Properties of the human BS tissues [17].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6171",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Climate Resilient Agriculture - Strategies and Perspectives",title:"Climate Resilient Agriculture",subtitle:"Strategies and Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The changing climatic scenario has affected crop production in the adverse ways, and the impact of it on agriculture is now emerging as a major priority among crop science researchers. Agriculture in this changing climatic scenario faces multiple diverse challenges due to a wide array of demands. Climate-resilient agriculture is the need of the hour in many parts of the world. Understanding the adverse effects of climatic change on crop growth and development and developing strategies to counter these effects are of paramount importance for a sustainable climate-resilient agriculture. This multiauthored edited book brings out sound climate-resilient agriculture strategies that have a strong basic research foundation. We have attempted to bridge information from various diverse agricultural disciplines, such as soil science, agronomy, plant breeding, and plant protection, which can be used to evolve a need-based technology to combat the climatic change in agriculture.",isbn:"978-953-51-3896-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3895-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4051-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68382",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"climate-resilient-agriculture-strategies-and-perspectives",numberOfPages:192,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8e2bc4a305c45c415bf556037d355377",bookSignature:"Ch Srinivasa Rao, Arun K. Shanker and Chitra Shanker",publishedDate:"March 14th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6171.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11956,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:72,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 31st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 14th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58592/images/1664_n.jpg",biography:"Arun K. Shanker is serving as a Principal Scientist (Plant Physiology) with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture in Hyderabad, India. He is working with the ICAR as a full time researcher since 1993 and has since earned his Advanced degree in Crop Physiology while in service. He has been awarded the prestigious Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC), by the Royal Society of Chemistry, London in 2015. Presently he is working on systems biology approach to study the mechanism of abiotic stress tolerance in crops. His main focus now is to unravel the mechanism of drought and heat stress response in plants to tackle climate change related threats in agriculture.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"206194",title:"Dr.",name:"Chitra",middleName:null,surname:"Shanker",slug:"chitra-shanker",fullName:"Chitra Shanker",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206194/images/5224_n.jpg",biography:"Chitra Shanker is serving as a Principal Scientist (Agricultural Entomology) with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the Indian Institute for Rice Research in Hyderabad, India. She has been working with the ICAR as a full time researcher since 1995 and has since earned her Advanced degree in Agricultural Entomology from TNAU while in service. She worked earlier on the insect interactions and biodiversity analysis in agroforestry. Her major work was on invertebrate biodiversity in rice ecosystem and its potential for natural control of pests. She is now involved in the Rice Knowledge Management Portal on developing a farmer friendly app for pest management decision support in rice and her main focus is now on biocontrol agents for management of rice pests.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"207731",title:"Dr.",name:"Ch.",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivasarao",slug:"ch.-srinivasarao",fullName:"Ch. Srinivasarao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207731/images/5307_n.jpg",biography:"Dr.Ch.Srinivasa Rao did his Ph.D. from IARI and Post-Doctoral at Tel-Aviv University, Israel. Worked at IISS, Bhopal; IIPR, Kanpur and CRIDA, Hyderabad; Project Coordinator, AICRP for Dryland Agriculture; Deputation to International Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, 2006-2008. Presently working as Director, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture from 2014 onwards. His contributions are on participatory soil health management, carbon sequestration, climate change, contingency planning and dryland agriculture. He has Published 165 peer reviewed research papers (in Advances in Agronomy, Soil Sci Soc of America Journal, Australian J Soil Res, J Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, European J Agronomy, Canadian J Soil Science, Geoderma, Ecological Indicators, Applied Soil Ecology etc). Recipient of 18 awards including fellow of National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS). Member of 8 professional societies including Soil Sci Soc of America.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"34",title:"Ecology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-ecology"}],chapters:[{id:"58043",title:"Adaptation in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72372",slug:"adaptation-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:1305,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Climate Change is continuing and happening faster than previously anticipated. Agriculture is vulnerable on a global scale and is currently adapting but will need to make further efforts in the future. Both public and private adaptation actions will need to occur, as certain potentially desirable adaptations are either not feasible or cost effective for private parties. Public action will play a crucial role in facilitating and supporting farmers to overcome barriers to adaptation and move toward a more sustainable and resilient agriculture. Here we discuss the sensitivity of agriculture to climate change and the adaptation strategies observed or potentially possible. We also discuss private and public roles in adaptation along with the constraints and barriers that limit adaptation. In addition, we discuss desirable factors to consider in adaptation project appraisal.",signatures:"Panit Arunanondchai, Chengcheng Fei and Bruce A. McCarl",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58043",authors:[{id:"58300",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",surname:"McCarl",slug:"bruce-mccarl",fullName:"Bruce McCarl"},{id:"215140",title:"Mr.",name:"Panit",surname:"Arunanondchai",slug:"panit-arunanondchai",fullName:"Panit Arunanondchai"},{id:"215142",title:"Ms.",name:"Chengcheng",surname:"Fei",slug:"chengcheng-fei",fullName:"Chengcheng Fei"}],corrections:null},{id:"58401",title:"Climate Adaptive Agricultural Innovation in Nepal: Prospects and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72371",slug:"climate-adaptive-agricultural-innovation-in-nepal-prospects-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is evident that agriculture of Nepal is the most sensitive sector to climate change, and adaptations are essential for protecting the livelihood of rural poor farmers and ensuring their food security. Farmers are adopting different practices with climate awareness and sometime with spontaneity. In this chapter, we examined whether these climate change adaptation responses are adaptive and innovative and take into consideration existing and projected climate change and variability. Based on the review of adaptation theories and innovation approaches, researchers primarily draw a climate-adaptive agricultural innovation framework. We looked at empirically captured adaptation practices and analyzed their climate adaptive nature based on productivity, resilience, and equity. This study blends both qualitative and quantitative methods—combining case study of rice-wheat system with quantitative survey from four different regions of Terai, Nepal. The study shows that while agricultural system demonstrates a number of practices that contribute to adaptation, there are fundamental institutional, technological, and policy challenges that restrict the prospect of agricultural innovation required to adapt to changing climate.",signatures:"Dhanej Thapa, Yuba Raj Subedi and Hemant Ojha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58401",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58401",authors:[{id:"214655",title:"Mr.",name:"Dhanej",surname:"Thapa",slug:"dhanej-thapa",fullName:"Dhanej Thapa"},{id:"214656",title:"Mr.",name:"Yuba",surname:"Subedi",slug:"yuba-subedi",fullName:"Yuba Subedi"},{id:"214657",title:"Dr.",name:"Hemant",surname:"Ojha",slug:"hemant-ojha",fullName:"Hemant Ojha"}],corrections:null},{id:"58050",title:"Naturally Available Genetic Adaptation in Common Bean and Its Response to Climate Change",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72380",slug:"naturally-available-genetic-adaptation-in-common-bean-and-its-response-to-climate-change",totalDownloads:1220,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Warming is expected to lead to drier environments worldwide, especially in the tropics, and it is unclear how crops will react. Drought tolerance often varies at small spatial scales in natural ecosystems, where many of the wild relatives and landraces of the main crops have been collected. Through a series of examples, we will show that collections of wild relatives and landraces, many of those deposited at germplasm banks, may represent this desired source of variation, as they are genetically diverse and phenotypically variable. For instance, using a spectrum of genotyping and phenotyping approaches, we have studied the extent of genetic and phenotypic diversity for drought tolerance in wild and landraces of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and compared it with the one available at cultivated varieties. Not surprisingly, most of the naturally available variation to cope with drought in the natural environments was lost through domestication and recent plant breeding. It is therefore imperative to exploit the reservoir of wild relatives and landraces to make crops more tolerant. Yet, it remains to be seen if the rate at which this naturally available variation can be incorporated into the cultivated varieties may keep pace with the rate of climate change.",signatures:"Andrés J. Cortés and Matthew W. Blair",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58050",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58050",authors:[{id:"190729",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrés",surname:"Cortés",slug:"andres-cortes",fullName:"Andrés Cortés"},{id:"216535",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew W.",surname:"Blair",slug:"matthew-w.-blair",fullName:"Matthew W. Blair"}],corrections:null},{id:"58092",title:"Mitigation of the Negative Impact of Warming on the Coffee Crop: The Role of Increased Air [CO2] and Management Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72374",slug:"mitigation-of-the-negative-impact-of-warming-on-the-coffee-crop-the-role-of-increased-air-co2-and-ma",totalDownloads:1350,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Crop sustainability can be threatened by new environmental challenges regarding predicted climate changes and global warming. Therefore, the study of real biological impacts of future environmental conditions (e.g., increased air [CO2], supra-optimal temperature and water scarcity) on crop plants, as well as the re-evaluation of management procedures and strategies, must be undertaken in order to improve crop adaptation and promote mitigation of negative environmental impacts, thus affording crop resilience. Coffee is a tropical crop that is grown in more than 80 countries, making it one of the world’s most traded agricultural products, while involving millions of people worldwide in the whole chain of value. It has been argued that this crop will be highly affected by climate changes, resulting in decreases in both suitable areas for cultivation and productivity, as well as impaired beverage quality in the near future. Here, we report recent findings regarding coffee species exposure to combined supra-optimal air temperatures and enhanced air [CO2], and impacts of drought stress on the crop. Ultimately, we discuss key strategies to improve coffee performance in the context of new environmental scenarios. The recent findings clearly show that high [CO2] has a positive impact on coffee plants, increasing their tolerance to high temperatures. This has been related to a better plant vigor, to the triggering of protective mechanisms, and to a higher functional status of the photosynthetic machinery. Even so, coffee plant is expected to suffer from water scarcity in a changing world. Therefore, discussion is focused on some important management strategies (e.g., shade systems, crop management and soil covering and terracing), which can be implemented to improve coffee performance and sustain coffee production in a continually changing environment.",signatures:"Danielly Dubberstein, Weverton P. Rodrigues, José N. Semedo, Ana\nP. Rodrigues, Isabel P. Pais, António E. Leitão, Fábio L. Partelli,\nEliemar Campostrini, Fernando Reboredo, Paula Scotti-Campos,\nFernando C. Lidon, Ana I. Ribeiro-Barros, Fábio M. DaMatta and\nJosé C. Ramalho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58092",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58092",authors:[{id:"65815",title:"Prof.",name:"Luiz",surname:"Partelli",slug:"luiz-partelli",fullName:"Luiz Partelli"},{id:"171036",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana I.",surname:"Ribeiro-Barros",slug:"ana-i.-ribeiro-barros",fullName:"Ana I. Ribeiro-Barros"},{id:"190519",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Lidon",slug:"fernando-lidon",fullName:"Fernando Lidon"},{id:"210456",title:"Dr.",name:"José C",surname:"Ramalho",slug:"jose-c-ramalho",fullName:"José C Ramalho"},{id:"225805",title:"Dr.",name:"Danielly",surname:"Dubberstein",slug:"danielly-dubberstein",fullName:"Danielly Dubberstein"},{id:"225808",title:"Dr.",name:"Weverton",surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"weverton-rodrigues",fullName:"Weverton Rodrigues"},{id:"225809",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Semedo",slug:"jose-semedo",fullName:"José Semedo"},{id:"225812",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"ana-rodrigues",fullName:"Ana Rodrigues"},{id:"225813",title:"Mrs.",name:"Isabel",surname:"Pais",slug:"isabel-pais",fullName:"Isabel Pais"},{id:"225815",title:"Dr.",name:"António",surname:"Leitão",slug:"antonio-leitao",fullName:"António Leitão"},{id:"225816",title:"Prof.",name:"Eliemar",surname:"Campostrini",slug:"eliemar-campostrini",fullName:"Eliemar Campostrini"},{id:"225817",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Reboredo",slug:"fernando-reboredo",fullName:"Fernando Reboredo"},{id:"225818",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Scotti-Campos",slug:"paula-scotti-campos",fullName:"Paula Scotti-Campos"},{id:"225821",title:"Prof.",name:"Fábio",surname:"DaMatta",slug:"fabio-damatta",fullName:"Fábio DaMatta"}],corrections:null},{id:"58002",title:"Agricultural Management Impact on Greenhouse Gas Emissions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72368",slug:"agricultural-management-impact-on-greenhouse-gas-emissions",totalDownloads:1038,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Management practices used on croplands to enhance crop yields and quality can contribute about 10–20% of global greenhouse gases (GHGs: carbon dioxide [CO2], nitrous oxide [N2O], and methane [CH4]). Some of these practices are tillage, cropping systems, N fertilization, organic fertilizer application, cover cropping, fallowing, liming, etc. The impact of these practices on GHGs in radiative forcing in the earth’s atmosphere is quantitatively estimated by calculating net global warming potential (GWP) which accounts for all sources and sinks of CO2 equivalents from farm operations, chemical inputs, soil carbon sequestration, and N2O and CH4 emissions. Net GWP for a crop production system is expressed as kg CO2 eq. ha−1 year.−1 Net GWP can also be expressed in terms of crop yield (kg CO2 eq. kg−1 grain or biomass yield) which is referred to as net greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) or yield-scaled GWP and is calculated by dividing net GWP by crop yield. This article discusses the literature review of the effects of various management practices on GWP and GHGI from croplands as well as different methods used to calculate net GWP and GHGI. The paper also discusses novel management techniques to mitigate net CO2 emissions from croplands to the atmosphere. This information will be used to address the state of global carbon cycle.",signatures:"Upendra M. Sainju",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58002",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58002",authors:[{id:"214367",title:"Dr.",name:"Upendra",surname:"Sainju",slug:"upendra-sainju",fullName:"Upendra Sainju"}],corrections:null},{id:"58326",title:"Low Carbon Technologies for Agriculture in Dryland: Brazilian Experience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72363",slug:"low-carbon-technologies-for-agriculture-in-dryland-brazilian-experience",totalDownloads:1313,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anthropogenic activities have altered the atmospheric composition since the industrial era, especially with the increasing greenhouse gas emission due to fossil fuel combustion, cement production, and land-use change. The Brazilian semiarid, covering approximately 969.589 km2 with 21 million people, region has 1.6 million agricultural establishments and 95% are classified as family farms. The typical agricultural systems are characterized by high grazing density, slash and burn practices, and fruits and legumes by irrigated monocultures. Consequently, soil degradation occurs due unsustainable soil management, decreasing soil carbon stock, and the biodiversity. The soil carbon depletion is also associated with saline, water, and thermal stresses. Saline, water, and thermal stresses in dryland, the impact of the land-use change associated with climate change, and few technological resources available for use in agricultural systems are the main reasons responsible for low productivity in the Brazilian semiarid region. Low-cost agricultural practices can contribute to build healthy and sustainable agroecosystems: among these, the selection of plant species tolerant to saline, water, and thermal stresses, the use of rhizobial inoculants, adoption of no-tillage, sowing green manure, and adoption of technologies to stock water to improve its efficiency and productivity.",signatures:"Vanderlise Giongo, Alessandra Monteiro Salviano, Francislene\nAngelotti, Tatiana Taura, Luiz Fernando Carvalho Leite and Tony\nJarbas Ferreira Cunha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58326",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58326",authors:[{id:"213499",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Vanderlise",surname:"Giongo",slug:"vanderlise-giongo",fullName:"Vanderlise Giongo"},{id:"222066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",surname:"Salviano",slug:"alessandra-salviano",fullName:"Alessandra Salviano"},{id:"222067",title:"Dr.",name:"Francislene",surname:"Angelotti",slug:"francislene-angelotti",fullName:"Francislene Angelotti"},{id:"222068",title:"MSc.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Taura",slug:"tatiana-taura",fullName:"Tatiana Taura"},{id:"222069",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz",surname:"Leite",slug:"luiz-leite",fullName:"Luiz Leite"},{id:"222071",title:"Dr.",name:"Tony",surname:"Cunha",slug:"tony-cunha",fullName:"Tony Cunha"}],corrections:null},{id:"58228",title:"Pepper Crop under Climate Change: Grafting as an Environmental Friendly Strategy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72361",slug:"pepper-crop-under-climate-change-grafting-as-an-environmental-friendly-strategy",totalDownloads:2142,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pepper is an extremely important vegetable worldwide in socio-economic terms. However, persistent land use, monoculture, and intensified production processes have led to soil diseases. This, along with abiotic stress, and mainly salinity of soil and waters, water stress, and suboptimal temperatures, can lead to physiological disorders emerging in peppers, e.g., cracking and Blossom end rot, which induce plant senescence, and lower not only in yields, but also in product quality. Salinity and water shortage are the two main environmental problems that crops face in the Mediterranean Region. One way of overcoming stresses from an ecological or integrated crop management viewpoint is to use grafted plants as an adaptation strategy. Initially, grafting technology has expanded in Solanaceae and Cucurbitacea species to overcome biotic stress. Nowadays, grafts are being used as several approaches to cushion the impact of climate change on agricultural systems. Furthermore, grafts allow desirable varieties by organoleptic or productivity traits, but they are sensitive to abiotic stress and can be grown under abiotic stress. As far as we know, very few studies on grafted pepper plants under abiotic stress are available.",signatures:"Consuelo Penella and Angeles Calatayud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58228",authors:[{id:"213492",title:"Dr.",name:"Angeles",surname:"Calatayud",slug:"angeles-calatayud",fullName:"Angeles Calatayud"},{id:"213498",title:"Dr.",name:"Consuelo",surname:"Penella",slug:"consuelo-penella",fullName:"Consuelo Penella"}],corrections:null},{id:"58113",title:"Bringing Climate Smart Agriculture to Scale: Experiences from the Water Productivity Project in East and Central Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72365",slug:"bringing-climate-smart-agriculture-to-scale-experiences-from-the-water-productivity-project-in-east-",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since 2010, six research organizations in the region have implemented a regional project that sought to combat food insecurity, poverty and climate change by up-scaling Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies across farms and landscapes using the Climate Smart Landscape (CSL) approach. Several CSA technologies were evaluated and promoted across landscapes using this approach with remarkable success. Maize yields in Kenya rose from 0.5 to 3.2 t ha-1, resulting in over 90% of the watershed communities being food secure. In Madagascar, rice yields increased from 2 to 4 t ha-1 whilst onion yields increased from 10 to 25 t ha-1, resulting in watershed communities being 60% food-secure. In Eritrea, sorghum yields increased from 0.6 to 2 t ha-1. Farmers in Ethiopia earned US$10,749 from the sale of pasture whilst in Madagascar, watershed communities earned additional income of about US$2500/ha/year from the sale of onions and potatoes during off-season. Adoption levels of various CSA technologies rose from less than 30% to over 100% across the participating countries, resulting in rehabilitation of huge tracts of degraded land. In a nutshell, the potential for CSL in the region is huge and if exploited could significantly improve our economies, lives and environment.",signatures:"Kizito Kwena, Fitih Ademe, Joseph Serge, Nezeghty Asmerom,\nBernard Musana, Razaka Razakamiaramanana, Reuben Ruttoh,\nHezron Mogaka, Assefa Dereje, Kifle Woldearegey, Anthony Esilaba\nand Rosemary Emongor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58113",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58113",authors:[{id:"214135",title:"Dr.",name:"Kizito",surname:"Kwena",slug:"kizito-kwena",fullName:"Kizito Kwena"},{id:"221567",title:"Mr.",name:"Fitih",surname:"Ademe",slug:"fitih-ademe",fullName:"Fitih Ademe"},{id:"221569",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Serge",slug:"joseph-serge",fullName:"Joseph Serge"},{id:"221570",title:"Ms.",name:"Nezeghty",surname:"Asmerom",slug:"nezeghty-asmerom",fullName:"Nezeghty Asmerom"},{id:"221571",title:"Mr.",name:"Bernard",surname:"Musana",slug:"bernard-musana",fullName:"Bernard Musana"},{id:"221572",title:"Mr.",name:"Razaka",surname:"Razakamiaramanana",slug:"razaka-razakamiaramanana",fullName:"Razaka Razakamiaramanana"},{id:"221573",title:"Mr.",name:"Reuben",surname:"Ruttoh",slug:"reuben-ruttoh",fullName:"Reuben Ruttoh"},{id:"221574",title:"Dr.",name:"Hezron",surname:"Mogaka",slug:"hezron-mogaka",fullName:"Hezron Mogaka"},{id:"221575",title:"Dr.",name:"Assefa",surname:"Dereje",slug:"assefa-dereje",fullName:"Assefa Dereje"},{id:"221577",title:"Prof.",name:"Kifle",surname:"Woldearegey",slug:"kifle-woldearegey",fullName:"Kifle Woldearegey"},{id:"221578",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Esilaba",slug:"anthony-esilaba",fullName:"Anthony Esilaba"},{id:"221579",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosemary",surname:"Emongor",slug:"rosemary-emongor",fullName:"Rosemary Emongor"}],corrections:null},{id:"58308",title:"Climate Control in Mediterranean Greenhouses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72367",slug:"climate-control-in-mediterranean-greenhouses",totalDownloads:1179,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As climate control in greenhouses directly affects crop yields, there is an increasing trend for advancements in environmentally controlled agricultural-production techniques. In the Mediterranean region, the temperatures during the period from December to February are below 12°C when the daily total radiation 8.4 MJ/m2day. Based on the region?s climate data, greenhouses require heating during the period from November to March, ventilation and shading from February to May and cooling from June to September. In order to maintain day and night temperatures of 18/16°C, annual heat energy requirement of PE greenhouses is 95-256 kWh/m2. In view of environment and production costs, conservation of heating energy is as important as heating itself. Heat energy saving is about 37% when energy curtains are used. Greenhouse temperature can be increased by 8°C in palliative non-heated greenhouses where energy curtains and water mattresses are used in addition to passively used solar energy. Ventilation openings at the roofs of these greenhouses should adequately be 20-25%. When outside noon-time temperature is above 30°C in June, evaporative cooling of greenhouse is essential. Depending on outside humidity and volume of exchanged air for cooling, a temperature difference of 6°C can be achieved with evaporative cooling of greenhouses in August.",signatures:"A. Nafi Baytorun and Zeynep Zaimoglu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58308",authors:[{id:"214737",title:"Prof.",name:"Zeynep",surname:"Zaimoglu",slug:"zeynep-zaimoglu",fullName:"Zeynep Zaimoglu"},{id:"214738",title:"Prof.",name:"Nafi",surname:"Baytorun",slug:"nafi-baytorun",fullName:"Nafi Baytorun"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tThe book will shed the light on the basic principles of infrared (IR) spectrophotometry and its environmental, industrial, and pharmaceutical applications.
\r\n\tEnvironmental applications will deal with water, and wastewater treatments, characterization of different sorbents, and waste removers, contaminants detection in water, and waste management.
\r\n\tIndustrial applications will focus on the analysis of paint, paper, pharmaceutical, and sugar industries and the applicability of infrared spectroscopy in these fields.
\r\n\tDrug analysis, food and dietary supplements testing and analysis, and natural products analysis will be discussed as parts of the pharmaceutical applications of infrared spectroscopy.
\r\n\r\n\tIn addition, the book will limp to the important applications of infrared spectroscopy in chemical and biological analyses. While the topics mentioned herein ( including the basics of IR, as well as the environmental and the industrial applications, food, and drug analysis) will be the major topics of this book, other applications and topics related to infrared spectroscopy are also invited.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-282-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-281-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-283-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"a72c83e454be85c1663d16ee18525862",bookSignature:"Dr. Marwa S. El-Azazy, Dr. Khalid Al-Saad and Dr. Ahmed El-Shafie",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11564.jpg",keywords:"IR Instrumentation, Sampling Modes, Spectral Analysis, Frequencies and Identification, Environmental Applications, Paint Industry, Paper Industry, Pharmaceutical Industry, Sugar Industry, Drug Analysis, Food Testing and Analysis, Natural Products Analysis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Analytical Chemist, experienced educator, and researcher in water and wastewater treatment with more than 20 years of teaching experience at several institutions. 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Prof. Khalid Al-Saad is interested in environmental and biological application developments of spectroscopy and mass spectrometry.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Inorganic chemist and researcher from Qatar University, interested in wastewater treatment using green adsorbents.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"198210",title:"Dr.",name:"Marwa",middleName:"S.",surname:"El-Azazy",slug:"marwa-el-azazy",fullName:"Marwa El-Azazy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198210/images/system/198210.png",biography:"Dr. Marwa El-Azazy is an Analytical Chemist , experienced educator and researcher with more than 20 years of teaching experience at several institutions. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65430",title:"Technique and Technology of Whole-Body Cryotherapy (WBC)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83680",slug:"technique-and-technology-of-whole-body-cryotherapy-wbc-",body:'\nEquipment for whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) has been used in clinics around the world for over 40 years [1, 2]. Despite this, until today there is no universally accepted concept describing the mechanism for achieving the healthcare effect of this physiotherapeutic procedure, and the physical conditions of safety and effectiveness of cryogenic cooling of the patient’s skin surface have not been determined [3, 4, 5, 6]. Temperature of the cooling gas and the duration of its contact with the patient’s skin, being the most important technological parameters of WBC, vary over a wide range. The requirements for the power supply capacity of equipment for the implementation of WBC technology are not defined. In such conditions, manufacturers of devices for WBC procedures gradually increase the value of the minimum gas temperature in the WBC cab. Over 40 years of cryotherapeutic system production, the gas temperature declared by manufacturers of devices for WBC has doubled from 98 K in 1978 [1, 2] to 192 K [4, 5, 6, 7]. By increasing the operating temperature of the equipment, manufacturers significantly reduce the cost of its production. For 40 years, the cost of devices for group WBC has decreased by 30 times. Low prices for equipment provide a high level of sales, so the trend of increasing operating temperature of WBC devices persists. An increase in the temperature level is accompanied by a decrease in the power of systems for cryostatting the WBC zone. The newest installations are equipped with refrigerators with a specific power of the electric driver of not more than 1 kW/m3. At a temperature level of 170 K, a refrigerator with such a power has a heat-removing capacity of not more than 400 W/m3, which is comparable with the physiological heat release of a patient under thermal comfort conditions (150 W) [7].
\nUnreasonable changes in WBC technology affect the effectiveness of the procedures. Recently, more and more articles appear, the authors of which express doubt that cryotherapy can provide the healthcare effects described in papers published before 1990 [7, 8]. The reason that many modern WBC systems are not able to provide the conditions for obtaining the healthcare effects described in the last century [1, 2] is the increase in gas temperature in the working zone of new installations. This can be seen even from the titles of the articles [1, 8]. The temperature increase from −170°C (102 K) to −110°C (163 K) changes the absolute value of the temperature by 1.6 times, which cannot but affect the intensity of heat removal, the degree of supercooling of the patient’s body surface, etc. From a thermophysical point of view, it is obvious that from 1978 to 2018 the technology, which is commonly referred to as WBC, has qualitatively changed. And, judging by contemporary publications, this qualitative change had a negative impact on the healthcare effectiveness of the procedures, which until recently were successfully used to treat a number of severe diseases: rheumatoid arthritis, bronchial asthma, psoriasis, etc. [9, 10].
\nIn such conditions, the determination of cause–effect relationships between the WBC technological parameters and the magnitude of the healthcare effect acquires high scientific and social significance. Formation of the thermophysical theory of WBC creates a scientific basis for restoring the production of effective cryotherapeutic installations at the modern technical level.
\nThe WBC method is based on providing the total contact of the patient’s skin surface with a cryogenic gas. With a contact duration of up to 3 minutes and a gas temperature of less than 140 K, the WBC procedure provides a number of positive effects that are used in treatment practice [11, 12]. The most demonstrative and controlled sign of the WBC effectiveness is the duration of analgesic action, which can last 6–8 hours [7]. The analgesic effect of WBC was first described and used in treatment practice by a Japanese doctor Yamauchi. For the WBC procedures, a special installation was made, called “Cryotium” by the author of the method [2]. The “Сryotium” design was analogously a refrigeration chamber for long-term storage of perishable products. The chamber was separated from the environment by the lock chamber (Figure 1), which was supposed to reduce the loss of cold air from the main chamber.
\nMulti-seat cab for WBC.
Given the relatively large size of the chamber, several patients were undergoing the WBC procedures simultaneously (from 5 to 12). To obtain cryogenic temperatures, liquid nitrogen was fed to the “Cryotium” heat exchangers instead of freon. The “Сryotium” design appeared by chance. Yamauchi believed that in order to obtain the maximum treatment outcome, the maximum decrease in temperature should be used. This condition became the basis of the design. To reduce the cost of manufacturing “Сryotium,” Japanese engineers used the insulating structure and heat exchangers of the serial refrigeration chamber. The temperature regime in the chamber volume was determined by the requirement of the inadmissibility of air condensation on the surface of a heat exchanger. The temperature of the outer surface of the heat exchanger \n
The removal of heat from air to the surface of the heat exchanger was carried out by natural convection.
\nWith natural convection, the calculated temperature gradient between the gas and the heat-removing surface is 20 K:
\nMinimum possible air temperature in the cab:
\nThe value of the air temperature during the WBC sessions specified by the method’s author [1] is the lowest possible temperature that could be achieved in this cab design. It is important to note that in “Сryotium” the temperature was maintained by choosing the pressure of liquid nitrogen (LN) vapor in the heat exchanger tubes (Figure 2). The boiling point of LN depends on pressure; by increasing the vapor pressure to a level of
The scheme of supplying liquid nitrogen to the heat exchangers of the installations for the WBC: (a) “Cryotium”; (b) “KR-2005.”
Thus, the “Сryotium” design determined the WBC technology. Perhaps, that is why the author of the method did not give any reason for the WBC temperature regime in his works. The ratios of the boiling points of nitrogen and air, as well as the design features of the device in which the procedures were performed, have randomly created the conditions for a safe and highly efficient procedure.
\nYamauchi used the WBC method for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis [1]; the technique was so effective that it quickly spread to the countries of Western Europe. In Poland and Germany, devices similar to “Cryotium” were put in production. European manufacturers have tried to reproduce the Japanese installation on the base of available information but, for unknown reasons, have changed the basic operating principle of “Cryotium.” This is translated into an increase in the minimum operating temperature from −170 to −160°C [13]. A slight increase in temperature led to a whole chain of changes in cooling technology, which caused a gradual decrease in the efficiency of European (Polish and German) installations for WBC. As already shown above, the temperature level of −170°C was maintained in “Cryotium” without using a temperature control system, only through relief of excess pressure in the LN vapor line (Figure 2a).
\nThe liquid level controller (YC) in the heat exchangers of the “Сryotium” installation according to the sensor signals of the Y level controls the operation of the solenoid valve (SV), through which LN enters the system. The cryogenic liquid enters the heat exchanger (HE) tubes, where it partially evaporates due to the supply of heat from the procedural room air. Vaporization reduces the flow density in the tubes; the vapor–liquid mixture is pushed out from the top of the heat exchanger to the liquid separator (LS). In this apparatus, liquid and vapor are separated. The liquid flows into the lower section of the heat exchanger (HE) and again participates in the removal of heat. LN vapors accumulate at the top of the liquid separator (LS). The vapor pressure is controlled by a safety valve (V), which opens at a pressure of 0.22 MPa. The vapor pressure determines the LN boiling point and the temperature of the tubes of the heat exchanger (HE), which must meet condition (1). The air temperature in the main “Cryotium” cab at the presence of patients rises to −170°C. In the pauses between the procedures, when the heat load on the cooling system is reduced by 10 times [7], the air temperature in the main cab approaches the temperature of the heat exchanger tubes:
\nThe air temperature in the cab remains at the minimum possible level. In European installations, the air temperature in the cab is controlled by the temperature controller (TC), which, by signals from the temperature sensor (S), opens the liquid nitrogen supply valve (SV). In order to maintain the temperature at −160°C, the TC limits the supply of LN to the heat exchanger (HE) in the period when there are no patients in the cab. The LN level decreases until the sensor (S) registers the set temperature. The upper sections of the heat exchanger (HE), through which the nitrogen passes in the vapor state, are heated to a temperature close to the air temperature in the chamber. The temperature of the inner tube surfaces exceeds the LN boiling point by more than 20 K:
\nWhen patients enter the main cab, relatively warm air enters from the lock chamber (\n
The increase in the air nominal temperature in the cab for WBC from −170°C to −160°C fundamentally changed the temperature algorithm of the procedure. The transition to the LN film boiling regime caused a significant overrun of the cryoagent. The operational drawbacks of the nitrogen cooling system and the uncertainty of the air temperature requirements in the main procedural cab created conditions for use in the WBC cryostatting system of three-stage chillers and steam cycles on gas mixtures. Refusing LN resulted in an increase in the nominal temperature in the main cab to −110°C.
\nSpecialists in the field of WBC did not only pay attention to this but also actively promoted the “modernization” of cryotherapy equipment [13, 14, 15]. The ability to refuse to use LN and significantly reduce the costs of WBC procedures turned out to be so attractive that the specialists “did not notice” that the efficiency of the procedures in the “nitrogen-free” installations was 10 times lower than in “Сryotium” [7]. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, “Criohome” “cryotherapeutic” devices with a nominal temperature of −85°C was used for WBC procedures, i.e., the tendency to increase the temperature persists. Since 1985, the Russian direction of devices for WBC has been developing independently, based on the use of single-seat installations with a nitrogen cooling system (cryosaunas). The temperature in the cab of a single-seat cryosauna during the whole procedure is no higher than −130°C. The conditional constancy of temperature fundamentally changes the degree of supercooling of the skin surface; therefore, cryosaunas ensure the effectiveness of WBC at the level of the original technology implemented in “Cryotium” but with less energy loss. The current state of WBC in Europe is a consequence of the 40-year use of the method in the absence of a reliable concept of the method for obtaining the cryotherapeutic effect and the uncertainty of the technological requirements to specialized equipment [3, 4, 5]. In such conditions, manufacturers of WBC installations have flooded Europe with installations that, by their therapeutic efficacy, do not differ from traditional hypothermia. The popularization of the thermophysical theory of WBC will stop the regression of cryotherapy in Europe and the world.
\nThe WBC thermophysical theory was formulated at St. Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics (ITMO University) in order to overcome the uncertainty of the technological requirements for specialized devices for WBC. In developing the theory, information on the conduct of WBC procedures and their effectiveness was used [1, 2, 7, 13]. As a criterion for optimizing the WBC technology, it is reasonable to use the duration of the analgesic effect of cryotherapy. The duration of the analgesic effect or effective time (WBC ET) is easy to determine in practice. To carry out computational experiments at ITMO University, a method was developed for calculating the WBC ET [16], which made it possible to perform studies on the optimization of the WBC technology in the mode of numerical experiment.
\nTo calculate the WBC ET, a formula is proposed that relates the positive effect with the degree of approaching the skin surface temperature (
where
The maximum duration of WBC (τmax) is determined taking into account the requirements of the patient’s hypothermic safety, which limit the permissible changes in body temperature on the surface (
Physical model of the human body shell (BS).
Compliance with the established limitations of changing the value of
\n
\nFigure 3 shows a graphical representation of the patient’s body shell (BS). BS is the outer layer of the body, the mass of which is 30% of the total body mass. BS consists of three types of tissues: epithelium 1, adipose tissue 2, and muscle tissue 3. Layers 1 and 2 endure significant hypothermia without any harm; patient’s safety is ensured when the violation of the normal temperature distribution does not extends beyond the inner boundary of the BS [13]. In the normal state
The simplified physical model of a human BS has become the basis of a mathematical model.
\nBS is a relatively thin surface layer. The calculated thickness of the BS of an average human is Δ
where
The energy equation allows you to simulate thermal processes associated with significant changes in the temperature of the study object. The energy equation describes well the processes of changing the state of aggregation; this provides the mathematical model with certain advantages compared to models built based on the heat transfer equation [13]. When replacing derivatives with difference approximants, it is possible to obtain an algebraic expression suitable for automated calculations:
\nSolving Eq. (8) with respect to the value of enthalpy at the new time layer \n
where \n
The structure of the cooling object and temperature distribution in the BS layers are described above (Figure 3). Thermophysical properties of the human body shell tissues are shown in Table 1.
\nTissue | \nρ, kg/m3\n | \nφ, % | \n\n | \nλ, W/(m·K) | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skin | \n1093 | \n72.0 | \n3600 | \n0.35 | \n10,996 | \n
Muscles | \n1041 | \n80.0 | \n3458 | \n0.475 | \n7277 | \n
Adipose tissue | \n916 | \n20 | \n2250 | \n0.21 | \n— | \n
Properties of the human BS tissues [17].
Due to the high water content (φ), all human BS tissues have a high heat capacity, which ensures the accumulation of a significant amount of heat. The heat accumulated in the tissues protects the organs of the body core (BC), heart, lungs, kidneys, and liver from frigorism at a sharp decrease in ambient temperature. Thermal balance of the BS area element
\ndetermined by the ratio of the intensity of the heat fluxes transferred by the thermal conductivity of the tissue along the
At BS boundaries, heat transfer is described by boundary conditions. For the outer boundary, the intensity of the convective heat removal is calculated:
\nwhere α means the heat transfer coefficient at the natural convection of gas or liquid, \n
On the inner BS boundary, the temperature of the tissues during WBC does not change and is equal to the body core temperature (0):
\n\nEq. (10) describes the change in the heat content of tissues over time \n
The described algorithm of computations forms the mathematical model of the human BS, which is suitable for studies of processes of the therapeutic effect of low-temperature liquids and gases.
\nThe mathematical model of the human BS allowed us to perform a numerical experiment to study the physical bases of the WBC healthcare efficacy. Quite often [4, 5] WBC is compared with the cold water immersion procedures. The basis for this comparison is that cryogenic gas and cold water remove a significant amount of heat from the body surface. Moreover, under conditions of natural convection, the coefficient of heat transfer from a source of heat to gas is usually 10 times lower than when heat is removed by water [7]. In reliance on this information, attempts to replace WBC with cheaper water procedures have been ongoing for 40 years [18]. Proponents of such a replacement do not take into account the fact that the WBC ET is more than 360 minutes, and water treatments provide pain relief for a maximum of 30 minutes. Such a difference in efficiency should be based on the fundamental differences between the results of heat removal by liquid and gaseous heat carrier.
\nSimulation of the BS surface cooling process with water with a temperature of 273 K and a cryogenic gas with a temperature of 140 K has allowed revealing such a difference (Figure 4), which reduces to the level of the minimum surface temperature of the cooling object. In cold water, the minimum surface temperature of the cooling object is at least 5.5°C. As the temperature difference between the water and the cooled surface decreases, the intensity of convective heat removal to water decreases to less than 950 W/m2 [19]. The intensity of heat supply from the inner layers of the body to the surface, on the contrary, approaches the level of 880 W/m2. Due to the small difference in heat fluxes at the boundary of the cooling object, the rate of temperature decrease
Dependence of skin temperature on time.
The use of a cryogenic gas with a temperature of 140 K for cooling the BS surface gives a completely different picture. The graph of surface temperature changes (Figure 3) is almost a straight line, which means that the temperature decreases almost without the rate change:
\nThe minimum temperature value
In the case of cooling with a cryogenic gas, the BS surface is supercooled to the minimum acceptable level. WBC technology is based on the use of this hypothermia to stimulate the cold receptors of the skin. Expression (6) for calculating the duration of positive effects contains a term that allows us to illustrate the intensity of stimulation of cold receptors by changing the temperature of the BS surface. This parameter of the WBC procedure is called the intensity of stimulating action (ISA):
\nThe dependence graph
Dependence of ISA value on body surface temperature.
Data on the amount of heat
The calculated values are given in Table 2. In cryogenic gas, heat removal was 440 kJ/m2, which is 10% more than in cold water. The result obtained is significantly less than that supposed by some WBC popularizers who estimate heat removal from the patient’s body at 1250–2500 kJ/m2 [20].
\nResults | \nHeat carrier | \n|
---|---|---|
gas | \nwater | \n|
Cooling time, τmax, sec | \n159 | \n177 | \n
Minimum surface temperature of the object, | \n−2.0 | \n5.5 | \n
The minimum temperature at the inner boundary of the fat layer, | \n309.2 | \n309.0 | \n
Heat removed by heat carrier from the body surface, | \n440 | \n410 | \n
Heat removed through the inner boundary of the fat layer, | \n10.2 | \n12.5 | \n
Heat flux from the body surface at the beginning of the cooling process, \n | \n3.5 | \n11.3 | \n
Heat flux from the body surface at the end of the cooling process, \n | \n2.3 | \n0.95 | \n
The results of a numerical experiment on the simulation of heat removal by water with a temperature of 273 K and gas with a temperature of 140 K [16].
At the same time, the result obtained is significantly more than can be removed from a WBC device by using 2 kg of liquid nitrogen for one patient’s cooling [6, 10].
\nThe assessment of the power of the specific heat flux, which the BS surface gives to the heat carrier, has essential practical importance. Table 1 shows the maximum values, at the beginning of the procedure, and the minimum values, at the time of completion of the cooling powers of the heat flux to the cold water and the gaseous heat carrier. For designing WBC devices, it is useful to know the mean value of the heat flux, which the heat carrier must remove in a single procedure, 2.9 kW/m2. This value is 29 times greater than the nominal calorific capacity of the human body; therefore, it is often challenged by manufacturers of WBC devices [13]. Estimation of the heat reserve in BS tissues before and after the procedure shows that the heat flux to the heat carrier is provided by the heat capacity of the body shell tissues (Figure 6).
\nThe temperature of the body shell before and after the WBC procedure.
Lowering the surface temperature of the BS creates conditions for increasing heat transfer with thermal conductivity from the deep to the periphery of the body. As a result, there is a change in the distribution of the tissue temperature throughout the entire thickness of the BS. The amount of heat removed from different BS tissues is determined by the enthalpy difference before and after the WBC procedure. Taking into account the constancy of the heat capacity of the tissues in the temperature range from −2 to 40°C [17], the amount of heat removed can be calculated from the temperature difference:
\nThe amount of accumulated heat removed from one area element:
\nThe total amount of heat released due to supercooling of each of the three types of BS tissues is the sum of portions of heat released in the area elements of this tissue layer:
\nwhere
Part of the heat removed was obtained from internal sources in the epithelial and muscle layers, heat of metabolism
where
Some of the heat removed came from the patient’s body core; the amount of heat gained can be determined by numerical integration and instantaneous values of the heat flux transferred by thermal conductivity through the inner boundary of the body shell:
\nThe histogram on Figure 7 gives an idea of what is the source of heat removed from the surface of the patient’s body shell. The main share of the heat of 55.2% was gained due to supercooling the epithelial layer. The heat gained by supercooling the fat layer
Sources of the heat gained the WBC procedure.
The calorific capacity of the body does not play any role in the formation of the heat load on the cooling system of the WBC device, which is determined by the heat storage capacity of the body shell tissues. The safety of the WBC procedures is ensured by the correct choice of the contact duration of the body surface with a cryogenic gas. The thermal control system of the body does not affect the safety of procedures.
\nIn practice, there are two options for carrying out WBC procedures in multi-seat and single-seat installations [7, 21, 22, 23]. The cooling conditions in these installations differ significantly; therefore, the technology of group and individual WBC should be developed separately.
\nContrary to the popular belief [7, 13], GWBC and IWBC provide effects on only a fraction of the skin area. In a group installation, the contact area of the cooling gas with the patient’s body in a multi-seat cab is up to 70.5% of the total surface area of the body. In an individual cab, the contact area reaches 66% [7]. Temperature regimes of GWBC and IWBC are fundamentally different.
\nThe GWBC technology was influenced by the design of the device for performing the procedures (Figure 1). Using a low-temperature food storage chamber for WBC procedures, Japanese engineers and doctors were forced to carry out WBC procedures in groups. The dimensions of the chamber were too large for individual procedures. This forced solution is contrary to the general practice of physiotherapy; treatment is always carried out individually.
\nSystems for implementing technology I, individual cryosaunas, were developed 20 years after multi-seat installations [7] with consideration of the experience of their operation. Modern installations for IWBC use a nitrogen cooling system (NCS), so they quickly reach a given temperature level and allow you to adjust the temperature of the gas in the WBC zone.
\nIt is impossible to develop universal recommendations on selecting the optimal temperature of the gaseous heat carrier for GWBC and IWBC, since in multi-seat and single-seat installations the algorithm for changing the temperature of the cooling gas during the procedure is different.
\nTo conduct a preliminary analysis of the effect of gas temperature in the WBC zone on the magnitude of the positive effect achieved, it can be assumed that the procedure takes place in isothermal conditions:
\nIt is impossible to implement WBC in the isothermal mode, since it takes some time for the patient to enter the low-temperature zone and exit from it. However, the study of WBC processes in ideal temperature conditions allows us to formulate the general technological conditions of efficiency.
\nTo determine the optimal gas temperature in the WBC zone, the calculated values of the WBC ET obtained by Eq. (6) were used. Simulation of the BS cooling process under conditions of natural gas convection with a temperature from 90 to 190 K allowed us to plot the dependence of the ET value on the gas temperature in the WBC zone (Figure 8).
\nThe estimated duration of the effect of WBC at different gas temperature.
When isothermally cooling the surface of the patient’s body, the maximum value of ET (325 min) is achieved at a temperature of 140 K. At temperatures below 140 K, the WBC efficiency gradually decreases. At a temperature of 100 K, the value of WBC ЕТ is almost three times lower than the maximum [7]; therefore, when conducting WBC procedures, it is advisable to use a gas with a temperature from 120 to 140 K [16]. At temperatures above 140 K, the WBC efficiency rapidly decreases. At a temperature of 160 K, the WBC ET of the procedures is 10 times lower than the maximum value and is close to the results achieved during water procedures. The results of the computational experiment on simulation of cooling the body surface with gas with a temperature of 160 K (−110°C) ideally coincide with the results of tests performed by doctors in sports medicine [8], which in comparing the therapeutic effect of WBC procedures at a temperature of −110°C and water baths with a temperature of 8°C, did not reveal any advantages of the WBC. The results obtained have clear thermophysical reasons. As the temperature of the gaseous heat carrier increases, the intensity of heat removal from the BS surface decreases, and the safe cooling time increases.
\nWhen the gas temperature is above 150 K, the danger of supercooling of the body core (
According to the results of simulating the process of cooling the BS surface with a cryogenic gas, it can be argued that for effective procedures the gas temperature in the WBC zone should be not lower than 140 K.
\nThe author of the WBC method, Yamauchi, limited the exposure of the body contact with a cryogenic gas to a period of 180 sec [1, 2]. The minimum air temperature in the Japanese installation was −175°C. According to the contemporary idea that WBC technology is based on metered supercooling of the body shell, the choice of the cooling exposure should be related to the temperature of the gas in the WBC zone. Using the assumption of the constancy of the gas temperature in the WBC zone, it is possible to determine the maximum duration of cooling at different gas temperatures. Computational experiments on the mathematical model of the human BS showed that with an increase in the heat carrier temperature from 90 to 190 K, the safe duration of a patient’s stay in the WBC zone increases from 54 to 237 sec [3]. At a temperature of 140 K, the safe exposure time for cooling is 161 sec. The practice of using WBC has shown that, along with the maximum duration of cooling, it is necessary to limit the minimum duration of stay of patients in a cryotherapeutic installation [7].
\nThe reasons for this limitation are explained by the graph of dependence
The change of the body temperature surface
The calculated dependences of the WBC safe exposure (τmax) and the duration of the cooling time (τcool) on the gas temperature (
The dependence of the cooling phase duration and safe exposure WBC on the gas temperature.
Numerical experiments on a mathematical model of the human body shell allowed to formulate general ideas about the technological foundations of effective WBC. When developing technological recommendations on the design of installations for the implementation of GWBC or IWBC methods, it is necessary to take into account the algorithm for changing the temperature of the gas in contact with the patient’s body surface.
\nInstallations for GWBC consist of two or three heat-insulated rooms with different air temperatures [7]. Patients pass from the treatment room to the chamber with the minimum temperature (main chamber, MC) and back through the lock chambers (LC). In most modern installations, the temperature in the main chamber is maintained at 160 K and in the lock chamber means at 210 K. At the time of entry (exit) of patients into the LC or MC, warmer air enters from adjacent volumes. Because of this, the air temperature in the MC volume increases by at least 25 K. From the body surface of each patient, 3.5 to 4.5 kW of heat is released into the MC volume. Taking into account these factors, the actual GWBC temperature regime depends not only on the choice of the nominal temperatures in MC and LC but also on the power of the cooling system. Another uncertainty factor is the duration of stay of patients in the main cab. There are different opinions about the advisability of pre-cooling the body surface at an intermediate temperature of 210 K. Some researchers believe that a gradual decrease in temperature increases subjective comfort and safety [7]. In other works it is proposed to reduce the time of stay of patients in LC to a minimum [13]. Given all the reasons presented, it is obvious that it is extremely difficult to simulate the GWBC process. The temperature of the cooling gas varies according to a complex schedule, which consists of at least eight stages (Figure 11).
\nAlgorithm for changing the temperature of the of the cooling gas with the technology GWBS and IWBS.
The algorithm of changing the gas temperature in IWBC is much simpler (Figure 11). The patient enters the cab filled with atmospheric air, which is quickly replaced by vapors of liquid nitrogen with a temperature not higher than 140 K. The time to reduce the gas temperature in the IWBC cab to the optimum level depends on the power of the cooling system and is at least 20 sec.
\nTaking into account the results of simulating the WBC process under conditions of a constant gas temperature, it can be argued that the GWBC procedures using the algorithm shown in Figure 11 do not provide significant therapeutic outcomes. To restore the effectiveness of GWBC, it is necessary to significantly reduce the minimum air temperature in the main treatment cab. Experiments on a mathematical model of the body shell showed that the effectiveness of GWBC reaches the optimal level when the air temperature in the main cab drops to 130 K. However, modern installations for GWBC cannot maintain the temperature at this level, since they use compression cooling systems on gas mixtures [7]. To lower the temperature, it is necessary to use other heat transformation cycles in the cooling system, the power of which will allow compensating for the heat load associated with WBC procedures.
\nWhen designing cooling systems of the WBC zone, it is necessary to adequately estimate the power of the heat fluxes that need to be compensated. It was shown above that during the WBC procedure, 440 kJ/m2 of the heat is released from the patient’s body surface, and the mean heat flux from the body to the cryogenic heat carrier varies from 3.5 to 2.3 kW/m2 (Table 2). Taking into account the surface area of the body (1.6 m2 [7]), the heat input from one patient will be 700 kJ; the mean power of the heat input is 4.6 kW. It is necessary to spend at least 2.7 kg of liquid nitrogen only to remove the heat released from a patient’s body surface with a gas with the temperature of
where
Estimated nitrogen flowrate for removal of the heat from the body surface is 2.7 times higher than in modern nitrogen-cooled WBC installations [13]. To restore the WBC effectiveness, it is necessary to provide cryotherapy installations with sufficiently powerful cooling systems.
\nThe heat input from the patients
The energy efficiency of the installation design for WBC can be estimated by the share of the useful load on the cryostatting system, the coefficient of thermal efficiency:
\nTo estimate the expenditure of energy and select the optimal technology for WBC procedures, it is necessary to conduct a numerical experiment on a mathematical model of a cryotherapeutic device.
\nGiven the variety of design solutions used in the manufacture of devices for WBC, the mathematical model should have the most generalized form. It is necessary to stop considering particular design features and focus on the fundamental issues. It becomes possible with a one-dimensional model of the WBC zone (Figure 12). The model considers the processes occurring in a volume unit of the WBC zone.
\nHeat fluxes in the WBC zone.
The surface of the patient’s body 1 is cooled with a gaseous heat carrier 2 which fills the volume of the thermal fencing 3. The heat flux is removed from the patient’s body surface
where
The specific heat input from the patient’s body and the thermal fencing is calculated considering the temperatures of their surfaces:
\nwhere α3–2 and α1–2 means the heat transfer coefficients from the thermal fencing and the patient’s body, respectively;
Specific characteristics of devices designed for the implementation of GWBC and IWBC technologies have large differences. In multi-seat installations, the patient accommodation density is 0.4–0.7 person/m3, and the specific volume of free space
In single-seat cryosaunas, the patient accommodation density reaches 2.0 persons/m3, the specific surface area of the patient’s body is 3.2 m2/m3, the thermal fencing area of the WBC zone is 6.4 m2/m3, and the specific free space volume is 84% [7]. High compactness of the patient accommodation is ensured by the fact that the patient does not move during the procedure; therefore, the cab size is comparable to the size of the patient’s body.
\nThe heat input with gas fluxes is determined by the intensity of convective mass transfer of warm gas to the volume of the WBC zone. The heat input by gas convection across the boundary of the WBC zone is determined from the expression:
\nwhere
Large heat flows with gas fluxes are supplied into the WBC zone as patients enter and exit. For example, a multi-seat lock chamber and a cab of a single-seat cryosauna are filled with atmospheric air at the moment patients enter. 93 kJ/m3 of heat enters the lock cab with atmospheric air. When the temperature recovers to the nominal level, the air density in the lock cab increases by 40%; this is accompanied by supplying additional air from the atmosphere, which contributes another 27 kJ/m3 of heat. In one procedure, 120 kJ/m3 of heat transferred by gas convection enters the lock chamber.
\nThe basis of the mathematical model of the WBC zone is a one-dimensional energy equation:
\nwhere
In the ideal case,
To account for material balance in the mathematical model of the WBC zone, the continuity equation is used:
\nSo, the transfer of heat by the thermal conductivity of gas is small; expression (30) is simplified and can be transformed by replacing the derivatives with differential approximants:
\nThe numerical solution of the continuity (Eq. (33)) allows to take into account the input of gas mass to compensate for the change in density:
\n\nEqs. (29), (34) and (35) allow to analyze the processes occurring in the WBC zone during the implementation of individual or group technology. To perform a computational experiment, it is necessary to adopt an algorithm for changing the temperature of the cooling gas for IWBC and GWBC.
\nFormulation of a temperature algorithm for the IWBC process is relatively simple. let us take the time of filling the zone with a cryogenic gas (Figure 11) τI = 20 sec, τII = 150 sec, and τIII = 10 sec and the gas temperature in the isothermal phase II
By Eqs. (26) and (27), the total heat load on the cooling system and the coefficient of thermal efficiency are calculated. It is assumed that the cooling system covers all types of heat load, so the specific power of the refrigerator electric drive can be determined by the heat load and the value of the coefficient of performance at the current temperature level:
\nwhere ε5 means the coefficient of performance and the ratio of the heat removed to expenditure of energy in the refrigerator at the temperature level of 140 K, ε5 = 0.25 W/W.
\nFor the instantaneous values of the calculated power of the system refrigerator, the specific expenditure of energy for cooling the IWBC zone per procedure is calculated:
\nLet us determine the specific values of the liquid nitrogen flowrate per procedure:
\nThe results of the numerical experiment are summarized in Table 3. In the experiment on simulating the GWBC process, the time algorithm presented on the graph (Figure 11) was used; the nominal gas temperature in the main cab was 130 K. Energy indicators for the main and lock chambers were calculated.
\nIndicators | \nIWBC | \nGWBC | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Cab | \nLock chamber | \nTotal | \n||
Features of WBC zone | \n||||
\n | \n3.2 | \n0.62 | \n0.62 | \n\n |
\n | \n6.4 | \n2.4 | \n2.4 | \n\n |
\n | \n0.84 | \n0.97 | \n0.97 | \n\n |
Heat input to the WBC zone | \n||||
\n\n | \n33 | \n7.43 | \n3.97 | \n\n |
\n | \n2012 | \n422 | \n144 | \n566 | \n
\n\n | \n92 | \n142 | \n96 | \n238 | \n
\n\n | \n1427 | \n246 | \n33 | \n279 | \n
\n\n | \n493 | \n33 | \n14 | \n47 | \n
\n\n | \n11.8 | \n2.76 | \n1.18 | \n3.94 | \n
η | \n0.71 | \n0.58 | \n0.23 | \n0.49 | \n
The expenditure of electrical energy and liquid nitrogen flowrate for cooling | \n||||
\n\n | \n136 | \n11.04 | \n4.72 | \n15.76 | \n
\n | \n2.15 | \n0.50 | \n0.07 | \n0.57 | \n
\n\n | \n45.3 | \n11.04 | \n4.72 | \n15.76 | \n
\n | \n7.503 | \n1.56 | \n0.42 | \n2.02 | \n
\n\n | \n0.04 | \n0.0029 | \n0.009 | \n0.0038 | \n
Energy features of devices for IWBC and GWBC.
The energy efficiency of the technology was estimated by the total energy expenditures in the main and lock chambers. The results of the numerical experiment on simulating the GWBC process are summarized in Table 3.
\nThe data in Table 3 show that WBC procedures require the removal of large amounts of heat from the low-temperature zone. Specific heat input to the IWBC zone is
The energy indicators of the GWBC zone are much lower (Table 3). The specific heat input is
Due to the low compactness of the accommodation of patients in the treatment area, the GWBC thermal efficiency coefficient was 0.49. Under conditions of a single-seat installation, the thermal efficiency coefficient was 0.71, which indicates a more rational expenditure of energy. This is clearly illustrated by the histogram of the structure of the heat load on the cooling system of the IWBC and GWBC zones (Figure 13).
\nThe structure of the heat load on the cooling system zones IWBC and GWBC.
In single-seat installations, the heat storage capacity of the thermal fencing makes a significant contribution to the heat load, due to which the share of heat removed from thermal insulation reaches 24%. At the beginning of each procedure, a single-seat cab is filled with atmospheric air, which heats the inner surface of the thermal insulation. When implementing the GWBC technology, the heat load from the insulation is insignificant means of 9%, but the convective heat supply is 24%. The negative impact of convective heat transfer is determined by a large share of the free space in the low-temperature zone.
\nThe data in Table 3 do not allow giving an unambiguous preference for a particular technology. This is due to the fact that all indicators are related to the volume unit of the WBC zone, while the technological task of the process is to cool the surface of the patient’s body shell. If we calculate the specific heat load values and the expenditure of energy for cooling a unit of the shell surface (Table 4), the advantages of the IWBC technology become indisputable. According to all energy indicators, the IWBC technology is 1.5 times more efficient than the GWBC process.
\nIndicators | \nIWBC | \nGWBC | \n
---|---|---|
\n\n | \n629 | \n913 | \n
\n\n | \n0.67 | \n0.92 | \n
\n\n | \n2.34 | \n3.24 | \n
\n\n | \n3.77 | \n5.18 | \n
Energy features of devices for IWBC and GWBC.
The performed analysis of the healthcare and energy efficiency of the two options for the implementation of the WBC technology allows us to reasonably give preference to individual procedures that not only combine high healthcare efficiency with relatively low expenditure of energy but also to a greater extent correspond to the traditional principle of individuality of therapeutic techniques.
\nThe effectiveness of WBC technology depends on the choice of the duration of contact with cryogenic gas. The minimum duration of WBC procedure at the optimum gas temperature (−130°С) is 120 s. Meanwhile, one should remove 440 kJ/m2 with an average intensity of at least 2.4 kW/m2 and spend not less than 1.7 kg/m2 of liquid nitrogen on heat removal. The electric drive of the cooling system of WBC zone should have an average power of at least 9.3 kW/m2, and in the case of using nitrogen cooling system, the cryoagent consumption should be not less than 2.4 kg/m2.
\nThe research was supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (Project 11.4942.2017/6.7).
\nNeutrophils are key players in the innate and the adaptive immunity and contribute to the pathogenesis of various infectious and noninfectious conditions. These cells have the capability of performing various effector functions and therefore are considered an important therapeutic target for many conditions. They are considered the fastest immune cells in our body and the first to arrive to the inflammatory site. This occurs in response to a wide variety of chemoattractive agents, such as CXC chemokines [keratinocyte-derived cytokine (KC), macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2)], lipid mediators [leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and platelet-activating factor (PAF)], the complement split product (C5a), and the bacterial toxin formyl-met-leu-phe (fMLP)] [1]. Neutrophils use different intracellular signaling pathways in their migrative behavior which are dependent on the type of chemoattractant they encounter [1, 2, 3].
\nThese immune cells also play an important role in the recognition of various pathogens through specific cell surface and cytoplasmic receptors including toll-like receptors (TLRs) and nucleotide oligomerization domains (NODs). In addition, they can also recognize opsonized particles through the complement receptors and mediate antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC) through their interaction with immunoglobulin receptors [4, 5, 6]. They can also mediate microbial killing through oxygen-dependent and oxygen-independent mechanisms. In response to various ligands, this results in a dramatic increase in oxygen consumption due to the activation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase system leading to the generation of various reactive oxygen (e.g., superoxide anion radical) [7] and nitrogen (through nitric oxide synthase; NOS) intermediates [8]. This can not only aid in microbial killing but also contribute to the pathogenesis of various inflammatory and cancerous conditions (through the generation of peroxynitrite). The non-oxidative arm of neutrophil killing is mediated through the action of antimicrobial peptides and proteases present in various compartments of azurophilic (primary), specific (secondary), gelatinase, and secretary granules [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
\nThis book provides recent evidence regarding the role of cannabinoid receptors (CR-1 and CR-2) and different subtypes of the immunoglobulin receptor FcγRs in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of various diseases of infectious and noninfectious origin. Furthermore, the differential expression pattern of CD16 + CD11b + receptors on the surface of neutrophils and their role in the diagnosis of acute viral and bacterial infections will also be highlighted. Finally, the utility of using different chemiluminigenic probes for the detection of NADPH activity for the circulating blood neutrophils and their role in determining the in vivo state of host inflammatory activation will be highlighted in this book.
\nThe Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
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\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
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\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
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\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
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So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. 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Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192588,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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The potential for the use of the legume-rhizobia symbiosis to increase biological nitrogen fixation and avenues for research are discussed. The co-colonization of the roots of legumes with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and the effects on P and Mn uptake are discussed. A better understanding of the relationships between soil pH, organic matter content (SOM), microbial community, soil P content and the plant strategies to mobilize it, as well as plant effects on the soil solution concentrations of Mn, is important for the management of these systems. The increase of biological nitrogen fixation in these systems, through the breeding of tolerant cultivars to acidic soils and a stepwise legumes enrichment, alongside soil fertility management, may contribute to increasing biomass production, SOM content and overall ecological plasticity.",book:{id:"10897",title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg"},signatures:"Fernando Teixeira"},{id:"81871",title:"The Influence of Some Contaminants in Food Quality",slug:"the-influence-of-some-contaminants-in-food-quality",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102911",abstract:"The concept of food quality has been following scientific and technological evolution. Currently, producers, users, consumers, as well as public authorities, have well defined their expectations regarding the quality requirements in the food sector. 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Agronomic biofortification, the process of increasing micronutrient content in food crops through agronomic approaches, is seen as an important process to improve the status of malnutrition in the world. It is seen as a quick, safe, and cost-friendly approach to provide iron, zinc, and other micronutrients in our everyday diet. Unlike molecular/genetic approaches, agronomic biofortification is done on existing crops and varieties and hence the product is easily accepted by the consumers. Approaches like integrated nutrient management (INM) based on soil test values, microbial application, foliar spray of nutrients, can substantially increase the level of micronutrients, vitamins, folic acid, etc. in our food. With sufficient research interventions and awareness programs, agronomic biofortification can serve as a tool to improve the nutritional status of the world.",book:{id:"11327",title:"Revisiting Plant Biostimulants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11327.jpg"},signatures:"Manoj Chaudhary, Abhijit Mandal, Soumyadarshi Muduli, A. Deepasree and Abshiba"},{id:"81863",title:"Exploiting the Attributes of Biocontrol Agent (Neochetina bruchi) as a Potential Ecosystem Engineer’s",slug:"exploiting-the-attributes-of-biocontrol-agent-neochetina-bruchi-as-a-potential-ecosystem-engineer-s",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104775",abstract:"The biodiversity of lakes is continuously declining and diverse communities are being substituted by monoculture of invasive Eichhornia crassipes, resulting in a slew of environmental cascade effects. The ability of the Neochetina bruchi to self-perpetuate is a desirable aspect of biological control since it decreases the population to a reasonable level, making the approach more sustainable. N. bruchi is often referred to as “ecological engineers” because of the number of services it provides to the environment and enables herbicide application to be substantially reduced. Despite the presence of highly effective weevils against this weed, its effect on water hyacinth in association with the nutrients present in sites, is likely to vary with levels of disturbance caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. Understanding the aspects that determine the performance of these eco-engineers as valuable management tools will help to guide future endeavors. Our objective is to better comprehend their utility and limitations, along with critical knowledge gaps, to further enhance future applications.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Prerna Gupta and Sadhna Tamot"},{id:"81666",title:"Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Microalgae and Industrial Wastes: A Critical and Bibliometric Review",slug:"anaerobic-co-digestion-of-microalgae-and-industrial-wastes-a-critical-and-bibliometric-review",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104378",abstract:"Microalgae are photosynthetic organisms able to grow faster than land plants and produce biomass with relatively high energy potential. Accumulated high-value compounds like lipids, minerals, or proteins have focused the attention of scientists due to the potential production of biofuels and other value-added products. However, several drawbacks regarding both the biochemical structure of these organisms and technological difficulties have prevented the industry for implementing a comprehensive low-cost process regarding energy and environmental contamination. Among these technologies, anaerobic digestion (AD) has greatly increased research attention because of its simplicity and the ability to produce easily recycle by-products. Moreover, anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) has shown promising results as a method to bypass the AD problems of microalgae as a sole substrate. This review is focused on the recent trends and comparison of the AcoD process to maximize energy recovery from microalgae biomass and agro-industrial wastes. The yield of methane gas among the studied bibliography is compared and a critical review of published data and methods used is included.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"David de la Lama-Calvente, Juan Cubero, María José Fernández-Rodríguez, Antonia Jiménez-Rodríguez and Rafael Borja"},{id:"81832",title:"Management of Olive Tree Fertilization in Morocco",slug:"management-of-olive-tree-fertilization-in-morocco",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104644",abstract:"This chapter focuses on olive tree fertilization in Morocco: Describe the practices used by olive growers, diagnose the nutritional status of olive orchards and synthesize the different results and the recommendations of research carried out in Morocco around this theme. 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