
The median age of patients was 55 years in group A and 59 years in group B1/B2. The mean duration of symptoms before LD‐EBRT was 8 months, in one‐third, the symptoms persisted for more than 6 months.
Complete pain remission was achieved in 68–71% of the patients without significant differences between the treatment groups. However, there were differences in the clinical course of patients with partial remission of the symptoms: The best results in these patients were achieved during longer follow‐up in group B1 (10 × 0.5 Gy), followed by group A (6 × 1–6 × 1 Gy), followed by group B2 (10 × 0.3 Gy). The latter group showed a significantly worse amelioration of symptoms than the other groups.
A reduced efficacy was also reported in another retrospective case series, comprising 673 heels treated with a single dose of 0.3 Gy three times weekly up to 1.5 Gy (X‐ray) [36]. In case of insufficient treatment results the patients were offered a second course. After the first treatment, only 13% reported CR, nearly all patients had undergone a second LD‐EBRT.
Taken together, to the best of our current knowledge a single dose of 0.5 Gy is standard of care and should only be modified in controlled clinical trials.
In Table 3 selected contemporary randomized trials and patient series are shown broken down into several factors that might be correlated with treatment efficacy. For a better overview, we did not differentiate between univariate and multivariate analyses. We did not try to collect all ever published data.
Duration of symptoms before start of LD‐EBRT has been shown to be correlated with treatment efficacy in numerous studies.
Muecke et al. analyzed in a retrospective multicenter study 502 patients [22]. Duration of symptoms ≤6 months was associated with 76% treatment success vs. 44% after a history >6 months. Also Seegenschmiedt et al. found in their large collectives a correlation between the duration of heel pain and treatment outcome [24]. A significant influence of duration of symptoms before LD‐EBRT was also reported in 73 heels by Schneider et al. [37]. With a history of 3–6 months, the VAS value was reduced by 85%, 28 months after LD‐EBRT in comparison with a reduction of 58% with a history > 6 months. Similar results were obtained by Hermann et al. in 285 heels comparing <12 month history of pain vs. >12 months [38].
In contrary, another study could not confirm these results [30].
To the best of our knowledge, in no study, an influence of gender on treatment outcome has been confirmed [22, 24, 30, 38, 39]. In contrast to radiotherapy for oncological indications with high doses, efficacy and tolerability of LD‐EBRT seems to be the same concerning gender.
Several studies described a correlation between older age and better treatment results, at least 6 weeks after LD‐EBRT [37]. Age somewhat over 50 years seems to be important: >50 years [40], > 53 [38], or > 58 [22]. For a possible explanation see Section 2.3.7.
However, other studies found no influence of this patient characteristic on treatment outcome [24, 30, 39].
A very precise registration of changes in pain intensity (VAS) was done by Schneider at al. [37]. Sixty‐two patients (73 treated heels) were prospectively scored every week during LD‐EBRT, at the end of therapy, 6 weeks, 28 months, and 40 months later. Additionally, subjective mechanical heel stress during LD‐EBRT was estimated. A linear accelerator (10 MV) was used, applying one single field with a size of 12 × 17 cm. Patients were treated twice a week to a total dose of 5 Gy, with increasing single fraction doses (0.25 – 0.25 – 0.5 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 Gy). Mean patient age was 54 years, and all had a radiologically proven plantar spurn, mean symptom duration before LD‐EBRT was 6.5 months. Nearly all patients had received other conservative therapies before LD‐EBRT with insufficient results.
Interestingly, VAS scores decreased continuously during LD‐EBRT: before treatment the mean value was 6.3 ± 1.5, after the first week of LD‐EBRT 6.2 ± 1.8, after the second week 5.5 ± 2 (
In standard schedules with fixed single doses a slight increase in pain during the treatment series was reported by 26% (during 6 × 0.5 Gy) vs. 29% (6 × 1 Gy) of the patients [30]. Unfortunately, a possible correlation of this phenomenon with definite treatment results was not investigated.
Without further quantification, another study (6 × 1 vs. 6 × 0.1 Gy) stated, that this initial increase in symptoms “had no influence on the final pain relief 3 and 12 months after treatment” [26]. Older studies postulated a temporary reduction of the pH value in the irradiated tissues at the beginning of the treatment series, without consequences for the long‐term efficacy of LD‐EBRT [41].
This is contrasted by observations of LD‐EBRT in peritendinitis humeroscapularis [42]. In 73 patients (86 shoulders) initial increase of pain during the treatment course was significantly associated with a good response.
Muecke et al. analyzed in a retrospective multicenter study the influence of different treatment techniques in 502 patients [22]. Treatment failure was defined as pain persistence after LD‐EBRT and recurrence of pain during follow‐up. Treatment with MV (6–10 MV) was a significant prognostic factor for pain relief in multivariate analysis, as MV was associated with an eight‐year event‐free probability of 68 vs. 61% after X‐ray beams (175 kV). There are two possible explanations for this finding: besides the possibility of a random result, the authors postulate a more homogenous dose distribution with MV treatment in comparison with KV [22].
Schneider et al. reported an efficacy of just one‐third after a second LD‐EBRT course (so‐called “re‐irradiation”) in comparison with the effects of the first course [37]. Out of 73 heels treated with 5 Gy LD‐EBRT 18 heels received reirradiation due to insufficient treatment response. However, pain reduction measured by means of changes in VAS shortly after the second course and during long‐term follow‐up was significantly diminished in comparison with the efficacy of the first course (about 30% reduction in pain at the last evaluation vs. 86%).
Similar results were obtained in the large retrospective series (502 patients) by Muecke et al. [22]. Treatment failure was significantly associated with the number of treatment series: eight‐year event‐free probability was about 70% after the first course in comparison with just about 30% after reirradiation.
A systematic study on the efficacy of a reirradiation has been published by Hautmann et al. [43]. Eighty‐three patients (101 heels) with insufficient response to the first course or recurrent pain afterward due to plantar fasciitis (83 heels), or achillodynia (28 heels) received a second LD‐EBRT course in median 10 weeks (range 4 weeks to 63 months) after the first LD‐EBRT. About 75% of the patients were treated with 6 × 1 Gy, the others 6 × 0.5 Gy. The pain was assessed using the numeric rating scale (NRS) before and at the end of LD‐EBRT, 6, and 12 weeks, and 6, 12, and 24 months thereafter.
Before reirradiation NRS values were 6 (interquartile range 5–8), at the end of LD‐EBRT 5 (2–6), 6 weeks later 2 (1–4), at 12 weeks 1 (0–3), at 6 months 0 (0–2), at 12 and 24 months 0 (0–1). Interestingly, not only the patients with recurrent pain after the first course but also patients with insufficient responses to the first course experienced a profound and long‐lasting amelioration of their symptoms after the second course.
This is why a second treatment course should be recommended in case of insufficient efficacy of the first course.
A significant correlation between avoidance of heel stress during LD‐EBRT and efficacy of LD‐EBRT 6 weeks after therapy was reported by Schneider et al. in 73 heels [37]. With a Pearson\'s correlation coefficient of -0.467 (
An intuitive explanation is given by the authors [37]: As patient age was associated with positive treatment results, too, they proposed that older patients are often retired, thus being able to take more care of their heels.
Interestingly, all randomized trials required the radiological proof of a heel spur before including patients into the studies. Furthermore, most of the prospective and retrospective series warranted such an objective sign. However, as a substantial part of the patients suffers from plantar heel pain without having developed a heel spur, LD‐EBRT should be effective in these patients, too.
Hermann et al. analyzed treatment efficacy in 250 patients (285 heels), who received LD‐EBRT predominantly with 6 × 1 Gy [38]. In this series, 33% of the treated heels were without radiological evidence of a spur. In 185 patients a spur was confirmed with a mean length of 6.5 mm (range 0.6–25 mm). Patients without evidence of a plantar heel spur had a significantly higher chance of CR after LD‐EBRT (43 vs. 35%). Furthermore, the length of the spurs correlated directly with treatment outcome. Spurs >6.5 mm had just a 30% chance of experiencing CR in comparison with shorter ones. No statistical differences were found between treatment results of heels without spurs and those with spurs ≤6.5 mm.
Miszczyk et al. reported on 327 patients (623 LD‐EBRT series) mostly treated with X‐ray (180 kV, usually 1mm Cu filters) with single doses of 1.5 Gy (range 1–3 Gy) up to a total dose between 9 and 12 Gy (range 1–45 Gy) [39]. Mean spur size was 9 mm (range 1–30 mm). With a mean follow‐up of 74 months, no correlation between spur size and duration of pain relief was found. Analysis concerning spur length and treatment outcome in itself were unfortunately not reported.
Multivariate logistic regression enables the identification of factors independently predicting treatment outcome. By combining these factors, models can be calculated, that predict treatment outcome with a high probability. An example from the study of Hermann et al. is given in Table 4: in 285 heels treated with 6 × 1 Gy/6 × 0.5 Gy the influences of the patient characteristics age, spur length, and duration of symptoms before LD-EBRT alone and in combination were calculated [38]. The best results were obtained for patients > 53 years, spur length <6 mm, and a duration of symptoms <12 months with a probability for CR of 55% (CI 36–73%) and PR of 38% (CI 22–58%). Without these characteristics, the chance for CR was just 18% (CI 9–33%), for PR 31% (17–48%).
Study (citation) | [30] | [26] | [24] | [37] | [39] | [22] | [38] | [40] | [83] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rand | Rand | Prospect | Prospect | Retrospect | Retrospect | Retrospect | Retrospect | Retrospect | |
130 | 66 | 170 | 73 | 623 | 502 | 285 | 161 | 7947 | |
MV | MV | KV | MV | KV | MV, KV | MV | KV | MV, KV | |
calcaneus | calcaneus | calcaneus | entire dorsal and middle foot | insertion of plantar fascia | calcaneus | calcaneus vs. insertion of calcaneus | calcaneus | entire dorsal foot vs. calcaneus vs. insertion of plantar fascia | |
6 × 1 vs. 6 × 0.5 Gy | 6 × 1 Gy vs. 6 × 0.1 Gy | 12, 3, 5 Gy | 5 Gy (increasing single dose) | 1.5 (1–3) up to 9–12 Gy (1–45) | 5–10 × 0.5–1 Gy | 6 × 1 Gy6 × 0.5 Gy | 6 × 1 Gy | 0.3–1.5 Gy; 2–3x weekly 2.5–18.76 Gy | |
History of symptoms | 0 | n.i. | + | + | 0 | + | + | + | + |
Gender | 0 | n.i. | 0 | n.i. | 0 | 0 | 0 | n.i. | n.i. |
Patient\'s age | 0 | n.i. | 0 | + | 0 | + | + | + | n.i. |
Initial worsening of pain during LD‐EBRT | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. |
MV vs. KV | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | + | n.i. | n.i. | 0 |
Number of therapy series | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | + | n.i. | + | n.i. | n.i. | + |
Heel stress during LD‐EBRT | n.i. | 0 | n.i. | + | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. |
Factors associated with treatment efficacy in contemporary studies.
Patient\'s age >53 | No spur or spur ≤6.5 mm | Duration of symptoms <12 months | Probability of | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
No change | Partial remission | Complete remission | |||
1 | 1 | 1 | 0.07 (0.03–0.14) | 0.38 (0.22–0.58) | 0.55 (0.36–0.73) |
1 | 1 | 0 | 0.13 (0.07–0.28) | 0.37 (0.21–0.57) | 0.50 (0.30–0.70) |
1 | 0 | 1 | 0.15 (0.06–0.24) | 0.53 (0.33–0.72) | 0.32 (0.17–0.53) |
1 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 (0.13–0.45) | 0.48 (0.27–0.69) | 0.27 (0.13–0.48) |
0 | 1 | 1 | 0.17 (0.10–0.31) | 0.33 (0.19–0.50) | 0.50 (0.33–0.66) |
0 | 1 | 0 | 0.34 (0.20–0.53) | 0.40 (0.24–0.59) | 0.26 (0.13–0.45) |
0 | 0 | 1 | 0.30 (0.20–0.46) | 0.29 (0.18–0.43) | 0.41 (0.27–0.56) |
0 | 0 | 0 | 0.51 (0.35–0.69) | 0.31 (0.17–0.48) | 0.18 (0.09–0.33) |
Probabilities (95%‐CI) for NC, PR and CR calculated by polytomous logistic regression in dependence of the risk factors age, spur length, and duration of symptoms before LD‐EBRT according to Hermann et al. in a collective of 285 heels treated with 6 × 1/6 × 0.5 Gy (taken from [38]).
In modern radiotherapeutic departments, X‐ray sources are less and less available. This is why nowadays most patients are treated with linear accelerators, which were initially developed for the treatment of oncological diseases. However, these machines can be used in the treatment of benign diseases without any modifications or problems. Due to the high efforts in physical, technical, and organizational quality assurances for the operation of an accelerator or an X-ray source, the concentration on accelerators and their use for all indications is recommended.
For irradiation of the heel, the patient has to be placed on the treatment couch with the feet toward the gantry of the accelerator (so‐called “feet first”). Two different patient positions are widely used. He can be placed in supine position, with the irradiated leg is stretched out, while the other leg is angled. Another option is to place the patient in a lateral decubitus position on the side of the involved heel. Again, the symptomatic leg is stretched, while the contralateral leg is bent, with a cushion placed beneath the knee. Using X‐rays, the ipsilateral knee is bent by 90% and the foot is positioned on the treatment table. One anterior‐posterior (AP) beam is usually applied in this technique.
For the treatment itself, there are also two different options. Irradiation may be given as a single stationary field (SSD 100cm by convention). Alternatively, parallel opposing fields from 0° and 180° gantry position (in decubitus position) or lateral opposing fields (90° and 270° in supine position) are also applicable but take a little bit longer in daily clinical practice. The hypothetical advantage of using two opposing fields is a uniform dose distribution in the entire beam path in the calcaneus (Figure 1). However, there has never been a clinical proof, whether this theoretical assumption translates into any clinical advantage for the patient. When applying opposing fields, the dose is specified according to the ICRU 50 report, normally in the center of the calcaneus.
Dose distribution of two different treatment techniques generated in a treatment planning system (XIO®). In A and B just one single 6 MV photon field (8 × 8 cm) is applied, while C and D shows the dose distribution with two opposing fields from 0 and 180°. In the upper row, the so‐called “beams eye views” are given, while in the lower row the respective dose distributions on an axial CT scan directly at the calcaneal insertion are shown. Note the more uniform dose distribution with opposing fields. The 95% isodose is given as a green line (2.85 Gy). This dose encompasses larger parts of the calcaneal bone in D (opposing fields) than in B (single field). More information is given in Section 2.4.
A third option is the so‐called “plantar field” with the patient lying in prone position. A single field is positioned directly over the plantar insertion/calcaneus, potentially with rotations of the patient table and the gantry to compensate for inclinations of the patients surface in the irradiated field. However, this technique is regarded problematic when using linear accelerators due to the dose build‐up effect in the critical tissue depth. This problem is illustrated in Figure 2: photons with 6 MV reach just the half of the prescribed dose at the skin level, 100% is reached at 1.5 cm tissue depth. This would result in an insufficient dose in the critical structures (plantar fascia and heel spur). To overcome this problem, a silicone flap of about 1 cm diameter must be positioned on the skin before radiation.
Depth curves of different megavoltage energies. Blue 6 MV photons, red 15 MV photons. At the surface of the body/skin (depth 0 mm), only half (or even less with 15 MV) of the prescribed dose is applied. By physical interactions between photons and the tissue/water, there is a steep increase in dose. A 100% is reached at 1.5 cm depth with 6 MV and at about 3 cm depth with 15 MV. KV‐radiation reaches the maximum dose directly under the surface/skin (not shown). More information is given in Section 2.4.
Patients are often sent to the radiotherapist after a long unsuccessful history of diverse conservative treatments. The reason for this is a widespread fear among general practitioners that LD‐EBRT might be associated with severe side effects and risks. These fears are not substantiated, as reactions of the nerves or vessels require much higher doses than used for LD‐EBRT. For example, a dose of 45 Gy in normofractionated oncological therapy is considered to be safe for the spinal cord and therefore daily clinical practice [44]. Peripheral nerves are even more radioresistant. Acute or chronic side‐effects have never been reported in all contemporary studies on LD‐EBRT.
Acute side effects are negligible, as very low doses of ionizing radiation (in comparison with oncological treatments) are applied to a distal extremity. The total dose of LD‐EBRT with 3 or 6 Gy is far too low to cause any acute or late reactions on the skin overlaying the calcaneus. During normofractionated EBRT (single doses of 1.8–2 Gy, treatment on 5 days a week) erythema and mild edema develop at about 30 Gy [45]. Hyperpigmentation occurs at about 45 Gy, moist epitheliolyses at about 50 Gy. A 50–60 Gy might cause telangiectasias years after the therapy. This is why there is no report on acute treatment side effects in LD‐EBRT until now to the best of our knowledge.
About one‐third of the patients might experience a slight increase in pain during LD‐EBRT. In the randomized trial by Heydt et al. this phenomenon was seen in 26% (during 6 × 0.5 Gy) vs. 29% (6 × 1 Gy) [30]. It does not seem to be correlated with treatment outcome; further detailed information is given in Section 2.3.4.
The dose scattered to the male gonads is somewhat higher than to the ovaries. Jansen et al. calculated for 6 × 0.5 Gy about 1.5 mSv received by the testes and 0.75 mSv to the ovaries [46]. Comparable results have repeatedly been measured in the past [47, 48].
Taken together, the dose received by the gonads is insignificant. As the distal extremity is irradiated, scattered dose to the gonads is comparable to normal diagnostic radiological imaging [49]. The hereditary effects of these doses are very small and very likely negligible [46].
Although spermatogonial cells are very radiosensitive, a single dose of at least 100 mSv is needed to induce a temporary failure of spermatogenesis [50]. A single dose of 1000 mSv (equivalent to 1 Gy photon irradiation) results in an azoospermia for 9–18 months [51]. Interestingly, fractionated doses harm these cells even more. A temporary oligospermia is reported after receiving several fractions up to a cumulative dose of 160 mSv [52]. An azoospermia lasting for 14–22 months has been reported for fractionated doses of 620–860 mSv [53]. The actually during LD‐EBRT received testicular dose is about 100 times smaller than the lowest dose causing temporary changes in testicular tissues.
The dose to the testicles can be further reduced by utilizing a special testicular shielding. However, clinically meaningful dose reductions have been only measured in MV treatment of subdiaphragmatic/pelvine lymphatic regions or tumors [54, 55].
The mean lethal dose for human oocytes has been estimated at 2 Gy (2000 mSv) [56]. Permanent ovarian failure after radiotherapy is age dependent: in perimenopausal women, a dose of 6 Gy is sufficient [57], while in younger women up to 20 Gy are tolerated. The dose scattered to the ovaries during LD‐EBRT for calcaneodynia cannot cause such sequelae (0.75 mSv).
Naturally, pregnancy has to be excluded in all premenopausal women before beginning with LD‐EBRT, to avoid any risk to the fetus.
So far, no studies with long‐term observation periods have been published, describing a case of malignancy induced by LD‐EBRT for calcaneodynia. However, induction of malignancies is a stochastic effect of ionizing radiation. This means that there is no threshold dose—in contrast for example to the above‐mentioned reactions of the skin. A photon can accidentally trigger a mutation, which in turn leads to tumor formation many years later. The higher the radiation dose, the higher the probability of such an event occurring.
The best available data on tumor induction of full dose EBRT in oncology has been collected in patients treated with breast cancer. Almost 11,000 patients have been followed for over 20 years. The risk of a radiation‐induced tumor was approx. 1% per decade after radiotherapy [58].
To estimate the risk associated with much lower doses of LD‐EBRT, mathematical models on the basis of epidemiological long‐term observations of atomic bomb victims have been developed by the ICRP [59].
Jansen et al. applied the ICRP model on LD‐EBRT of a painful heel spur [46]. Assumed was a single field entering at the foot sole with a size of 8 × 10 cm, 200 kV photons, SSD 40 cm. For an LD‐EBRT series with 6 × 1 Gy the average attributable lifetime risk for induction of a fatal tumor was calculated to be about 0.5 in a thousand patients. An important risk factor for radiogenic‐induced cancer is the patient\'s age by the time the radiation exposure occurs. The risk is already reduced in the 3rd decade of the patient\'s life, it starts to decrease steadily from the age of 40 [60]. Applying these calculations, the estimated lifetime risk per one thousand patients for a fatal tumor accounts for the age of 25 0.6 (male)/0.8 (female), for the age of 50 0.2/0.3, for the age of 75 0.07/0.1 [46].
However, it must be critically noted that this mathematical model was developed for radiation protection and relates to the exposure of complete organ systems with approx. 1 Gy. Therefore, other groups argue that a significantly lower risk of radiogenic cancer induction— approx. ten times less—should be adopted [49, 61]. Furthermore, taken the new standard scheme with 6 × 0.5 Gy into account, these risks are additionally halved.
This risk (max. 1/1000, very likely much lower) must be seen in relation to the tumor risk of the not additionally radiotherapeutical‐treated population. In 2008, the lifetime risk of a man in Germany to suffer from cancer was 50.7% (25.9% to die from malignancy), in women 42.8% and 20.2% respectively [62].
By limiting the application of LD‐EBRT treatment to patients > 30 years of age, an exposure of the juvenile “relatively higher risk” patient population is avoided.
Traditionally target volume definition has been quite large. Field sizes of 12 × 17cm were treated, including the entire dorsal and middle foot, and not just the calcaneus [37, 82] (Figure 3A).
Field definitions in LD‐EBRT of a painful plantar heel spur/fasciitis. (A) traditional field definition including the entire dorsal and middle foot. (B) In randomized trials and large prospective series commonly used field definition encompassing the entire calcaneus, including insertion of the plantar fascia and the Achilles tendon. (C) Proposed small field definition for localized painful plantar fasciitis/plantar spur, encompassing only the painful area with 2 cm margins extending into the neighboring areas (calcaneus, fascia, fat pad).
In the recent randomized trials and prospective observational studies target volume definition was more restricted and confined to the calcaneus (Figure 3B). “The target volume consisted of the calcaneus and the region of the plantar aponeurosis” [26]. “The ventral margin is corresponding to the ventral surface of the calcaneus, the plantar and dorsal margins are surrounding the soft‐tissue border, and the cranial margin is below the ankle” [30]. “Target volume is the calcaneus, normally with a field size of 6 cm × 8 cm” [32]. “The calcaneus and the plantar aponeurosis were included in the target volume” [25].
In a German national survey 2001 on LD‐EBRT of painful heel spurs the target volume definition “large” (dorsal and middle foot) vs. “small” (entire calcaneus) was not correlated with treatment outcome [83]. Consequently, very large field definitions should be regarded as obsolete.
However, as the pathophysiological cause of calcaneodynia is thought to be a localized inflammatory process (see Section 1), it is questionable, whether the entire calcaneus has to be irradiated (as long as there are not a plantar as well as a painful dorsal spurs). There are some clinical data that support a further restriction of target volume definition.
Field sizes have been given in the study by Miszczyk et al. on 327 patients treated with X‐ray beams [39]. Target volume was “… the insertion of the plantar fascia with a calcaneal spur and a reasonable margin. The field size varied from 27 to 150 cm2 (mean 47 cm2).” However, although not explicitly stated, no correlation was found between field size and duration of pain relief after LD‐EBRT. Treatment efficacy in itself was apparently not investigated.
In the above‐mentioned series of 285 heels Hermann et al. analyzed treatment efficacy in dependence of field sizes, too [38]. The mean field size was 74 cm2. No correlation between field size (smaller vs. larger than 74 cm2) with treatment efficacy was found. Further analyses of small fields (< 6 × 6 cm), medium‐sized fields (36–64 cm2) and larger fields revealed no significant differences.
This is why it seems to suffice to encompass the painful region with 2 cm margins extending into the neighboring areas (calcaneus, fascia, fat pad; Figure 3C). However, this recommendation is deducted from pathophysiological considerations and the above‐mentioned case series. A randomized trial is necessary to proof clinical equivalence of a field definition “entire calcaneus” (Figure 3B) vs. “insertion of the plantar fascia” (Figure 3C).
The optimal fractionation schedule has not been elucidated yet. All randomized trial used twice weekly treatments. Only one experimental arm was scheduled three times a week [25]. In a National Survey in Germany with 146 answering institutions, about 45% applied two fractions and 37.5% three fractions weekly [83].
Interestingly, in the landmark study by von Pannewitz a fractionation schedule of only once per week was established [34]. Until now, there is no proof of a higher efficacy applying LD‐EBRT twice or three times per week.
In radiotherapy of another benign disease (endocrine orbitopathy) a 1 Gy per week over 20 weeks schedule was more effective than the standard schedules (10 × 2 Gy or 10 × 1 Gy every working day) [84]. Although other immunological mechanisms cause endocrine orbitopathy in comparison with plantar fasciitis, there is sufficient clinical evidence to test in a randomized trial different fractionation schedules (twice a week vs. once a week, possibly thrice a week).
Other therapies than LD‐EBRT have been applied in painful heel spur. In the following, just a rough overview can be given.
Different kinds of insoles and foot orthoses have been developed. The goal was to reduce plantar contact pressure and to distribute the pressure uniformly over the whole rearfoot [63]. Magnetic insoles do not seem to provide additional benefit [64]. As a short‐term treatment, low‐Dye taping techniques are often used. However, in a randomized trial only a modest improvement in ‘first‐step’ pain was seen in comparison with sham‐intervention [65].
Manual stretching is often recommended. A systematic review of six studies found only statistically significant differences in comparison with the control in one study combining calf muscle and plantar fascia stretches [66].
Several trials have investigated acupuncture. A systematic review from 2010 showed (limited) evidence for the effectiveness [67]. A randomized trial published in 2014 recruited 84 patients [68]. The authors concluded, that “dry needling provided statistically significant reductions in plantar heel pain, but the magnitude of this effect should be considered against the frequency of minor transitory adverse events.”
Ultrasound therapy has led to questionable results [69], but a randomized trial on cryo‐ultrasound with about 100 patients published in 2014 showed good effectiveness [70].
Low‐level laser light (635 nm), given twice a week for a total of six applications, reduced in a randomized trial VAS scores significantly after 8 weeks in comparison with placebo [71]. However, the study comprised of just 69 patients; other similar studies have not been reported so far.
Extracorporeal shock waves are widely applied. Three metaanalyses comprising at least five randomized trials found significant short‐term pain relief and improved functional outcomes for this therapeutic option [72–74]. Another study compared the analgesic efficacy of ultrasound and shock wave therapy in 47 patients [75]. The results suggested that the shock wave therapy had greater analgesic efficacy.
Another basic approach is the oral administration of nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAID) to achieve a symptomatic relief. Injections into the painful area are also recommended. A recent review summarized ten randomized trials on corticosteroid injections into the plantar fascia [76]. A significant effect of the steroids on the pain has been shown. However, it was usually short‐term, lasting 4–12 weeks in duration. No advantage of ultrasound‐guided injection techniques in comparison with palpation guidance was found, and no superiority of one type of corticosteroid over another was seen. A longer lasting pain relief has been suggested by a small randomized trial of botulinum toxin injections [77]. Another option is the injection of autologous platelet‐rich plasma. A recent review identified three randomized trials, all showing promising results [78]. However, a very small trial challenged this method of plasma preparation, as the same clinical effectivity was observed after the injection of whole blood [79].
Different surgical approaches have been developed. Releases of the plantar fascia are done, in some studies combined with a spur resection [80]. Due to a probably faster recovery after surgery with comparable functional results endoscopic procedures are recommended nowadays [81]. Surgery is usually indicated after failure of conservative therapies as the ultimate “salvage‐therapy.”
There is only a limited amount of studies randomizing patients between LD‐EBRT and the above‐mentioned alternative therapies.
Canyilmaz et al. randomized 123 patients between LD‐EBRT (6 × 1 Gy, three times a week) and 1 ml injection of 40 mg methylprednisolone and 0.5 ml 60 mg 1% lidocaine under the guidance of palpation [85]. After 3 and 6 months, VAS values and CS‐scores were compared between both groups. After 3 months, the results in the radiotherapy arm were significantly superior compared with those after injections.
To corroborate these findings, similar studies should be conducted. Furthermore, more studies randomizing LD‐EBRT against other therapies (e.g. extracorporeal shock waves) are needed. A minimum size of 50 patients per treatment arm should be assured to gain more statistically relevant results. Recruiting patients without prior excessive other therapies for these studies would be optimal.
The goal must be an evidence‐based algorithm defining the therapeutic sequence of the different conservative treatment modalities for plantar fasciitis.
LD‐EBRT for painful plantar fasciitis/heel spur is an effective and safe treatment option for patients over 30 years of age and after exclusion of pregnancy. A fractionation of 6 × 0.5 Gy twice weekly up to a total dose of 3 Gy is currently recommended. In the case of an insufficient response a second course can be offered to the patient.
Randomized trials on target volume definition and further optimization of LD‐EBRT fractionation are currently in the process of planning. Further trials to compare the different conservative therapies for plantar fasciitis with each other are necessary to allow the development of an evidence‐based treatment algorithm.
This chapter is dedicated to Professor Gisela Hermann‐Brennecke on the occasion of her 70th birthday.
AP | anterior‐posterior |
CI | confidence interval |
CR | complete remission |
CS | Calcaneodynia score |
Cu | chemical element symbol for copper |
EC | endothelial cells |
GCG‐BD | German Cooperative Group on Radiotherapy for Benign Diseases |
Gy | Gray |
ICRP | International Commission on Radiological Protection |
IL | interleukin |
iNOS | inducible nitric oxide synthases |
KV | kilovoltage |
LD‐EBRT | low dose external beam radiotherapy |
mA | milliampere |
mRNA | messenger ribonuclein acid |
mSv | milliSievert |
MV | megavoltage |
NC | no change |
NF‐κB | nuclear factor kappa B |
NO | nitric oxide |
NSAID | non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drug |
PBMC | peripheral blood mononuclear cells |
PR | partial remission |
QOL | quality of life |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
SSD | skin‐to‐source distance |
TGF‐β1 | transforming growth factor β1 |
VAS | visual analogue scale |
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The metal nanoparticles such as silver, gold, and copper nanoparticles have more application in material science, nanomedicine, electronic, photonic, and art. One of the green methods for preparation of metal nanoparticles is laser ablation technique that offers a unique tool for nanofabrication of nanoparticles. In this technique, the high-power laser ablates the metal plate and the nanoparticles are formed in the liquid. The properties of nanoparticles using laser ablation are unique, and they are not reproducible by any other method such as chemical methods. The important parameters to produce the metal nanoparticles are energy, wavelength, repetition rate of laser, ablation time, and absorption of an aqueous solution. Laser ablation is a simple method for fabricating the metal nanoparticles without surfactant or chemical addition. In this chapter, the mechanism of formation of metal nanoparticles in liquid, significant parameters for using the laser ablation technique to prepare the metal nanoparticles, and the preparation of silver, gold and copper nanoparticles will be reviewed.",book:{id:"7349",slug:"laser-technology-and-its-applications",title:"Laser Technology and its Applications",fullTitle:"Laser Technology and its Applications"},signatures:"Amir Reza Sadrolhosseini, Mohd Adzir Mahdi, Farideh Alizadeh and\nSuraya Abdul Rashid",authors:null},{id:"24809",doi:"10.5772/24360",title:"Mode-Locked Fibre Lasers with High-Energy Pulses",slug:"mode-locked-fibre-lasers-with-high-energy-pulses",totalDownloads:2210,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"404",slug:"laser-systems-for-applications",title:"Laser Systems for Applications",fullTitle:"Laser Systems for Applications"},signatures:"S.V.Smirnov, S.M. 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In this chapter, recent results on the nonlinear optical properties of MNPs (including gold, silver, palladium, and platinum) have been discussed. 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They were derived from erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, which are still important component for telecommunications. Since discovery, fiber laser has become a natural choice for many uses, primarily because of the physical characteristics of fiber waveguide structure. Their rapid progress may show how excellent they really are. Although fiber lasers are today widely used in various research and industrial areas, one of the most meaningful applications of fiber laser technology has been through its use in medicine. A wide variety of wavelengths generated by fiber lasers as well as the diversity of physical mechanisms employed in pulse generation also additionally underpins the flexibility of fiber laser technology. This study is devoted to background technology of fiber lasers in the light of medical applications. Basic physics and theories of optical fibers and their important properties are introduced.",book:{id:"6467",slug:"optical-amplifiers-a-few-different-dimensions",title:"Optical Amplifiers",fullTitle:"Optical Amplifiers - A Few Different Dimensions"},signatures:"Amira Tandirovic Gursel",authors:[{id:"240070",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"Tandirovic Gursel",slug:"amira-tandirovic-gursel",fullName:"Amira Tandirovic Gursel"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63129",title:"Laser Ablation Technique for Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticle in Liquid",slug:"laser-ablation-technique-for-synthesis-of-metal-nanoparticle-in-liquid",totalDownloads:2550,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Recently, the synthesis and application of metal and ceramic nanoparticle are significant subject in science and engineering. The metal nanoparticles such as silver, gold, and copper nanoparticles have more application in material science, nanomedicine, electronic, photonic, and art. One of the green methods for preparation of metal nanoparticles is laser ablation technique that offers a unique tool for nanofabrication of nanoparticles. In this technique, the high-power laser ablates the metal plate and the nanoparticles are formed in the liquid. The properties of nanoparticles using laser ablation are unique, and they are not reproducible by any other method such as chemical methods. The important parameters to produce the metal nanoparticles are energy, wavelength, repetition rate of laser, ablation time, and absorption of an aqueous solution. Laser ablation is a simple method for fabricating the metal nanoparticles without surfactant or chemical addition. In this chapter, the mechanism of formation of metal nanoparticles in liquid, significant parameters for using the laser ablation technique to prepare the metal nanoparticles, and the preparation of silver, gold and copper nanoparticles will be reviewed.",book:{id:"7349",slug:"laser-technology-and-its-applications",title:"Laser Technology and its Applications",fullTitle:"Laser Technology and its Applications"},signatures:"Amir Reza Sadrolhosseini, Mohd Adzir Mahdi, Farideh Alizadeh and\nSuraya Abdul Rashid",authors:null},{id:"73930",title:"Laser Chemical Elemental Analysis: From Total to Images",slug:"laser-chemical-elemental-analysis-from-total-to-images",totalDownloads:491,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This book chapter focuses on laser ablation employed in elemental analysis and discusses the fundamentals and instrumentation of the laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) techniques. The analytical performance of such techniques, challenges related to calibration, and strategies to improve sensitivity are discussed. In addition, the processes involved in data acquisition and imaging for acquiring the elemental spatial distribution are highlighted, and some representative examples in environmental, biological, medical, and forensic researches are presented.",book:{id:"10481",slug:"practical-applications-of-laser-ablation",title:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation"},signatures:"Renata S. Amais, Danielle S. Francischini, Pedro S. Moreau and Marco A.Z. Arruda",authors:[{id:"327464",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco A.Z.",middleName:null,surname:"Arruda",slug:"marco-a.z.-arruda",fullName:"Marco A.Z. Arruda"},{id:"327467",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Amais",slug:"renata-amais",fullName:"Renata Amais"},{id:"327468",title:"Dr.",name:"Danielle S.",middleName:"Da Silva",surname:"Francischini",slug:"danielle-s.-francischini",fullName:"Danielle S. Francischini"},{id:"327488",title:"BSc.",name:"Pedro S.",middleName:null,surname:"Moreau",slug:"pedro-s.-moreau",fullName:"Pedro S. Moreau"}]},{id:"59750",title:"Quantum Dot-Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers (QD-SOA): Dynamics and Applications",slug:"quantum-dot-semiconductor-optical-amplifiers-qd-soa-dynamics-and-applications",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Quantum dot-semiconductor optical amplifiers (QD-SOA) attracted strong interest for applications in optical communications and in all-optical signal processing due to their high operation rate, strong nonlinearity, small gain recovery time of about few picoseconds, broadband gain, low injection current and low noise figure (NF). In this chapter, we present the theoretical investigation of the gain recovery time acceleration in DQ SOA; the specific features of the cross gain modulation (XGM) in QD-SOA; the influence of the optical injection on the dynamics of QD-SOA based on the QD in a well (QDWELL) structure. We describe the following applications of QD-SOA: the all-optical ultra-wideband (UWB) pulse generation based on the Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) with a QD-SOA; the ultra-fast all-optical signal processor based on QD-SOA-MZI; the ultra-fast all-optical memory based on QD-SOA. The contents of the chapter are mainly based on the original results.",book:{id:"6467",slug:"optical-amplifiers-a-few-different-dimensions",title:"Optical Amplifiers",fullTitle:"Optical Amplifiers - A Few Different Dimensions"},signatures:"Yossef Ben Ezra and Boris I. Lembrikov",authors:[{id:"2302",title:"Prof.",name:"Yossef",middleName:null,surname:"Ben-Ezra",slug:"yossef-ben-ezra",fullName:"Yossef Ben-Ezra"},{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris I.",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-i.-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris I. Lembrikov"}]},{id:"73390",title:"Laser Machining",slug:"laser-machining",totalDownloads:544,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The increasing demands of materials with superior properties are given priority by most of the industries in recent years due to their higher performance levels. Machining of hard materials is a challenging task since it involves higher cutting forces and rapid tool wear. This leads to complexity in shaping these difficult-to machine materials such as advanced composite and ceramics. There have been many alternative techniques developed to overcome the shortcomings of conventional machining processes. Laser beam machining (LBM) is one of the advanced noncontact machining processes that employ monochromatic light with high frequency for machining using thermal energy. The highly energized photos are focused on a material cause heating, melting and vaporizes the material which is effectively used to remove unwanted portion of a material. Due to higher coherency of laser beam, materials can be machined very precisely than conventional machining processes. Generally, the laser-based material processing is suitable for a brittle type of material with minimum conductivity. However, this laser machining can be used for all kinds of materials in most cases. This chapter provides the principle of laser and its types, mechanism of material removal using laser, applications, advantages, and limitations of LBM.",book:{id:"10481",slug:"practical-applications-of-laser-ablation",title:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation",fullTitle:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation"},signatures:"Natarajan Jeyaprakash, Che-Hua Yang and Manickam Bhuvanesh Kumar",authors:[{id:"32620",title:"Prof.",name:"Che-Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"che-hua-yang",fullName:"Che-Hua Yang"},{id:"319416",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeyaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"Natarajan",slug:"jeyaprakash-natarajan",fullName:"Jeyaprakash Natarajan"},{id:"329306",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhuvanesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"M",slug:"bhuvanesh-kumar-m",fullName:"Bhuvanesh Kumar M"}]},{id:"63522",title:"Nonlinear Optical Response of Noble Metal Nanoparticles",slug:"nonlinear-optical-response-of-noble-metal-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The special nonlinear optical response of noble metal nanoparticles (MNPs) when exposed to intense laser radiation has induced novel applications in nonlinear spectroscopy, optoelectronics, and optical switchers and limiters. In this chapter, recent results on the nonlinear optical properties of MNPs (including gold, silver, palladium, and platinum) have been discussed. 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