Parameters of AlxGa1-xAs used in calculations
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5119",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Smart Metering Technology and Services - Inspirations for Energy Utilities",title:"Smart Metering Technology and Services",subtitle:"Inspirations for Energy Utilities",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Global energy context has become more and more complex in the last decades; the raising prices of fuels together with economic crisis, new international environmental and energy policies that are forcing companies. Nowadays, as we approach the problem of global warming and climate changes, smart metering technology has an effective use and is crucial for reaching the 2020 energy efficiency and renewable energy targets as a future for smart grids. The environmental targets are modifying the shape of the electricity sectors in the next century. The smart technologies and demand side management are the key features of the future of the electricity sectors. The target challenges are coupling the innovative smart metering services with the smart meters technologies, and the consumers' behaviour should interact with new technologies and polices. The book looks for the future of the electricity demand and the challenges posed by climate changes by using the smart meters technologies and smart meters services. The book is written by leaders from academia and industry experts who are handling the smart meters technologies, infrastructure, protocols, economics, policies and regulations. It provides a promising aspect of the future of the electricity demand. This book is intended for academics and engineers who are working in universities, research institutes, utilities and industry sectors wishing to enhance their idea and get new information about the smart meters.",isbn:"978-953-51-2452-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2451-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6661-0",doi:"10.5772/61356",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"smart-metering-technology-and-services-inspirations-for-energy-utilities",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9068fb3ae88f309a33ac632bae27da1d",bookSignature:"Moustafa Eissa",publishedDate:"June 29th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5119.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15231,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:54,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 24th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 21st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 20th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"35245",title:"Prof.",name:"Moustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Eissa",slug:"moustafa-eissa",fullName:"Moustafa Eissa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35245/images/3312_n.png",biography:"Prof. Moustafa Mohammed Eissa\n(Digital Protection, Smart Grid, Wide Area Monitoring and Application, Grid Modeling and assessment, Smart Grid based on GIS), Smart Meters (AMI)\nProf. at Faculty of Engineering-Helwan University-Cairo-EGYPT\n(www.helwan-ntra.com)\nRECENT AWARDS ETRERA_2020 PRIZE (European Member States and the Mediterranean countries) For the Category Smart Grids: Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University, Egypt for the project on “Frequency Monitoring Network Architecture and Applications”. http://www.etrera2020.eu/link-9/135-and-the-winners-of-the-etrera-2020-prize-are.html\nSCOPUS CITATION\n• M.M. Eissa’s publications have 349 total citation cited by 291 documents in Scopus and he has H-index= 10 from 1995 at (1st of January, 2015)\n• http://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.url?authorId=35581693900\nGOOGLE SCHOLAR CITATIONS\n• M.M. Eissa’s publications on Google Scholar Citation is 520 and H-index=12\nCitation Indices = 520 h-index = 12\nhttp://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=5useqg4AAAAJ\nProf. Moustafa Mohammed Eissa (Digital Protection, Smart Grid, Wide Area Monitoring and Application, Grid Modeling and assessment, Smart Grid based on GIS) (www.helwan-ntra.com)\nProf. at Faculty of Engineering-Helwan University-Cairo-EGYPT\n\nM. M. Eissa (M’96–SM’01) was born in Helwan, Cairo, Egypt, on May 17, 1963. He received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering from Helwan University, Cairo, in 1986 and 1992, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from the Research Institute for Measurements and Computing Techniques. Hungarian Academy of Science Budapest, Hungary, in 1997 (PhD Study is cooperated with Duisburg University-Institute of Electrical Engineering-GERMANY). Currently, he is a Professor with Helwan University. In 1999, he was invited to be a Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada. He was a chair Prof. at King Abdul-Aziz University-KSA for sponsored project \\Demand Side Management and Energy Efficiency\\ from Saudi Electricity Company during period 2008-2010. From 2012, he is the PI for the large scale project \\SMART GRID FREQUENCY MONITORING NETWORK (FNET) ARCHITECTURE AND APPLICATIONS-220kV/500kV\\ NTRA-Egypt (www.helwan-ntra.com)-2012, END-USER Egyptian Electricity Company. From 2013, he is the PI for \\NOVEL OPTIMAL WIDE AREA COORDINATING PROTECTION AND CONTROL SYSTEM BASED ON WIDE-AREA SYNCHRONIZED MEASUREMENTS IN SYSTEMS WITH RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES AND MULTIPLE FACTS EFFECT\\.\n\nDr. Eissa initiated the first application in 2010 at the Middle East by applying the smart grid and the wide area monitoring and application on the Egyptian 220kV/500kV Cairo Zone Grid.\n\nDr. Eissa is the author of more than 120 publications (40/120 IEEE, IET and Elsevier journal papers), including books, book chapters, and papers in the area of digital protection, demand side management and smart grid.\n\nHe is invited as speaker in several Universities and international events, and involved in many Technical Program Committees for international conferences. \n\n150 citations are listed in Web of Science (as of 4th of April 2012)\n\nDr. Eissa received \\State country prize in the advanced technology science from Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (Egypt), 2002, (http://www.asrt.sci.eg)\\, \\Distinguished Researcher Award, October 2005, University of Helwan, and \\Incentive Researcher Award, 2011, University of Helwan (www.helwn.edu.eg). Incentive Researcher Award, 2012- Awarded from \\Program for Continuous Improvement and Qualifying for Accreditation\\ - Ministry of Higher Education-Egypt. (high Citation according to ISI and Scopus)- http://www.qaap.edu.eg/\n\nHe has 7 major scientific reports and more than 150 collected materials in different topics related to industry. \n\nHe has many novel techniques in the digital protections. He has many consultations with the industrial sectors. He has many international and local projects. He has numerous honors for his research, leadership, supervision and teaching. His research interests include topics related to Digital Protection, Smart Grids, Wireless application on power system, Wide area Protection, Demand Side Management, Energy Efficiency, Control Schemes for Renewable Energy Resources using Harmony Search Algorithms, Power Quality and Automation system, Smart Grid based on GIS.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Helwan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"756",title:"Power Electronics",slug:"power-electronics"}],chapters:[{id:"51231",title:"Introductory Chapter: Demand Response Incentive Program (DRIP) with Advanced Metering and ECHONET",doi:"10.5772/64206",slug:"introductory-chapter-demand-response-incentive-program-drip-with-advanced-metering-and-echonet",totalDownloads:2700,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Moustafa M. Eissa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51231",authors:[{id:"35245",title:"Prof.",name:"Moustafa",surname:"Eissa",slug:"moustafa-eissa",fullName:"Moustafa Eissa"}],corrections:null},{id:"50284",title:"Smart Grid Implementation in Brazil Must Focus on Consumer Behavior and Markets, Regulation, and Energetic Mix Availability",doi:"10.5772/62582",slug:"smart-grid-implementation-in-brazil-must-focus-on-consumer-behavior-and-markets-regulation-and-energ",totalDownloads:1518,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Brazil, although some critical components are already monitored, such as interface audit meters as well as large customers meters, the data analyses are not systematic nor in real time for all dealers. In the best of cases, when some kind of accounting science is applied to this information, this knowledge becomes sectored and used to support a business segment.",signatures:"Carlos Alberto Fróes Lima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50284",authors:[{id:"177889",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",surname:"Fróes Lima",slug:"carlos-alberto-froes-lima",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Fróes Lima"}],corrections:null},{id:"50727",title:"Advanced Metering Infrastructure Based on Smart Meters in Smart Grid",doi:"10.5772/63631",slug:"advanced-metering-infrastructure-based-on-smart-meters-in-smart-grid",totalDownloads:4278,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Due to lack of situational awareness, automated analysis, poor visibility, and mechanical switches, today's electric power grid has been aging and ill‐suited to the demand for electricity, which has gradually increased, in the twenty‐first century. Besides, the global climate change and the greenhouse gas emissions on the Earth caused by the electricity industries, the growing population, one‐way communication, equipment failures, energy storage problems, the capacity limitations of electricity generation, decrease in fossil fuels, and resilience problems put more stress on the existing power grid. Consequently, the smart grid (SG) has emerged to address these challenges. To realize the SG, an advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) based on smart meters is the most important key.",signatures:"Trong Nghia Le, Wen‐Long Chin, Dang Khoa Truong and Tran Hiep\nNguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50727",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50727",authors:[{id:"178015",title:"Dr.",name:"Trong Nghia",surname:"Le",slug:"trong-nghia-le",fullName:"Trong Nghia Le"},{id:"178169",title:"Prof.",name:"Wen-Long",surname:"Chin",slug:"wen-long-chin",fullName:"Wen-Long Chin"}],corrections:null},{id:"51232",title:"The Post Carbon City and Smart Metering",doi:"10.5772/64082",slug:"the-post-carbon-city-and-smart-metering",totalDownloads:1580,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Buildings and districts are an appropriate focus for smart metering infrastructure in the urban environment. While properties and buildings have traditionally been metered for revenue recovery purposes, energy management of these buildings has not been available. In the way we account for money, we should account for energy; energy in its own right carries a direct cost with it to the end user. Along with carrying a cost, energy also carries carbon emissions. Smart meters are a vital component to the making and management of post carbon cities and can be used to monitor not only electricity use but also water and gas consumption. Energy Management Systems combined with structured metering also enable consumers with renewable energy generation such as photovoltaic (PV) panels to monitor their own generation, consumption, import and export. As battery storage becomes integrated with renewable energy generation, consumers will have the ability to consume cheaper renewable energy than can be bought from the grid and sell energy back to the grid at the most economically viable times. While uncertainty surrounds the grid and its impact on rising electricity prices, smart metering, intelligent control systems and utilities offering consumers more amenities and the ability for consumers to participate in the wholesale market will ensure the smart grid can contribute to future carbon neutral urban environments.",signatures:"Andrew Haning and Martin Anda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51232",authors:[{id:"178083",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Anda",slug:"martin-anda",fullName:"Martin Anda"}],corrections:null},{id:"50257",title:"MAC Protocol Design for Smart Meter Network",doi:"10.5772/62392",slug:"mac-protocol-design-for-smart-meter-network",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The new generation of power metering system—that is advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)—is expected to enable remote reading, control, demand response and other advanced functions, based on the integration of a new two-way communication network, which will be referred as Smart Meter Network (SMN). In this chapter, we focus on the design principles of multiple access control (MAC) protocols for SMN. First, we list several features of SMN relevant to the design choice of the MAC protocols. Next, we introduce some performance evaluation metrics and give a survey of the associated research issues for the SMN MAC protocols’ design. In addition, we also note progress within the new IEEE standardization task group (IEEE 802.11ah TG) currently working to create SMN standards. After that, in order to emphasize the importance of the performance metrics mentioned before, we give several MAC protocol design examples which could solve the associated research issues and challenges for the SMN.",signatures:"Yue Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50257",authors:[{id:"177820",title:"Dr.",name:"Yue",surname:"Yang",slug:"yue-yang",fullName:"Yue Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"50712",title:"Power Electronics Platforms for Grid-Tied Smart Buildings",doi:"10.5772/62920",slug:"power-electronics-platforms-for-grid-tied-smart-buildings",totalDownloads:2082,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Renewable energy sources (such as sun, wind, water, or fuel cells) are attracting great interest for either grid-tied or off-grid arrangements in smart green buildings. It must be either used when generated, stored for future use on-site, delivered to the power grid, or shared among combination of these. Grid-tied buildings are connected to the utility grid service lines. Off-grid buildings have no connection to utility service lines. Both types employ inverters to convert power from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC), and most off-grid systems have batteries to store energy for use when needed. Accordingly, power electronics systems are playing an important role as the enabling technology for smart grid. In addition, smart meter represents the interface part between the green building and the utility grid. In order to realize the interaction between both systems, a bidirectional power conditioning module is needed. This chapter introduces the different power electronics platforms suitable for grid-tied smart green buildings (such as residential homes, commercial, and industrial) as well as its integrative functionality with advanced metering infrastructure (AMI). In order to show the superiority of these platforms in conjunction with smart meters, a hardware case study with one of the most popular power electronics topologies is presented.",signatures:"Mahmoud Amin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50712",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50712",authors:[{id:"177821",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Amin",slug:"mahmoud-amin",fullName:"Mahmoud Amin"}],corrections:null},{id:"50356",title:"Estimating the Photovoltaic Hosting Capacity of a Low Voltage Feeder Using Smart Meters’ Measurements",doi:"10.5772/62418",slug:"estimating-the-photovoltaic-hosting-capacity-of-a-low-voltage-feeder-using-smart-meters-measurements",totalDownloads:1493,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maximizing the share of renewable resources in the electric energy supply is a major challenge in the design of the future energy system. Regarding the low voltage (LV) level, the main focus is on the integration of distributed photovoltaic (PV) generation. Nowadays, the lack of monitoring and visibility, combined with the uncoordinated integration of distributed generation, often leads system operators to an impasse. As a matter of fact, the numerous dispersed PV units cause distinct power quality and cost-efficiency problems that restrain the further integration of PV units. The PV hosting capacity is a tool for addressing such power system performance and profitability issues so that the different stakeholders can discuss on a common ground. Photovoltaic hosting capacity of a feeder is the maximum amount of PV generation that can be connected to it without resulting in unacceptable power quality. This chapter demonstrates the usefulness of smart metering (SM) data in determining the maximum PV hosting capacity of an LV distribution feeder. Basically, the chapter introduces a probabilistic tool that estimates PV hosting capacity by using customer-specific energy flow data, recorded by SM devices. The probabilistic evaluation and the use of historical SM data yield a reliable estimation that considers the volatile character of distributed generation and loads as well as technical constraints of the network (voltage magnitude, phase unbalance, congestion risk). As a case study, an existing LV feeder in Belgium is analysed. 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The development of human civilization was fueled by different energy sources throughout its history, with the past decades clearly showing a trend of using environment-friendly energy. Among the energy sources available from the Nature, solar energy has a special place [1, 2]. It is available in vast quantities, especially in countries with high insolation level such as México. Transformation of solar light into electricity takes place in photovoltaic devices – solar cells – that do not require much maintenance throughout their operation cycle and can function as stand-alone devices allowing the use of electrical equipment even in most remote areas. The energy produced by the solar cells during the day can be stored in accumulators and used during the night, making solar-powered equipment practically self-sustainable if the required number of sunlight hours per day is available.
Currently, most commercial solar cells are made of silicon due to its vast availability and silicon technology that reached the state of perfection, allowing to achieve the conversion efficiency of almost 28% (single silicon cell, [3]). Actually, world production of photovoltaics is dominated by polycrystalline silicon cells representing 94% of the market [4]. These devices based on silicon wafers are called the "first generation" of photovoltaic technology. Monocrystalline silicon devices are effective but expensive. Similarly, solar cells based on other semiconductor materials, called "second generation", such as group II-VI and III-V heterostructures, are capable of efficiencies over 40% (GaInP/GaAs/GaInNAs, [3]) but depend significantly on the quality of the junction that may contain defects acting as effective recombination centers, reducing considerably the concentration of photo-generated carriers. Finally, there is the "third generation" of photovoltaic devices that embraces solar cells based on organic semiconductors. These materials usually afford moderate efficiency – about 11% (dye-sensitized cells [3]); however, they are cheap and easy to obtain, which is a very attractive point for industrial-scale production. Also, organic materials can be deposited on flexible substrates, widening the spectrum of their possible applications.
In this chapter, we present the results for several types of heterojunction solar cells that are particularly focused on the use of thin film devices for photovoltaic conversion [5]. We discuss the benefits of computer simulations for improvement of AlGaAs/GaAs solar cells, suggesting the optimal values of aluminum contents and thickness of the window layer. We propose the isovalent substitution method as a promising technological approach for crafting near-to-perfect junction boundary with reduced mismatch of lattice parameters and thermal expansion coefficients, illustrating it for the case of CdTe/CdS heterostructures. Aiming to lower the cost of solar cell production, we consider the option of chemical bath deposition for CdS/PbS solar cell, proposing environment-friendly variation that significantly reduces (and even disposes of) the use of toxic ammonia that is characteristic for a common chemical bath deposition process for CdS films. We also address the question of organic solar cells, discussing the mechanisms of current transport in a cell based on poly (3-hexylthiophene). Finally, we consider the question of excess heating that is characteristic to the photovoltaic devices (especially those operating under concentrated light conditions), proposing to use the experience gained from nano-thermoelectric formations used to remove the extra heat from the devices composing microchips.
Let us consider the basic physical processes taking place in a semiconductor solar cell with a heterojunction (Fig. 1). The device is composed by two semiconductors with different band gap values [1, 6]. The wider-band material forms so-called window layer (for which the corresponding characteristics in Fig. 1 have the subscript “W”) and is used to process high-energy photons, allowing low-energy photons to pass through. These became absorbed in the narrower-band material forming the absorber layer (hence the subscript “A” in Fig. 1). The thickness of the corresponding layers will be referred to as
The contact of two materials with different conductivity type leads to the formation of space charge region [7] associated with diffusion potential difference
Under illumination, the electrons obtain the energy sufficient for moving into conduction band, creating holes in the valence band. The resulting non-equilibrium electron-hole pair can disappear due to recombination. However, if it is generated in the vicinity of the junction, the embedded electric field of the space charge region will exert different forces on the carriers in accordance with their charges, moving them towards the contacts where they contribute to the photo-current of the external circuit.
Band diagram of a heterojunction with main parameters denoted.
The transport of the carriers, in addition to the action of the embedded electric field, is also governed by the diffusion caused by the difference in concentrations of electrons and holes in the corresponding parts of the device. This mechanism can be described as [8]
where
with dielectric constants of window and absorber materials
The resulting expressions can be rewritten relating current variation to the difference of recombination and generation rates. For simplicity, we will present here only equations describing window layer, for which the minority carriers are holes:
Recombination rate
where
At the boundary with space charge region, the concentration of holes is equal to:
where
with
where
Two first terms in (11) can be easily found using the expressions for carrier concentrations (9), (10) and their relation to the corresponding current components (4):
The generation term from (11) can be calculated analytically:
The recombination term is calculated numerically, taking into account the distribution of non-equilibrium carrier concentration in window/absorber and various recombination mechanisms such as direct recombination, Hall-Shockley-Read recombination involving impurity levels in band gap, and Auger recombination for high-energy carriers that transfer their excess energy to another particle [8].
For numerical simulations we considered the heterojunction AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs [9] characterized by a small lattice mismatch of 0.127%. The window layer remains direct-band semiconductor for aluminium contents less than 45%. Material parameters used in our simulations are listed in Table 1 as functions of aluminium content
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Dielectric constant | \n\t\t\t12.90 – 2.84 | \n\t\t
Electronic affinity | \n\t\t\t4.07 -1.1 | \n\t\t
DOS effective masses | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Electron mobility | \n\t\t\t( 8 – 22 | \n\t\t
Hole mobility | \n\t\t\t( 3.7 – 9.7 | \n\t\t
Band gap | \n\t\t\t1.424 + 1.247 | \n\t\t
Parameters of AlxGa1-xAs used in calculations
In the framework of the current chapter, we studied the dependence of window layer thickness
Dependence of Al0.29Ga0.71As/GaAs solar cell performance as a function of window and cell thickness
Another important point is the adjustment of band gap difference between the heterojunction components that modifies the percentage of light processed by window and absorber layers. Having in mind that thicker cell has better overall performance, we performed calculations varying the aluminum contents
Efficiency of AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs solar cell as a function of window layer thickness
However, when window layer becomes very thin (
Therefore, theoretical treatment of semiconductor solar cell followed by numerical simulations allowed to obtain useful information about the system, which can significantly simplify the experimental optimization of solar cell parameters by suggesting the most promising ranges of parameters that corresponds to the highest efficiency of photovoltaic conversion of solar energy.
Among the materials used for solid-state cells, cadmium telluride occupies a special place due to its near-optimal band width of 1.5 eV at 300 K. Direct band of CdTe favors manufacture of thin-film barrier structures [5, 6]. However, despite it is possible to grow CdTe with n- and p-conductivity, the p-n junction solar cells of cadmium telluride are impractical due to high absorption and recombination. Schottky barriers are also not quite useful because many metals form comparatively low barriers with p- and n-type cadmium telluride [11]. Under these conditions, the major flexibility in device design can be attained for heterojunctions, among which the most prominent are thin-film structures of p-CdTe/n-CdS. It is quite easy to obtain solar cells with efficiency of
One of the promising approaches to solve this problem involves the method of isovalent substitution (IVS) [13], offering considerable advantages over the traditional methods of heterojunction manufacturing [5, 12]. The substituted heterolayers grows down into the substrate, which defines and stabilizes the crystalline structure of the layer. Thus, IVS is used to obtain stable layers of materials with crystalline modifications that do not exist in bulk form. The layers of intermediate solid solutions relax the difference of lattice parameters and thermal expansion coefficients, ensuring low Defect concentration at the junction boundary. Finally, residual base substrate atoms act as isovalent impurities, significantly increasing the temperature and radiation stability of the material [14]. This section reports successful use of isovalent substitution method for formation of heterojunctions of CdTe with wide-band II-VI compounds such as CdS, ZnTe and ZnSe.
The base substrates with the size of 4×4×1 mm3 were cut from bulk CdS, ZnTe and ZnSe crystals grown by Bridgman method from the stoichiometric melt. At the room temperature the substrates of CdS and ZnSe had n-type conductivity; ZnTe samples were of p-type due to presence of intrinsic point defects. After mechanical polishing the plates were etched chemically in the solution of Cr2O3 : HCl = 2 : 3, rinsed in distilled water and dried. These operations ensured mirror-reflective surface of the substrates and bulk luminescence within the corresponding spectral ranges. The heterostructures were formed by annealing of the substrates in quartz containers pumped out to 10-4 Torr at the temperatures of
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tn-CdS | \n\t\t\tp-ZnTe | \n\t\t\tn-ZnSe | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCharge of CdTe, Te and LiCO3 salt | \n\t\t\tCharge of CdTe and Cd | \n\t\t\tCharge of CdTe | \n\t\t
Loads to the containers required to form heterostructures of corresponding type
Annealing process leads to formation of cadmium telluride layer on top of the base substrates, which was verified by spectra of optical reflectivity and transmittivity. The thickness of CdTe layers is controlled by deposition conditions and film conductivity type results to be opposite to that of the substrate. To make diode structures, we polished off the CdTe layer from one side down to the substrate. Ohmic contacts were deposited by melting in In for n-type material and vacuum-sputtering of Ni for the p-type one. The sketch of resulting p-CdTe/n-CdS structure is given in the inset to Fig. 4.
Typical CVC of p-CdTe/n-CdS heterojunction at 300 K. The inset shows a schematic view of the structure.
The heterojunctions studied featured pronounced diode characteristics with rectification coefficient above 104 at 300 K and voltage of 1 V. The typical dark current-voltage curve (CVC) of an example p-CdTe/n-CdS heterojunction is given in Fig. 4. The potential barrier height
Heterojunction | \n\t\t\tp-CdTe/n-CdS | \n\t\t\tn-CdTe/p-ZnTe | \n\t\t\tp-CdTe/n-ZnSe | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.25 | \n\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t
Maximum barrier height and open circuit voltage of heterojunctions at 300 K
Our analysis shows that current-voltage curves at lower bias obey the expression that corresponds to dominating carrier recombination in the space charge region [6]
with intercept current
where
The current voltage curve of illuminated structures for
with short circuit current
In contrast to the above-discussed integral device characteristics, the spectral data are more variable by depending significantly on heterojunction type and technological conditions during its formation. It is worth noting general features of photosensitivity spectra
Let us analyze this question in detail for a particular case of p-CdTe/n-CdS heterostructure. As one can see from Figure 6, the photosensitivity of a junction synthesized at
High-energy edge ends at
Typical photosensitivity spectra of heterojunctions: 1) p-CdTe/n-CdS, 2) n-CdTe/p-ZnTe and 3) p-CdTe/n-ZnSe at 300 K and illumination from wide-band component side
Normalized photosensitivity spectra of p-CdTe/n-CdS heterojunction formed under different temperatures: 1) 800 K, 2) 900 K, and 3) 1000 K
We measured main parameters of heterojunctions related to their possible photovoltaic applications. All measurements were done under AM2 illumination at 300 K and are listed in Table 4. The density of short circuit current was calculated from the experimental
Heterostructure | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
p-CdTe/n-CdS | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t
n-CdTe/p-ZnTe | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t
p-CdTe/n-ZnSe | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t0.55 | \n\t\t
Main parameters of solar cells based on heterostructures studied
As one can see from the table, the largest efficiency of 10% corresponds to the photovoltaic device based on p-CdTe/n-CdS, which is below the theoretical limit of 28% due to several reasons. Low fill-factor values
Continuing the discussion of solid state solar cells, let us perform optimization of absorber layer keeping the window layer of wide-band CdS, paying a special attention to simplification of deposition technology with an aim to reduce the production costs. Among the main techniques used for the deposition of CdS thin films, we highlight chemical bath deposition (CBD) that produces layers with excellent characteristics because of their compactness and uniformity due to congruent growth and high relative photoconductivity [16, 17]. Furthermore, CBD is a good method for a large area deposition, which is convenient for solar cell fabrication on industrial scale. In CBD technique, the properties of thin films can be controlled by several parameters such as pH of the reaction solution, concentration of the chemical precursors, temperature, deposition time, etc. However, on the other hand, the CBD technique for the deposition of CdS films has serious drawbacks such as large amount of Cd-containing toxic waste produced in the process. Moreover, the classic CBD uses highly volatile and harmful ammonia as the complexing agent in the reaction solution, which can become even more critical in large scale production. These disadvantages catalyze intensive research aiming to improve the CBD process. For example, ammonia has been substituted with more convenient complexing agents such as ethylendiamine, ethanolamine, triethanolamine, nitrilotriacetic acid and sodium citrate. In particularly, we have developed CBD process based on sodium citrate in place of ammonia [17].
Sodium citrate is a cheap and practically harmless organic compound widely employed in food industry as flavoring or preservative, also as a common ingredient for drinks. We reported main characteristics of CdS films deposited over glass substrates by the partial and complete substitution of ammonia by sodium citrate in the CBD process, resulting in thin films of high crystallinity degree, homogeneity and compactness that performed pretty well as window layers in CdS /CdTe thin film solar cells and as active layers in field effect thin film transistors. Here we would like to discuss CdS window layers obtained by ammonia-free CBD process for CdS/CdTe and CdS/PbS solar cell heterostructures.
The CdS/CdTe and CdS/PbS solar cells were deposited in superstrate geometry onto ITO-coated glass substrates employing two types of chemically-deposited CdS window layers labeled X-CdS and Y-CdS, respectively [18]. The CBD process for Y-CdS films is ammonia-free sodium citrate-based process, consisted in a 100 ml reaction solution prepared in a beaker by the sequential addition of 10 ml of 0.05 M cadmium chloride CdCl2, 20 ml of 0.5 M sodium citrate Na3C6H5O7, 5 ml of 0.3 M potassium hydroxide KOH, 5 ml of a pH 10 borate buffer, 10 ml of 0.5 M thiourea CS(NH2)2 and deionized water to complete the total volume. The deposition process for X-CdS films consisted in the reaction solution including 25 ml of 0.1 M CdCl2, 20 ml of 1 M Na3C6H5O7, 15 ml of 4 M ammonium hydroxide NH4OH, 10 ml of 1 M CS(NH2)2 and deionized water to complete the total volume of 100 ml. In this case, the complexing agent is the mixture of ammonium hydroxide and sodium citrate. In both processes, the beaker with the reaction solution was placed in a thermal water bath at 70 °C. The deposition time was adjusted (20-60 min) to obtain CdS window layers some 100 nm thick. The deposition rates depend on the concentration of the precursors in the reaction solution. It was noticed that the amount of Cd ions is much higher in deposition of X-CdS films – 2.81 mg/ml; for Cd-Y films the numbers are lower – 0.56 mg/ml.
The CdTe thin films on ITO/CdS substrates were deposited by the close-spaced vapor transport-hot wall (CSVT-HW) technique using CdTe powders of 99.99% purity. The deposition of CdTe was performed in Ar/O2 atmosphere, with each components having partial pressure of 0.05 Torr. The temperatures of the substrate and the source were set to 550 °C and 650 °C, respectively. The deposition process was carried out for 4 minutes. Under these conditions, the resulting thickness of the CdTe layers was approximately 3 μm. After deposition, the CdTe thin films were coated with a 200 nm CdCl2 layer and annealed at 400 °C for 30 min in the air. To create back contact, we deposited by evaporation two layers of Cu and Au with thickness of 20 Å and 350 nm, respectively. The area of the contacts on CdTe side was 0.08 cm2; after the deposition, the device was annealed at 180 °C in argon atmosphere. The efficiency of CdS/CdTe solar cells was determined from current-voltage measurements under 50 mW/cm2 illumination.
To produce PbS/CdS solar cells, we deposited PbS film over ITO/CdS substrates by the CBD process that included 2.5 ml of 0.5 M lead acetate, 2.5 ml of 2M NaOH, 3 ml of 1 M thiourea, 2 ml of 1 M triethanolamine and deionized water to bring the total volume to 100 ml. The films were deposited at 70°C for one hour and their thickness was about of 4.2 μm. The solar cell structures were completed with 0.16 cm2 printed layer of conducting graphite on the PbS films, serving as back contact. The efficiency of the CdS/PbS solar cells was determined from CVC measurements under 90 mW/cm2 illumination.
Figure 7 shows the CVC for the CdS/CdTe solar cells, with X-CdS and Y-CdS window layers. The corresponding performance parameters of both types of solar cells are presented in Table 5. It is observed that the performance of solar cells with X-CdS window layer is better, featuring short circuit current density of 11.9 mA/cm2, open circuit voltage of 630 mV, fill factor of 58%, yielding the efficiency of 8.7%.
Current density versus voltage measurements under illumination of X-CdS/CdTe and Y-CdS/CdTe solar cells deposited on ITO conductive glass substrates.
Figure 8 presents the CVCs for X-CdS/PbS and Y-CdS/PbS solar cells. The performance parameters determined from these measurements are also given in Table 5. As expected, the performance of these solar cells is much lower because band gap of PbS is smaller, namely 0.4 eV. Nevertheless, the X-CdS window layer performs better also in these solar cells, allowing to reach short circuit current density of 14 mA/cm2, open circuit voltage of 290 mV, fill factor of 36% and the efficiency of 1.63%. The low fill factor can be a consequence of high porosity characteristic for semiconductors obtained by the CBD method.
Current-voltage curves for illuminated X-CdS/PbS and Y-CdS/PbS solar cells deposited on ITO conductive glass substrates.
Heterostructure | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
X-CdS/CdTe | \n\t\t\t630 | \n\t\t\t11.9 | \n\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t8.7 | \n\t\t
Y-CdS/CdTe | \n\t\t\t607 | \n\t\t\t11.1 | \n\t\t\t56 | \n\t\t\t7.5 | \n\t\t
X-CdS/PbS | \n\t\t\t290 | \n\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t36 | \n\t\t\t1.63 | \n\t\t
Y-CdS/PbS | \n\t\t\t310 | \n\t\t\t12.37 | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t1.22 | \n\t\t
Parameters of the X-CdS/CdTe and Y-CdS/PbS solar cells with two types of CdS window layers on ITO conductive glass substrates
The analysis of CdS/CdTe and CdS/PbS solar cells given above prove that both X-CdS and Y-CdS are appropriate materials for window layers, with higher efficiency achievable for the solar cells with the X-CdS window. The CBD process for CdS layers required to use both ammonia and sodium citrate as complexing agents. Nevertheless, this variation of CBD is more environmental-friendly with reduced ammonia use due to its partial substitution by sodium citrate. For Y-CdS layers, our optimized CBD process also reduces the amount of cadmium in the reacting solution by the factor of five comparing to the common process of CdS film deposition. Therefore, despite of lower efficiency of cells with Y-CdS window layers, completely ammonia-free process is more convenient for industrial-scale manufacture of CdS/CdTe and CdS/PbS solar cells.
The "third generation" of photovoltaic technology [19], appearing quite recently, divides into two principal approaches: achieving high efficiencies by creating multiple electron-hole pairs (including thermo-photonic cells) with high cost of the cell or, alternatively, to create very cheap cells with a moderate photovoltaic efficiency (~ 15-20%). Polymer solar cells have a significant impact potential for the second approach. A key point in the development of photovoltaic technology is reduction of cost for large scale production, which stimulates research for alternative materials (such as semiconductors, organics, polymers, heterostructures or composites) for solar cells and photovoltaic devices. The efficiency of inorganic solar cells reaches above 24% due to the use of expensive high purity materials. The production cost can be significantly reduced switching to cheaper constructions including nanocrystalline photoelectrochemical solar cells, pigment sensitivity (dye-sensitized cells), heterojunction polymer/fullerene organic-inorganic hybrid devices and solar cells based on inorganic nanoparticles. These solar cells are the classical example of an electronic device in which organic and inorganic materials complement each other in photovoltaic conversion. The nanomaterials and nanoparticles can also be used for development of energy saving and efficient electronic devices.
The semiconducting conjugated polymers are attractive for their use in photovoltaic cells, since they are strong absorbers and can be deposited onto flexible substrates at a low cost. Cells made from a conductive polymer and two electrodes tend to be inefficient because the photo-generated excitons (mobile excited states) are not separated by the electric field due to differences in the work functions of the electrodes; intensification of such separation helps to improve cell efficiency. Further performance boost can be achieved by optimization of cell design aiming to enhance charge transport and reduce recombination losses.
Polymer photovoltaic devices have a great potential, representing technological alternative to the classical solid-state renewable energy devices. The demand for low cost solar cells catalyzes new approaches and technological developments. In the past years, a significant scientific interest was attracted to solar cells based on organic molecules and conjugated polymers [20], which benefit much from mechanical flexibility and low weight. The polymers’ band gap can be easily changed in organic synthesis, allowing production of polymers that absorb light at different wavelengths – which in the case of solid-state photovoltaics was achievable only by creating complicated tandem heterojunctions.
The main operation principles of organic photovoltaic cells differ from those taking place in solid-state semiconductor devices. In the organic material, light absorption leads to generation of excitons; in inorganic cells, illumination produces non-bound electrons and holes. To create photocurrent, it is necessary to separate the exciton into electron and hole before they recombine with each other. In a conjugated polymer, the stabilization of photo-excited electron-hole pairs can be achieved by polymer compounds containing acceptor molecules with electron affinity exceeding that of the polymer, but lower than the corresponding ionization potential. In addition, the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the acceptor must have lower energy than those in the conjugated polymer. Under these conditions it becomes energetically favorable for conjugated polymers to transfer photo-excited electrons to the acceptor molecule, keeping the hole at the lowest energy level corresponding to the valence band of the polymer.
Conjugated polymers have de-localized π-electron systems that can absorb sunlight, produce photo-generated charges and offer means for their transport. One of the promising materials from the family of conjugated polymers used for solar cell applications is the poly(3-hexylthiophene) P3HT [21, 22] with side chains that make it soluble in common organic solvents (Fig. 9), which allows material deposition by wet processing techniques such as spin coating (rotational coating), dip coating [23], ink jet printing [24, 25], screen printing and micromolding [26, 27]. All these methods can be performed at room temperature, normal atmospheric pressure and can be applied to the flexible substrates [28], paving an attractive route for mass-scale production of large-area solar cells at low cost.
Chemical structure of poly (3-hexylthiophene) P3HT.
The optical bandgap of P3HT is about 1.9 eV that approaches the spectral peak of 1.8 eV (700 nm) of solar light corresponding to terrestrial illumination conditions of AM1.5. P3HT also has high absorption coefficient permitting efficient processing of light with wavelengths up to 650 nm using a film that is only 200 nm thick. The photoactive layer is composed by a heterojunction of two organic semiconductors. Illumination generates excitons that become separated at the junction, producing carrier flow that is collected at the contacts (Fig. 10).
One of the ways to increase current output of the cell is to improve light absorption in the photoactive layer, which can be achieved by reducing the band gap of the polymer. The conjugated polymers, characterized by a high value of absorption coefficient (105 cm-1) look as promising candidates in this regard. While the crystalline silicon cells should be approximately 100 μm thick for efficient absorption of the incident light, organic semiconductors with direct bandgap will have the similar performance with reduced thickness of 100-500 nm. However, conjugated polymers are usually characterized with large gap values that are not always sufficient for efficient absorption.
Photovoltaic solar cell: organic material sandwiched between two electrodes. The electrons are collected at the rear metal contact and the holes – at the front ITO contact.
In most organic semiconductors, excitons are comparatively tightly bound and do not dissociate easily. That is why it is useful to create a heterojunction of materials with distinct electron affinities and ionization energies to favor exciton dissociation. In this way, the electron is accepted by the material with higher affinity and the holes proceed to the material with lower ionization energy, producing the effect of a local field separating carriers at the junction. When the donor molecule is excited, an electron is transferred from HOMO to lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), forming a hole. If electron-hole pair recombines, luminescence is produced. However, if the LUMO of the acceptor is small enough compared to that of the donor, the excited electron will end up at acceptor’s LUMO and the carriers originating from dissociated exciton will be separated (Figure 11).
Exciton dissociation at the donor-acceptor interface
The heterojunction cells will be efficient in dissociation of excitons at the interface area [29], requiring generation of an exciton within its diffusion length from the interface. As diffusion length value is about 10 nm, it limits the thickness of light-absorbing layer. On the other hand, for the majority of organic semiconductors it is necessary to have a film of more than 100 nm thick to ensure sufficient light absorption, which, in turn, lowers the number of excitons that can reach the interface. For this reason, it is proposed to obtain dispersed (bulk) heterojunctions, schematically depicted in Fig 12.
One of the main problems to create such type of solar cells concerns miscibility of the components. Conjugated systems – including polymer conjugates and dyes – are usually immiscible, so that even a completed solar cell may represent a non-equilibrium system. To improve the situation somehow, it is proposed to use the spin coating technique that is characterized with rapid solvent evaporation, requires little parameter adjustments and tolerates a wide range of viscosities. The deposition process usually has three steps: dispersion of nanoparticles in a solvent, mixing them with a polymer and finally molding of the compound. Other techniques, such as co-evaporation and co-sputtering allow better control over morphology of the material; however, they are quite costly due to particular temperature and pressure requirements (e.g., deposition should be carried out in vacuum).
Architecture of a photovoltaic cell with a dispersed heterojunction formed by conjugated polymer with transparent ITO front electrode and Al, Ca, Mg rear electrode.
A new generation of solar cells called hybrid polymer solar cells attracts a considerable interest [30-31]. Recent studies have shown that nanoparticles incorporated into photoactive layer improve light absorption and increase photocurrent. Nanoparticle polymer-based photovoltaic cells have a long term potential for decreasing the cost and improve device efficiency. The maximum efficiency reported to date is around 5.55% (with theoretical predictions of about 10%). Incorporation of 5-10 nm nanoparticles of gold into poly (9.9-dioctylfluorene) results in significant improvement of cell efficiency and oxidation stability.
Direct absorption of energy from the sunlight faces another considerable problem connected with operation of electronic devices under elevated temperatures due to variation of band gap of semiconductors, increase of thermal noise, etc. A partial solution to this problem can be offered by the use of passive/active radiators that will dissipate some of excessive heat. Further development of this idea leads to the use of hybrid systems that allow to process part of solar light via photoelectric conversion, storing thermal energy, for example, by heating water that can be used for household needs. This, however, does not allow to reduce the problems of high-temperature operation of an electronic device (solar cell) considerably. A useful solution can be glimpsed from the nanoelectronics, which also have problems with removal of excess heat from the integrated circuits. Thermal management in these devices has become problematic because faster and denser circuits are required to meet the modern needs, which, in turn, produces even more heat. Localized areas of high heat flux influences the performance at both the chip and the board levels for the current nanotechnologies.
Key concepts like waste heat recycling or waste heat recovery are the basic ideas in the design of the newest heat protection and dissipation systems. The potential applications of the thermoelectric devices are thus enormous. Thermoelectricity is the revolutionary technology that is currently under intense development aiming to find a solution to thermal management problem and protection of small-scale systems. However, due to relatively low efficiency (around 10%), thermoelectric cooling is generally only used in small systems; the new concepts based on nanoscale heat transfer bring a new opportunity to widen the application horizons for thermoelectric devices.
As expected, technology scaling significantly impacts power dissipation issues. The scale-connected effects for silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology affect electrical properties of the material. Joule heat generated in SOI transistors may compromise long term reliability of the device. The thermal conductivity of the channel region of nanometer transistors is significantly reduced by phonon confinement and boundary scattering. This increases the thermal resistance of the device, leading to higher operating temperatures compared to the bulk transistors of the same power input. However, ballistic transport between the material boundaries impedes device cooling, so that temperature-dependent parameters of the device such as source-drain current and threshold-current will increase significantly, generating much Joule heat that will eventually lead to accelerated temperature degradation of the gate dielectric [32, 33]. The recently developed germanium-on-insulator (GeOI) technology combines high carrier mobility with the advantages of the SOI structure, offering an attractive integration platform for the future CMOS devices [34].
SiGe nanostructures are very promising for thermoelectric cooling of microelectronic devices and high-temperature thermoelectric power generation. It has been demonstrated that the thermal conductivity is significantly reduced in super-lattices [35-37] and quantum dot super-lattices [38-40]. A self-organized set of vertically stacked Si/Ge quantum dots is a good alternative to induce artificial scattering of phonons and reduce the thermal conductivity. One of the ways to increase scattering even more involves creation of the structure where with uncorrelated vertical positions of quantum dots, reducing the effective thermal path of the phonon within the Si layer as shown in Figure 13. The phonons travelling by the pathway laid by Ge quantum dots will experience higher scattering than phonons travelling through the Si pathway only. This effect becomes even more efficient because, in fact, the phonons spreading through Ge quantum dots will suffer a sequence of scattering events from one dot to another. As one can see from the figure, temperature-dependent cross-plane thermal conductivity reduces dramatically in Ge quantum dot superlattices depending on vertical correlation between dots, with at least twice lower thermal conductivity value obtained for the case of uncorrelated dot structures in comparison with well-aligned dot array with the same vertical spacing of 20 nm. The same result can be confirmed by Raman spectroscopy [41].
Dependence of thermal conductivity on the temperature for correlated and uncorrelated Ge quantum dot structures
Thin film single-crystalline GeOI structures may be considered as potential candidates in the field of CMOS microelectronics improving thermal performance of transistors due to superior mobility of carriers compared to other semiconductors. Recent predictions in the thermal conductivity of ultra-thin germanium films suggest that the small bulk mean free path of Ge will induce a weaker effect on the boundary scattering [42]. This thermal behavior is an additional reason that makes GeOI structures competitive with SOI for the case of small-size thin film devices at the cutting edge of the technology. For example, it has been reported from Monte Carlo modeling that electro-thermally optimized GeOI structures should be 30% more productive than the best SOI device examples [34]. In addition, the higher mobility of germanium implies that GeOI devices might support the same amount of current at lower operating voltage, so that the dissipated power is expected to be lower [42].
Figure 14 shows a plot of the intrinsic out-of-plane thermal conductivity variation with thickness at 300 K. In spite of low thermal conductivity of bulk Ge compared to that of Si (
Dependence of thermal conductivity
The experience obtained with aforementioned thermoelectric applications can be successfully applied to the field of photovoltaics, forming efficient heat-draining layers either on the frontal surface of solar cells that suffer highest temperature increase or over the contact grid that, in addition to solar heating, also experiments Joule heat.
This chapter addresses a wide number of topics concerning thin-film solar cells. It was shown that the numerical modeling of current transport in AlGaAs/GaAs heterojunctions allows to determine optimal aluminum content (that defines band gap difference of the junction components) ensuring the most efficient processing of the incident light flux by window and absorber layers. We found that for very thin window layers the proximity of the junction area to the surface of the cell has more prominent role, allowing the embedded field of space charge region to function more intensively in separation of photo-generated currents and reducing the effect of recombination phenomena.
The question concerning quality improvement of junction boundary is reflected in the second section that presents results concerning the use of isovalent substitution method for manufacturing of heterojunction solar cells. As substituted layers grow into the substrate, we obtain a smooth transition of one material into another that reduces the difference of lattice constants and thermal expansion coefficients, both of which are of high importance for photovoltaic devices. Good efficiency values for non-optimized cells without any special anti-reflection coatings and with considerable series resistance paves the way for future improvements.
A special attention is being paid to creation of cheap and environment-friendly technologies for solar cells; this point is illustrated with an example of CdS/PbS heterojunctions created by ammonia-free chemical bath deposition. It is thought that these results will be interesting for large-scale industrial production of solar cells.
We address the important questions of organic solar cells, which nowadays attract much attention of the scientific community. These photovoltaic devices has lower efficiency in comparison with silicon or tandem multi-junction cells, but they are incomparably cheaper and can use flexible substrates, which opens completely new and wide horizons for their possible applications. We also discuss the problems of the proper choice of organic material for the active element of the cell.
Finally, solar cells are always overheated due to exposure to a direct sunlight, which makes a considerable problem concerning degradation of device parameters under prolonged operation under elevated temperatures, as well as mechanical stability of the cell due to thermal expansion of its components. We propose to make some useful parallels with nano-electronics, which recently received promising solutions in a form of thermoelectric heat transfer managing devices. We hope that the similar techniques could be applied to solar cells, offering good results with temperature control for photovoltaics, especially those operating under concentrated sunlight conditions.
Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease that occurs in the tropic and subtropics regions, and the parts of southern Europe. The disease is classified among neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) [1]. Leishmaniasis is spread by the bite of phlebotomine sand flies that causes the infection with
Although the disease has been known for more than 120 years, the number of drugs used for the treatment is still limited to 5–6. The first-line drugs used against leishmaniasis are pentavalent antimony (SbV) compounds namely sodium stibogluconate (Pentostam®) and meglumine antimonate (Glucantime®), which was introduced into treatment more than 70 years ago, despite all their side effects. Neither their mechanism of action nor their chemical structures have been clarified/verified yet in spite of their wide use for a long time. Other drugs used in
The need for effective, safe, and selective chemotherapeutics against leishmaniasis increases every day. Targeting distinct molecular pathways is a widely used strategy in rational drug design and discovery for developing such agents to treat leishmaniasis. In this chapter, we would like to focus on enzymes which being targeted by the researcher for antileishmanial studies.
PTR1 enzyme is an NADPH-dependent, short-chained reductase enzyme family member [4]. It is broadly active and can reduce a variety of unconjugated pteridines, as well as folates [5]. This enzyme has been investigated in studies of resistance to the dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor methotrexate (MTX) [6, 7]. After finding the missing link of resistance, researchers have suggested that inhibition of PTR1 may be a rational target for chemotherapy [4]. Since trypanosomatids are auxotrophic for folates and pterins, the inhibition of the PTR1 enzyme may also lead to selectivity. Therefore, PTR1 appears to be a rational target for antileishmanial drug development.
The first reported PTR1 inhibitors are pteridine analogs (diaminopteridines and quinazolines) and their activity was tested against purified
Examples of PTR1 inhibitor structures with antileishmanial activity.
It was reported that pteridine, pyrrolopyrimidine, and 2,4-diaminopyrimidine scaffold as PTR1 inhibitors with a structure-based approach by Tulloch et al. [11]. Among the tested compounds, compounds 11 and 13 bearings pyrrolopyrimidine core were reported with a modest ED50 value and a good lethality to the parasites. Additionally, a combination of MTX and compound 13 resulted in an improvement in efficacy [11]. Based on these hit molecules, TbPTR1 inhibitors were developed for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis (Figure 1) [12].
Also, nonfolate scaffolds with
Apart from the compounds summed up so far, thianthrene [16], dihydropyrimidines [17], benzothiazoles [18], thiazolidinedione [19, 20], thienopyrimidine [21], thiazolopyrimidine [22], and natural products such as flavanone derivatives [23], 2,3-dehydrosilybin A, and sophoraflavanone G [24], kaurane-type diterpenes [25] were reported as PTR1 inhibitors with antileishmanial properties in the literature (Figure 1).
NMT catalyzes the co- and post-translational addition of myristic acid (saturated, 14-carbon fatty acid) onto the N-terminal glycine of specific proteins in eukaryotes (Figure 2). This physiological pathway,
Myristoylated proteins with NMT.
A group of antifungal agents was tested to identify the first NMT inhibitors by Panethymitaki et al. in 2006 [31]. Although some of the tested compounds were found to be NMP inhibitors in a low μM concentration range, their antileishmanial activity has not been reported [31].
In an HTS campaign led by Pfizer, around 150.000 compounds from the Pfizer Global Diverse Representative Set were screened against protozoan NMTs. Four different scaffolds, namely aminoacylpyrrolidine (PF-03402623 IC50 of 0.093 μM), piperidinylindole (PF-03393842 IC50 of 0.102 μM), thienopyrimidine (PF-00349412 (IC50 of 0.482 μM), and biphenyl (PF-00075634 (IC50 of 0.158 μM) derivatives were identified as novel inhibitors of
Examples of NMT inhibitor structures with antileishmanial activity.
Following the previous study, the crystal structures of PF-03393842 and PF-03402623 with the enzyme, the initial hits selected in the HTS campaign, were elucidated. Based on this data, a fused hybrid compound
Another HTS assay dedicated to identifying novel
Other NMT inhibitors as potential antileishmanial compounds were reported in a few publications and patents. In these studies, pyrrolidines, piperidinylindoles, azetidinopyrimidines, aminomethylindazoles, benzimidazoles, thienopyrimidines, biphenyl derivatives, benzofuranes, benzothiophenes, oxadiazoles, (pyrazolomethyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazoles and thienopyrimidine scaffolds, and peptidomimetic inhibitors were reported with their NMT inhibitory properties [35, 36, 37, 38].
The nucleoside hydrolase enzyme is an important target for the development of antiparasitic drugs due to its role in the purine salvage pathway. The amino acid sequence and X-ray structure of the enzyme from
In contrast to these facts, there is no study on IU-NH enzyme inhibitors possessing
Fuernaux et al. reported transition state analogs of nucleosides with IU-NH inhibitory activity [40]. Later, Berg et al. reported iminoribitol derivatives and evaluated their not only
In
Polyamine metabolism and enzymes in the pathway.
Arg is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-arginine amino acid to L-ornithine and urea.
The expression of the
Reguera et al. suggest that broad inhibition of ARG activity alone will be insufficient to achieve therapeutically useful control of leishmaniasis, but combined inhibition of ARG with downstream enzymes leading to polyamine synthesis could result in improved therapeutic responses [46]. 3′-methoxy-cinnamoyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium-2-phenylamine, an ARG inhibitory compound, exhibited moderate antileishmanial activity upon amastigotes of
[1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives [48], pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine derivatives [49], α,α-difluorohydrazide derivatives [50], chalcone derivatives [51], cinnamide derivatives [52], and 7,8-dihydroxyflavone—gold nanoparticles [53] were also studied as antileishmanial compounds with the mechanism of ARG inhibition.
On the other hand, antileishmanial natural products exhibiting ARG inhibitor activity with antileishmanial properties were reported—flavonoid and quercetin derivative [54], orientin and isovitexin [55], verbascoside [56], fisetin [57], rosmarinic acid, and caffeic acid [58].
ODC metabolizes ornithine to the diamine putrescine by its catalytic action [59]. Although alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) is an irreversible inhibitor of ODC, DFMO has not shown any antileishmanial activity [60]. Therefore, inhibition of ODC serves as a promising therapeutic paradigm for the treatment of leishmaniasis [61].
3-aminooxy-1-aminopropane was reported as a selective ODC inhibitor with potent antileishmanial activity against
Gama-guanidinooxypropylamine [63], diospyrin [64], oxochromen, xanthone, and azaspirodecene derivatives [65] are reported in the literature with their ability to inhibit ODC enzyme and antileishmanial activity.
SpdS catalyzes the conversion of putrescine to spermidine, a crucial polyamine for parasite proliferation. Genetic studies proved that SpdS is an essential gene in
Up to our knowledge, the only reported SpdS inhibitor with antileishmanial properties is natural compound hypericin [68].
AdoMetDC is involved in the synthesis of spermidine and spermine, an essential polyamine for
CGP40215A, a specific AdoMetDC inhibitor, was also reported with the antileishmanial effect that verified the potential of AdoMetDC enzyme inhibition strategy [70].
TryS bifunctionally catalyzes both biosynthesis and hydrolysis of the glutathione-spermidine adduct trypanothione, which is the main regulator in intracellular thiol-redox metabolite for parasitic trypanosomatids. As TryS is absent in humans, targeting this enzyme provides selectivity. Inhibition of TryS results in controlling relative levels of the critical metabolites, trypanothione, glutathionylspermidine, and spermidine in
In a computational screening campaign, oxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonanone skeleton was identified not only as a TryS inhibitor but also with TR inhibitory properties. A modest antileishmanial activity was reported for compound PS203 upon
Examples of TryS inhibitor structures with antileishmanial activity.
About 144 compounds belonging to seven different scaffolds were tested for TyrS inhibitory properties in a study by Benitez et al. One of the most promising inhibitors (IC50 of 0.15 μM) namely MOL2008, an
One of the main strategies of the host organism to overcome the infection is oxidative stress. TR has been purified from
The early discovery of tricyclic inhibitors that are specific for TR over GR led to the design and synthesis of a group of phenothiazine derivatives and their opened-ring analogs.
The first rational drugs with TR inhibitor activity over GR inhibition are tricyclic structures like phenothiazine and imipramine. Based on this, among several of quaternary phenothiazines, [3-(2-chloro-4a,10a-dihydrophenothiazin-10-yl)propyl] - (3,4-dichlorobenzyl) dimethylammonium derivative (Ki 0.12 μM) was reported possessing improved activity up to 2-fold compared to chlorpromazine on
A series of bis (2-amino diphenyl sulfides) were designed and synthesized to inhibit TR [84]. Among them, compound
Examples of TR inhibitor structures with antileishmanial activity.
In the pursuit of discovering novel lead heteroaromatic frameworks, harmaline, pyrimidobenzothiazine, and aspidospermine scaffolds were tested against TR inhibition (Ki of 35.1 μM, Ki of 26.9 and Ki of 64.6 μM, respectively) and
In an HTS campaign, 100,000 lead-like compounds were evaluated for their TR inhibition. As our focus on antileishmanial compounds, 2 series of compounds namely, nitrogenous heterocycles (triazine and pyrimidine derivatives) and conjugated indole derivatives took our interest in their potential on
Various chemical structures were reported with TR inhibitor activity and leishmaniacidal activity to the literature: Ag(0) nanoparticles encapsulated by ferritin molecules [89], Cu(II) diketonates [90], oxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonanones [73], azole-based compounds – e. pyrrole [91], β-carboline–quinazolinone hybrid [92], phenothiazine and phenoxazine derived chloroacetamides [93], selenocyanates and diselenide compounds [94, 95], iminodibenzyl derivatives with ethylenediamine, ethanolamine and diethylenetriamine and their copper(II) complexes [96], diaryl sulfide derivatives [97], ammonium trichloro [1,2-ethanediolato-
Crystal structures of the tryparedoxin-tryparedoxin (TXN-TXNPx) peroxidase couple were reported but there is no study that targeted this system with antileishmanial activity [111].
The discovery of apoptotic pathways regulated by intracellular protozoan parasites and inhibit apoptosis, studies on signaling pathways have accelerated [112, 113, 114]. Interestingly, it was reported that there is an
Various heterocyclic compounds (quinoline, quinazoline, purine, thiazolopyrimidine scaffolds, etc.) as PI3K inhibitors were reported for treatment of several diseases alongside
Imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin scaffold was designed to inhibit various eukaryotic kinases by Bendjeddou et al. [119]. In this study, some of the compounds were tested against
Because of
Topoisomerases are enzymes that modulate DNA topology. Firstly, topoisomerase II and then topoisomerase I enzymes were reported in
Different classes of TOP inhibitors show activity against
16-phenyl-6-hexadecynoic acid and 16-phenylhexadecanoic acid derivatives were synthesized by Carballeira et al. [128]. Compounds 1 and 2 showed promising activity on
In another study, compounds bearing 1,5-naphthyridine scaffold were reported [129]. Compound 22 was found to be one of the promising ones with the IC50 value (0.58 ± 0.03 μM) against L. infantum amastigotes similar to the standard drug amphotericin B (0.32 ± 0.05 μM) and selectivity over host murine splenocytes. Additionally, this compound showed remarkable inhibition on leishmanial TopIB [129].
Three compounds were identified in a very recent virtual screening campaign with a significant
Apart from these recent advances, several scaffolds such as bis-naphtoquinone [131, 132] betulinic acid derivatives [133], bisbenzimidazoles [134] and protoberberine alkaloids [135], and 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives [136] were identified with TOP inhibitor activity as potential antileishmanial compounds. Additionally, acetylenic fatty acids, 6-heptadecynoic acid, and 6-icosynoic acid derivatives [137], 2-octadecynoic acid [138], 3,3′-diindolylmethane derivatives [139], bis-lawsone analogs [140], spirooxindole derivatives [141], indeno-1,5-naphthyridines [142], diamidine derivatives [143], and copper salisylaldoxime [144] compounds are other reported topoisomerase inhibitors with antileishmanial activity.
Cysteine biosynthesis is a potential target for antileishmanial drug development. The structure of
It was found out that a high level of serine protease activity was expressed by
SOD enzyme was found in
In a study, imidazole-containing phthalazine derivatives were found to be potent inhibitors of Fe-SOD with antileishmanial properties. Additionally, the tested compounds were selective toward parasite Fe-SOD over human CuZn-SOD [154]. Arylamine Mannich base derivatives, known to be effective against
2-Iminothiazole derivatives [156], scorpiand-like azamacrocycles [157, 158], pyrazole-containing polyamine macrocycles [159], natural product momordicatin [ethyl 2-(4-hydroxybutyl)benzoate] [160], imidazole or pyrazole-based benzo [g] phthalazine derivatives [161], triphenyl tin salicylanilide thiosemicarbazone [162], Se containing aromatics and heteroaromatic compounds [163], ruthenium complexes with purine analogs [164], fisetin—a flavanoid anolog [57] and dialkyl pyrazole-3,5-dicarboxylates [165] were reported as SOD inhibitors exhibiting antileishmanial activity in the literature.
Nitroreductase enzymes catalyze the reduction of nitro/nitroaromatic compounds. Based on oxygen sensitivity, NTRs are divided into two groups: NTR1 is oxygen-insensitive and functions via a series of two-electron reductions, NTR2 is oxygen-sensitive and mediated a one-electron reduction [166]. NTR1 enzyme is found mainly in bacteria and absent in most eukaryotes. Keeping this in mind,
It was reported that aziridinyl nitrobenzamide compounds [168], nitroquinolinone derivatives [169], 3-nitro-2-(phenylsulfonylmethyl) imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine derivatives [170], and nitro-heteroaryl nitrone derivatives [172] are NTR inhibitors with antileishmanial effects.
Koszalka and Krenitsky, separated and purified three nucleoside hydrolases from promastigotes of
Augustyns’s research group design and synthesize various compounds and tested against IAG-NH (inosine-adenosine-guanosine nucleoside hydrolase) from
It was found out that hydroxychromenone and tetrahydrocyclohexanecarboxylic acid fragments could bind to the enzyme in a fragment-based analysis on
In a recent study, a natural product from Brazilian flora, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins, with antileishmanial activity screened against
Interestingly,
There are two cysteine protease genes from
It is reported that aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylate [180], natural products flavone derivatives [181], trans-aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylate derivatives [182] organotellurane RF07 and palladacycle complex [183, 184, 185], and dipeptidyl enoates [186] exhibit antileishmanial effect and inhibit cysteine proteases.
GAPDH activity was detected in two cell compartments of
Although GAPDH enzyme is found in
DHODH enzyme catalyzes the stereoselective oxidation of (S)-dihydroorotate (DHO) to orotate (ORO) in the
Considering the structure of
DDD806905, a known
Phosphodiesterases control the cellular concentration of the second messengers cAMP and cGMP that are key regulators of several physiological processes.
A correlation between cAMP concentration in
Crystal structure of the
Isoxazolo[3,4-d]pyridazinone analogs were reported to inhibit PDE extracted from
SQS enzyme catalyzes the first step in sterol biosynthesis. Cloning, expression, and purification of a catalytically active recombinant squalene synthase of
Biphenylazabicyclooctanol, biphenylquiniclidine, and quiniclidine derivatives possessing
UGPase enzyme catalyzes the reaction of UTP and glucose-1-phosphate to 3-UDP-glucose and PPi in the presence of Mg2
The levels of dUTP are kept low by the action of dUTPase, a ubiquitous enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of dUTP to PPi and dUMP, a substrate for thymidylate synthase (TS) [204]. The purification and characterization of
Deoxyuridine derivatives were shown to inhibit
Gcs is an essential protein of the trypanothione biosynthesis pathway, which catalyzes ATP-dependent ligation of L-cysteine to L-glutamate. Characterization of
Cyclophilins are a ubiquitous class of proteins with peptidylprolyl
We have summarized the validated targets for antileishmanial drug discovery and tried to give examples of potential modulators of these targets so far. Up to our knowledge, there are several other enzymes involved in kinetoplastids’ physiological pathways which might serve as a potential target and provide selectivity, such as NDKb (nucleoside diphosphate kinase B, C 2.7.4.6), GPD (glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, EC 1.1.1.8), PGI (glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, EC 5.3.1.9), GspS (glutathionylspermidine synthetase, EC 6.3.1.8), PMM (phosphomannomutase, EC 5.4.2.8), PyK (pyruvate kinase, EC 2.7.1.40), TIM (triosephosphate isomerase, EC 5.3.1.1.), DHS (deoxyhypusine synthase, EC 2.5.1.46), and DOHH (deoxyhypusine hydroxylase, EC 1.14.99.29). Yet, the antileishmanial effect by the modulation of these targets has not been reported therefore further studies on these targets are needed.
Leishmaniasis treatment research has long been neglected. In this postgenomic era, work on leishmaniasis has accelerated, but great challenges still remain for medicinal chemists and chemical biologists—selectivity over human enzymes and efficacy over parasite life cycles. This chapter will be useful for researchers who will do
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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. 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Cytotoxicity assays are a quick way to assess a certain chemical compound’s effects on a given human cell line. The most well-known techniques are the MTT- and the LDH-assays. These tests are cheap, easy to execute, but not very precise and dependent on various environmental factors and also, they show no detail about the time-dependency of the toxic effect. Cytotoxicity experiments are a crucial part of a modern pharmaceutical development process. They are a cheap and safe way to get vital information about a new molecule’s biological attributes focusing on its basic tolerability. These studies not only save human lives and test animals, but they save the time and resources to be spared on a test molecule which is a complete failure having no in vitro safety.",book:{id:"6380",slug:"cytotoxicity",title:"Cytotoxicity",fullTitle:"Cytotoxicity"},signatures:"Ildikó Bácskay, Dániel Nemes, Ferenc Fenyvesi, Judit Váradi, Gábor\nVasvári, Pálma Fehér, Miklós Vecsernyés and Zoltán Ujhelyi",authors:[{id:"215449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ildikó",middleName:null,surname:"Bácskay",slug:"ildiko-bacskay",fullName:"Ildikó Bácskay"},{id:"215453",title:"Dr.",name:"Dániel",middleName:null,surname:"Nemes",slug:"daniel-nemes",fullName:"Dániel Nemes"},{id:"215454",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltán",middleName:null,surname:"Ujhelyi",slug:"zoltan-ujhelyi",fullName:"Zoltán Ujhelyi"},{id:"215456",title:"Dr.",name:"Ferenc",middleName:null,surname:"Fenyvesi",slug:"ferenc-fenyvesi",fullName:"Ferenc Fenyvesi"},{id:"215457",title:"Dr.",name:"Judit",middleName:null,surname:"Váradi",slug:"judit-varadi",fullName:"Judit Váradi"},{id:"215458",title:"Dr.",name:"Gábor",middleName:null,surname:"Vasvári",slug:"gabor-vasvari",fullName:"Gábor Vasvári"},{id:"215459",title:"Dr.",name:"Pálma",middleName:null,surname:"Fehér",slug:"palma-feher",fullName:"Pálma Fehér"},{id:"215460",title:"Dr.",name:"Miklós",middleName:null,surname:"Vecsernyés",slug:"miklos-vecsernyes",fullName:"Miklós Vecsernyés"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10237,totalCrossrefCites:100,totalDimensionsCites:229,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"71742",title:"Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology",slug:"forensic-chemistry-and-toxicology",totalDownloads:800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The current chapter deals with forensic chemistry & toxicology which is completely based on the introduction and classification of poisons and their impacts on the body and the factors affecting them and detection and examination of poisons. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss their mode of action and function once they reached in the human body. The impacts of poisons are severe and even cause death if not treated properly.",book:{id:"7847",slug:"medical-toxicology",title:"Medical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Medical Toxicology"},signatures:"Amarnath Mishra",authors:[{id:"259941",title:"Dr.",name:"Amarnath",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"amarnath-mishra",fullName:"Amarnath Mishra"}]},{id:"71771",title:"The Clinical Importance of Herb-Drug Interactions and Toxicological Risks of Plants and Herbal Products",slug:"the-clinical-importance-of-herb-drug-interactions-and-toxicological-risks-of-plants-and-herbal-produ",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Approximately 70% of the world’s population has been using medicinal herbs as a complementary or alternative medicine that has grown tremendously in both developed and developing countries over the past 20 years (World Health Organization Drugs Strategy 2002–2005). This increase in consumer demand for medicinal plants continues, although scientific data are rare to create safety and efficacy profiles. Its popularity is also related to easy availability, cost-effectiveness leading to better purchasing power, and various factors that perceive that they are generally safe. Herbs are often administered simultaneously with therapeutic drugs for the treatment of major ailments, and herb-drug interactions (HDIs) increase their potential. The main routes proposed for HDIs include cytochrome P450 (CYP450)-mediated inhibition or induction and transport and flow proteins. In our review, we highlighted herbal medicines used for the treatment of various diseases with pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic analysis and case reports together with their adverse effects and herb-drug interactions. Therefore, this review can be used as a quick reference database for physicians and healthcare professionals involved in therapy, aiming to maximize clinical outcomes by reducing the negative and toxic effects of plants along with avoiding herb-drug interactions.",book:{id:"7847",slug:"medical-toxicology",title:"Medical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Medical Toxicology"},signatures:"Cigdem Kahraman, Zekiye Ceren Arituluk and Iffet Irem Tatli Cankaya",authors:[{id:"319337",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem Tatli",middleName:null,surname:"Cankaya",slug:"irem-tatli-cankaya",fullName:"Irem Tatli Cankaya"},{id:"319339",title:"Dr.",name:"Zekiye Ceren",middleName:null,surname:"Arituluk",slug:"zekiye-ceren-arituluk",fullName:"Zekiye Ceren Arituluk"},{id:"319340",title:"Dr.",name:"Cigdem",middleName:null,surname:"Kahraman",slug:"cigdem-kahraman",fullName:"Cigdem Kahraman"}]},{id:"65306",title:"Nephrotoxic Effects of Drugs",slug:"nephrotoxic-effects-of-drugs",totalDownloads:1612,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Drug-induced nephrotoxicity is a renal dysfunction that occurs as a result of exposure to nephrotoxic drugs. It is a common problem in certain clinical situations such as underlying renal dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and sepsis. Drugs can cause mild to moderate nephrotoxic problems such as intrarenal obstruction, interstitial nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, acid-base and fluid-electrolyte disturbances, alteration in intraglomerular hemodynamics, inflammatory changes in renal tubular cells, tubulointerstitial disease, and renal scarring leading to acute or chronic kidney injury. Therefore, early detection of adverse effects of drugs as well as the clinical history of the patient, basic renal functions, drug-related risk factors, and nephrotoxic drug combinations must be well known in order to prevent drug-induced nephrotoxicity and progression to end-stage renal disease.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Azade Sari",authors:[{id:"271267",title:"Dr.",name:"Azade",middleName:null,surname:"Sari",slug:"azade-sari",fullName:"Azade Sari"}]},{id:"42020",title:"Screening of Herbal Medicines for Potential Toxicities",slug:"screening-of-herbal-medicines-for-potential-toxicities",totalDownloads:7862,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:69,abstract:null,book:{id:"3408",slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Obidike Ifeoma and Salawu Oluwakanyinsola",authors:[{id:"142730",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifeoma",middleName:null,surname:"Ezenyi",slug:"ifeoma-ezenyi",fullName:"Ifeoma Ezenyi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. 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Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"