\r\n\tGeothermal energy is recognized as a potential renewable energy source, immense and practically inexhaustible, with a solid technological maturity, clean, versatile, and useful to generate electricity, among other multiple applications. However, as in any transformation process, environmental and social impacts cannot be excluded.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will compile scientific research from geothermal areas where environmental and social issues have been successfully addressed as an example of social, environmental, and economic equilibrium. Based on participatory monitoring as a strategy for social acceptance or corporate responsibility from a deep-rooted environmental ethic that has become a social commitment. This natural resource is very complex therefore, environmental and social knowledge and experience are of great importance for its further sustainable development.
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An attenuated
The bacteria
Intestinal macrophages inherently produce both pro-and ant-inflammatory cytokines including the anti-inflammatory IL-10. Macrophages are M1 phenotype when coming in contact with attenuated
The preparations were made of 106–107 promastigote per ml. cell count based on six different lots and then used for macrophage stimulation in an
The parasite
Cell homogenate or CH appeared most potent than the IC (intact cell). The macrophage response modulation by the IC, CH and CD resulted in generation of both the reactive oxygen species, ROS and nitrogen intermediate NO significantly but not as high as that of LPS or TNF-α associated induction. The LPS stimulation was very sharp and massive compared to IC and CH effect. However, these were not as sharp as the action of LPS in terms of TNF-α release and time kinetics. When the LPS response was suppressed in combination with IC or CH preparations, the ultimate product formation to TNF-α was blocked somewhere at an intermediate step before reaching the penultimate step. But the effect of externally added TNF-α along with IC or CH, in terms of total cytokine release, indicated an additive effect. This observation was of critically significant because once the LPS response attained its ultimate manifestation to TNF-α, its formation has not interfered further with respect to the presence of promastigote components. Macrophages pre-treated with IC, CH and CD did not respond to NO generation by LPS stimulation. The fraction CD or cell debris possibly contained DNA, RNA, insoluble membrane glycoprotein, glycolipids, lipids and lipoprotein, primarily a combined mixture of all these. DNA has no stimulatory or response modifying effect on LPS activity so the blocking of LPS action on macrophage activity by lipids and/or lipoprotein might be proposed and it was indeed the case as was evident subsequently.
IC, CH and CD pre-exposed macrophages showed higher phagocytic activity and intracellular killing of bacteria. This was confirmed by demonstrating in the IC mediated enhanced phagocytosis using engulfed GFP
The
Phagosome maturation is essentially the most crucial biological process that performs the engulfment of the microbial pathogens and then degrades it to clear the infection. Macrophages are the key effector cells to furnish all the jobs successfully through the orchestration of its phagosome functions. Thus, the macrophages carry out two functions, one is phagocytosis as the ‘housekeeping’ or scavenging function and the other one is meant for host defence. Particularly the same macrophage has to perform both the functions to achieve a successful host defence strategy. There is also another aspect of phagosome maturation, the maintenance of tissue homeostasis, a determinant to recon as the basic function of macrophage assigned to the fulfilment of phagosome maturation. The removal of apoptotic cells and other extracellular component derived as by-products are a daunting task that is to be completed by macrophages. These are also the responsibilities of mature phagosomes and occur during the process of maturation. In case of the apoptotic cells, they display well known ‘eat me’ signals which recognizes various type of collectins, scavenger receptors, integrins and bridging molecules that link the surface structures to the macrophage receptors. The viable cells express specialized receptor such as CD47 that acts to inhibit the phagocytosis through receptors such as SIRP-α as apoptotic cell undergo silent absorption instead of degradation and elimination.
Thus, the phagocytosis of both microbes and apoptotic cell is carried by the same macrophage but there is a fundamental difference. The apoptotic cell phagocytosis by macrophage is trigged by anti-inflammatory responses, such as through the production of growth factor (TGF)-β while, in contrast the microbial cell phagocytosis occurs upon triggering the inflammatory response through production of TNF-α, IL-1 and IL-6 and make alert to the infection. The objective of the phagosome maturation by intact promastigote of attenuated
This is the demonstration of the phagocytosis associated events that were described with the empirical preparations of the attenuated
The macrophage exposed to the heat-killed intact attenuated
The heightened level of the expression and translocation of NF-kB and c-Jun, the crucial transcription factors were evident due to the attenuated
The increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine activity was mediated through p38MAPK and p44/42 MAPK activation. The enrichment of the attenuated promastigote exposed macrophage-mediated release of Th1 type cytokine over the Th2 type was observed as indicated by higher level of IL-12 over IL-10 though both the MAPK were involved here simultaneously. Other markers of the phagosome maturation are indicated by the co-localization of Rab7, Lysosomal Associated Membrane Protein-1, Cathepsin D, Rab 9 and V-ATPase. Inhibition of V-ATPase was found to cause significant hindrance in phagosome maturation. Acidification and phagosome maturation, a coupled phenomenon occurs in unison in the attenuated promastigote exposed macrophages ([8] and ref. therein). Thus, the achievements of macrophage phagosome maturation, the crucial functional attainment have been well documented with crucial manoeuvring capability using the promastigotes of attenuated
Phagosome maturation is considered the end of the phagocytic process. In this process macrophages, the classical phagocytes, among others if properly activated, the efficient clearance is ensured. As it has already been evidenced that attenuated
The macrophages, as the pivotal host cells whose response modification through
A cohort of patients in the department of Rheumatology, Calcutta Medical College, Kolkata, India, have fulfilled the criteria of RA (Rheumatoid Arthritis) as per the American College of Rheumatology [10] were selected for study. After approval of the medical college ethical committee and having patients’ consent Synovial Fluid (SF) collection was made from the patients showing knee joint swelling with signs of active synovitis. The adherent Synovial Fluid Mononuclear Cells (SFMCs) were then prepared and cultured in presence of total lipids isolated from the attenuated
The pathophysiological and therapeutic eventuality involving inflammation and cartilage destruction are of crucial significance of activated macrophages associated with the synovial membrane and knee joint. Permanent joint damage prompted a critical re-evaluation of therapeutic regimens currently used with anti-inflammatory and disease-modifying treatments for RA.
One of the major targets is the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines released by the monocytes –macrophage in Rheumatoid Arthritis or RA. TNF-α, here acts as pleiotropic cytokine reported to have an inductive effect on the enhanced expression of other cytokines, adhesion molecules etc. but mostly produced by macrophages in the synovial membrane. It is a proximal cytokine in the inflammatory cascade and the degree of expression depends on the histological configuration.
The leishmanial lipids were used to modulate responses of the macrophage of RA patients with a view to the resolution of the disease. In presence of the leishmanial total lipids, the aggravated inflammatory condition of SFMC was down-regulated showing its responses modification distinctly as if it was acting like a response modifying therapeutic agent. The response modifying, in terms of TNF-α release primarily was assayed experimentally both in an
The pro-inflammatory cytokines, namely TNF-α, IL-1β and reactive nitrogen intermediate NO (nitric oxide) and enzymes are abundantly released by the synovial tissue lining cell, synovial fluid cell and infiltrating monocyte–macrophage involved in driving the inflammatory response and joint destruction mainly [12]. So the study included estimation of the release of TNF-α, IL-1β and NO production by adherent SFMC, primarily the infiltrating monocytes-macrophage after treatment with the leishmanial lipids. An anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 was also induced by macrophage as it was evidenced during phagosome maturation and found to be released by the macrophage. So it was also included to be monitored whether countering the effect of the pro-inflammatory cytokines also takes place or not or could be quantifiable. During phagosome maturation, such anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10 release was observed by the intact attenuated
The adherent SFMCs, primarily monocyte-macrophage were stimulated with human gamma interferon (IFN-γ) or phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) before exposure to leishmanial lipids. The decreased release of the cytokine, TNF-α in the culture media confirmed the effect of leishmanial lipids as a suppressor. The distinctly diminished release of IL-1β and decreased NO production were found in parallel. The changes were observed with the lipids in a dose- and time-dependent manner. But an increased IL-10 release was established clearly as the effect of the promastigote lipids, demonstrating the leishmanial lipids functioned as an anti-inflammatory cytokine-releasing agents in a dose-dependent manner. Both the anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokine release were affected, though the release of the former increased while decreased secretion of the later favoured the relief or resolution of the disease. Thus, at the cytokine level, the lipid action was highly therapeutic in nature. With respect to the status of the transcription factor NF-kBp65 of SFMCs, a decrease in its level was evident in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, it was clear that the transcription factor expression in SFMCs of RA was also highly specific or sensitive to the presence of leishmanial lipids. The cytosolic protein content level was also suppressed by the leishmanial lipids in a dose-dependent manner.
The total viable cells present in adherent SFMCs of the RA patient as determined by MTT assay showed dramatic reduction of the viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner upon exposure to the leishmanial lipids. Sphingolipids comprise 5–10% of the leishmanial membrane lipids and it was shown that a sphingolipid-enriched preparation obtained from this attenuated
It has been reported that a higher expression of tm-TNF-α (transmembrane TNF-α) in RA patient resulted in an increase in apoptosis by tm-TNF-α, compared with healthy donors. After infliximab treatment, the tm-TNF-α binding was proposed as a regulator of the reverse signalling to improve the pathological condition and also as a result of cell-targeted therapeutic action [15]. Thus, the effect of leishmanial lipids was comparable to a cell-targeted therapeutic action in case of SFMCs of RA but no confirmed interaction could be proposed with tm-TNF-α binding. The advantage of higher dose (a dose 100μgm/ml) of leishmanial lipid could be exploited when higher (76–78%) apoptotic cell death of SFMCs of RA patients was observed indicating better recovery. SFMCs were diseased cells and not per say cancerous cells, and they acted as the target of leishmanial lipids.
Taking RA as representative case, the
The macrophage-mediated therapeutic applications based on the
Prospective experimental therapy vs.
An experimental therapy of sepsis has taken at first for discussion:
Mice not treated with pLTL (pathogenic Leishmanial Total Lipid) but challenged with LPS lethal shock had a survival rate of 41% and 9% at 24 hr. and 48 hrs, respectively, but displayed total death within 72 hrs. Mice primed for 3 consecutive days with pLTL at doses, 50 and 25 mg/ml and exposed to lethal dose of LPS had 78.8% and 53.8% survival without further loss of life. The reduced cytokine release was evident due to pTLT priming and factors [(IL-12p40, IL-17, IFN-γ, MIP-2, KC and RANTES (C–K)] were further included to prove its existence and they were detected by ELISA based assay. High dose pLTL, 50 mg/ml pre-treated animals showed the reduction of the vascular permeability factors, such as VEG, and suppressed the expression of cell adhesion molecules, including ICAM-1, VCAM-1, PECAM-1, P-selectin and E-selectin, compared with its level in liver of septic mice. Thus, endotoxin associated liver damage was improved considerably in the pLTL treated group.
Macrophages, the key regulators of the host immune response expression, play an important role in the pathogenesis of inflammation. They secrete quite a large number of inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, inflammatory cytokines including tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-12 (IL-12), and interleukin-17 (IL-17), chemokines, including macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP), and bioactive lipids. These are regulated by the ubiquitous transcription factor, nuclear factor B (NF-kB). The consequences of complex immune reactions are described as sepsis that represents an uncontrolled inflammatory outburst from harmful host responses to infection, causing disruption and damage to several cells and tissues. IkB appears to function as a strong negative feedback mechanism elicitor that allows a fast turn-off of the NF-kB response to control inflammation-associated diseases. But identification of new therapeutic targets for the management of septic shock remains imperative as all investigational therapies, including anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α) and anti-interleukin (IL-1) agents, have uniformly failed to lower the mortality of critically ill patients with severe sepsis. Though different bacteria have been identified as causative organisms in sepsis, gram-negative bacteria like
To decipher the molecular approaches by which LTL (Leishmania Total Lipids of attenuated promastigote) inhibits the inflammatory responses of Gram-negative bacterial sepsis, attempts were made to evaluate the survival rate and body weight improvement of mice in the
The recruitment of leukocytes at the inflammatory site required coordinated expression of specific combination of adhesion molecules and those are diverse in nature, sequentially develop to organize the pathophysiological condition with epithelial cells. The main endothelial CAMs(cell adhesion molecules cascade) involved in the inflammatory response are E-selectin and two members of the Ig-gene superfamily, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 that are expressed sequentially, but LTL addition alters the sequences of events towards attenuation. The study referred to is possibly the first evidence that attenuated leishmanial total lipid contributes to host defence during bacteremic sepsis caused by
It is said that if there is sepsis, an infection must be sought at a first instance. Then why there would be no vaccine? The term therapeutic vaccine means to get a patient vaccinated while in bed. The question is how it could be possible? The first dose would begin with 0.1 ml of the vaccine. This was a verified approach and practised over the decades.
The doctor who developed it was an M.D. degree awardee trained abroad (possibly in Germany) and provided it for treatment way back in early 40s of the last century and set up the first biomedical research institute in India. His name is
The author became interested in the vaccine because it works on the basis of macrophage functional modulation. This vaccine served the people here (India) for over 50 years (1954–2005) as per the document available. Name of the producer firm is
The documents were reached to the author in 2007, after 2 years of his retirement and
What were in the vaccines? The above bacteria, especially pathogenic but non-pathogenic types were also picked up and heat-killed preparations were made up. Then respective count was made by O.D. measuring against standard count in a spectrophotometer or any convenient equipment. Initial cell count was stated 100 to 10 million of the different bacteria and then suspended in homogenized leishmania promastigote (it was made of the promastigote of attenuated
This is a crude type of vaccine (based on whole cell) prepared long back and used till 2005 as per the documents available, and no detailed clinical data were recorded systematically. This is a separate chapter with the potential to revive the products though it was very primitive, but as per hearsay, it was very efficacious and affordable financially for commoners.
Macrophages are capable of integrating an enormous and impressive amount of information regarding the identity and virulence of pathogens, as well as endogenous cues present in their microenvironment, in order to modulate the immune response to best protect the host. Over 30 years of extensive studies that advanced our understanding that the NF-kB signalling module consists of five NF-kB monomers (RelA/p65, RelB, cRel, NF-kB1 p50 and NF-kB2 p52) which can dimerize to form up to 15 unique transcription factors and interact with the kB consensus motif found in many gene promoters, as well as five inhibitory proteins (IkBα, β, ε, γ and δ) that make up the IkB protein family. What the author is trying to focus on is that so many genes involved in the functional manoeuvrability of the macrophage have been deciphered but any control or more precisely in the domain of therapeutic regulatory aspects are yet to be discussed, except the revelation of the
Negative regulation of NF-kB signalling was stated in an interesting mode. The synthesis of new IkB proteins or modules and subsequent reactivation of the pathway can lead to a periodic oscillation of active NF-kB translocation between the nucleus and cytosol. The newly synthesized IkB proteins bind to active NF-kB dimmers and remove from DNA binding and shuttling back to the cytoplasm where the complex can be reactivated and IkB can again be ubiquitinated and degraded via the proteasome. This is a powerful negative feedback loop. The balance of positive and negative feedback signals has a profound impact on the transcriptional outcome of NF-kB activation. Recent studies showed that immune cells challenged with traditional immune stimuli showed substantial and significant variations in the NF-kB response dynamics in the different contexts of at different times in the cell cycle. The positive feedback and sustained NF-kB nuclear occupancy was also proposed and described as dose-dependently induced by LPS action. Recurrent NF-kB oscillations between the cytosol and nucleus are linked to gene expression and studied at the single-cell level to decipher the transcription dynamics. But in case of an individual cell and its effect it is segregated, the body system during illness undergoes multi-cellular cross-talk based events. The NF-kB activation, transcription dynamics and gene expression studies in a single cell might result in better outcome of multiple NF-kB, IkB and IKK genes functioning to monitor or perturb or to better investigate how they can be controlled to interact between macrophages and other immune cells. Central to this ability, there are ways in which NF-kB signalling is modulated based on shifting thresholds of activation, capacity of various classes of the PRR to integrate information acquired and keeping over all tight regulation of transcription through rigorous positive and negative feedback loops. Fitting of these components together in the diverse context and how we may be able to modulate or interfere with them to the benefit of patients is an important field of research as envisaged. In this context, the interference to the action of leishmanial lipids to the NF-kB expression control, the mechanisms involved thereby needs to be demonstrated in an experimental set-up. But so long the beneficial aspects could be exploited and if it is proved to be satisfactory then therapeutic application would be well come. It is therefore imperative how we can harness the benefit of the leishmanial lipids or the preparations based on the use of the whole promastigote. The reader may go through the review [19] for a better and more detailed understanding.
The lipid(s) like the ones isolated from attenuated strain showed no toxicity at a dose of 500 mg per kg of body weight and no body weight loss treating at a dose 50 mg per kg. body weight in mice. The macrophage cell, RAW264 stimulated by LPS (bacterial endotoxin) showed ROS production and enhancement of active phagocytic uptake but upon treatment with leishmanial lipid both the stimulatory responses were reduced to more than half.
Antibiotic resistance has become one of the greatest threats in human health care set-ups dealing with the issues for successful prevention and treatment of persistent infections. Misuse and overuses of antibiotics including in the agriculture sectors and allied fields have made a tremendous impact in the field of antibiotic resistance development. But spontaneity of environmental evolution, enormous mutational ability of bacteria and the capacity for passing the resistant genes through horizontal gene transfer system created significant impending factors to antimicrobial resistance mitigation. Multifactorial threats of antimicrobial resistance have posed numerous complex issues affecting countries across the globe. However, three categories have come out remarkably as patients, health care and economics to name them succinctly. At present, ‘Stewardship’ has been objectively imposed to get out of the problem to the rescue in the situation.
Israel, one of the most advanced countries in the world, whose health care system run wholly by the state, imposed the best possible ‘Stewardship’ in 2007–2008 by the introduction of containment for the country-wide outbreak of antibiotic-resistant
There was another study that reported that the faecal, oral and skin bacterial microbiome and antibiotic resistome of the members of an isolated Yanomami Amerindian village in Venezuela were analysed with the revelation of very interesting observations. Their ancestors arrived in South America more than 11,000 years ago and had no known exposure to antibiotics till at the time of this investigation. In their microbiome, they carry bacteria that harbour functional antibiotic resistance genes, including those that confer resistance to synthetic antibiotics [21]. Thus, it appears that functional AR genes occur as a feature of human microbiome even in the absence of exposure to commercial antibiotics. Thus, overexposure to or misuse of antibiotics does not essentially poise the dangers of antibiotic resistance though it is a factor no doubt.
The report described in 1992 that most of the bacteria associated as a contaminant with
In another study in Iran, among the 84 (patients) studied, 65 (77.4%) had a positive culture of bacteria in the
Lastly in the laboratory of the author, the mice were primed with attenuated
The questions of anti-immunology, one of the fundamentals, need to be addressed in the view of AMR (antimicrobial resistance). The pathogenic bacteria, virus and even fungal cellular constituent conventionally exert their anti-immunology strategies through their first encounter with the host macrophage after invasion. Here, the surface molecules of the interacting species, the macrophages and the invading agents must have direct molecular encounter. The antigenic/pathogenic component of the infectious agent having been masked with the promastigote-derived molecules supposedly, would surely be blocked to interact with the host cell (macrophages presumably). The pathogen would have very limited scope to make open the strategic options to compromise with the host cell. Again within 2–3 days, if there is any opportunity the pathogen could have to interact, a fresh injection (progressively) with a higher dose would result in the contact between the leishmanial constituents and host intracellular components along with antigens. By that time, their effective co-localization would result through fusion of late phagosome and lysosomal entities within macrphages. The lipoprotein acting as the pro-inflammatory cytokine inducer or lipids of the promastigotes acting as anti-inflammatory cytokines producing agents might have a regulatory role. For example,
Attenuated leishmanial sphingolipids induce apoptosis in Sarcoma 180 cancer cells through the regulation of tumour development
As the theme of this chapter is the macrophage as game changer in the future treatment paradigm, the author invented a method for drug delivery system using IgG (intravenous fluid) and a schematic representation of the process has been given inFigure 1 [26] along with Figures 2 and 3. Figures 2 and 3 described the experience-based therapy or therapeutic vaccine developed by
Macrophage mediated delivery of P, D or a through immunoglobulin encapsulated particles (future treatment paradigm using macrophage as the game changer – Hypothesis).
Proposed treatment paradigm (experience based therapy – IBL evidence linked therapeutic items).
Proposed treatment paradigm (experimental).
All the products are injectable and contained protodin (IBL) as base material. All the information is given on good faith and may need proper clinical evaluation at user end but an expert clinical trial conducting physician valued these items as highly contributory (personal communication).
The two figures are the representations of Figures 2 and 3, displaying the attenuated
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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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