Agricultural sources of heavy metals contamination in soils (ppm DW).
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-273-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-272-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-274-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e1d9662c334dd78ab35bfb57c3bf106e",bookSignature:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",keywords:"Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Rare Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Basic Research, Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, Translational Research, Diagnostic Technologies, Functional Tests, Disease Models, Innovative Therapies, Drug Repositioning, Drug Discovery, Emerging Technologies",numberOfDownloads:24,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor's Degree in Biotechnology Science at the University of Naples “Federico II” in 2006 with the highest degree. In 2010, he graduated with a Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Naples “Federico II”. He published many papers on his areas of research in international peer-reviewed journals and for his pioneering studies has received awards from both national and international scientific societies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"281317",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Arturo",surname:"Iannotti",slug:"fabio-iannotti",fullName:"Fabio Iannotti",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdOdQAK/Profile_Picture_1644820016099",biography:"Currently researcher at the CNR-ICB Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry of Pozzuoli, Napoli (Italy), Fabio Arturo Iannotti has as major focus of his research activity the role of the endocannabinoid system and TRP in epilepsy and muscle development. Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor Degree in Biotecnology Science (Medical curricula) at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\' in 2006 (with 110/110 cum laude). In 2010, Dr. Iannotti graduated with a PhD in Neuroscience at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\'. The focus of his thesis was on the role of voltage-gated potassium channels Kv7 during the neuronal excitoxicity as well as skeletal muscle cell differentiation. During the three years of the PhD program, Dr. Iannotti has been introduced to the field of ion channels, particularly voltage-gated ion channels; he has been instrumental in setting up RT-PCR and quantitative RT-PCR techniques in our lab, focusing onto research themes which would allow to combine both molecular and functional approaches in the study of ion channels during muscle cell differentiation. He has become familiar with most molecular biology (cloning, mutagenesis, PCR and RT-PCR, Southern and Northern blotting, gene silencing via RNAi, …) as well as with protein biochemistry techniques (protein extraction, immunoprecipitation, Western blotting, in-vitro translation, …) and morphological methods (confocal and conventional immunofluorescence). He is also familiar with imaging tools for intracellular ion concentration analysis, and has more recently gained considerable experience with electrophysiological techniques (specifically, patch-clamp). During this time (2009-2010), he also researched at the University of California-Davis assessing changes to the phosphorylation state of potassium channels in in vivo models of epilepsy. In 2011, he started his postdoc at the Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)/ National Council of Research (CNR) and during this period he also visited the University of Reading (2012-2013), researching the potential involvement of TRP channels in epilepsy and muscle development. Since 2014, he was promoted to the position of research fellow at ICB. To date, Dr. Iannotti has published many papers on these areas of research in international peer reviewed journals, and has received awards from both national and international scientific societies for his work. He is member of international scientific societies and referee for international peer reviewed journal with high impact factor.",institutionString:"Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"81290",title:"Musculoskeletal Abnormalities Caused by Cystic Fibrosis",slug:"musculoskeletal-abnormalities-caused-by-cystic-fibrosis",totalDownloads:24,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"80259",title:"Influence of Heavy Metals on Quality of Raw Materials, Animal Products, and Human and Animal Health Status",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102497",slug:"influence-of-heavy-metals-on-quality-of-raw-materials-animal-products-and-human-and-animal-health-st",body:'Problems concerning heavy metals are studied all over the world, including in Europe. This is because they constitute one of the threats to the natural environment and the health of living organisms, and thus pose a problem in the implementation of the concept of sustainable development [1, 2].
In the accepted classification of elements participating in life processes, heavy metals, such as mercury, lead, and cadmium, do not play any significant role in metabolism. They are considered to belong to the group of extreme toxicants with known embryotoxic, teratogenic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects. Even in trace amounts, they pose a real threat to living organisms. In the natural environment, there are also other heavy metals, such as arsenic, zinc, nickel, copper, which are also toxic and may cause poisoning and cancer. The effects of heavy metals entering the human body can be revealed even after many years [3].
In the past, the danger resulting from the presence of these metals in the environment concerned only certain groups of people employed in specialized branches of industry. Currently, as a result of development and civilization changes, toxic elements may appear in high concentrations far beyond the sources of contamination. This violates the biological balance of ecosystems, and their presence in the trophic chain creates exposure conditions for wide groups of the population [3].
The sources of contamination of the environment with heavy metals are the mining industry and mechanical, thermal, and chemical processing of mineral raw materials. Other important sources of emission of metallic elements are large-scale burning of coal, gases, and liquid fuels (motorization), municipal economy (waste dumps, sewage), and agriculture consuming mineral fertilizers, plant protection agents, utilizing huge loads of pollution accompanying animal production and processing industry. Monitoring studies of soils, drinking water, plants, as well as tissues of farm animals and products of animal origin (milk, eggs, honey) indicate considerable variability of heavy metal concentrations in this material, from trace to many times exceeding permissible values. In the case of animals, it depends on the animal species, life stage, husbandry system, and location of the breeding facility [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
It has been repeatedly shown that mineral fertilizers have heavy metals in their composition, which lead to soil pollution. Fertilizers can be ranked in ascending order of heavy metal contamination—nitrogenous, potassic, calcareous, and phosphatic. The accumulation of these elements in the fertilizer material depends primarily on the technology used and the material from which they are produced (Table 1) [7, 9, 10].
Source | Ace | Cd | Cu | Hg | Ni | Pb | Zn |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sewage sludges | 2–26 | 2–1500 | 50–3300 | 0.1–55 | 16–5300 | 50–3000 | 700–49,000 |
Nitrogen fertilizers | 2–120 | 0.05–8.5 | 1–15 | 0.3–3 | 7–38 | 2–1450 | 1–42 |
Phosphate fertilizers | 2–1200 | 0.1–170 | 1–300 | 0.01–1.2 | 7–38 | 7–225 | 50–1450 |
Limestones | 0.1–24.0 | 0.04–0.1 | 2–125 | 0.05 | 10–20 | 20–1250 | 10–450 |
Manure | 3–25 | 0.3–0.8 | 2–60 | 0.09–0.2 | 7.8–30 | 6.6–15 | 15–250 |
Pesticides (%) | 22–60 | — | 12–50 | 0.8–42 | — | 60 | 1.3–25 |
Agricultural sources of heavy metals contamination in soils (ppm DW).
Source: own study based on [7].
Agriculture is the dominant land-use industry where large amounts of agrochemicals are applied. Unfortunately, metals and pesticides in the soil can reach aquatic ecosystems through leaching, soil erosion, and surface runoff [11]. The combination of heavy metals with pesticides is very dangerous because they can cause very serious health consequences for humans and animals. They contribute to neurodegenerative disorders, musculoskeletal diseases, and hormonal imbalances, are carcinogenic, cause genetic damage [12].
Therefore, the aim of the chapter is to present the problems of environmental pollution and accumulation of heavy metals (mainly cadmium, mercury, and lead) in tissues of farm animals, their impact on human and animal health, as well as the possibility of inactivation of heavy metals in animal organisms.
The excess of heavy metals in the soil inhibits the development of microorganisms and disrupts processes related to the transformation of organic matter. It also causes the accumulation of toxic elements in plant tissues, leading to disturbances in plant reproduction and thus lowering their nutritional value [13, 14, 15]. Excessive accumulation of the mentioned elements in the soil, however, is harmful to plants in particular [3, 7, 16, 17].
In soil, heavy metals can occur in different forms—dissolved in soil solution, exchangeable in organic and inorganic components, being structural components of soil grids, and as insoluble sediments with other soil components. The first two forms are the most available to plants. The concentration of elements in the soil depends on the pH of the soil—the higher (to slightly alkaline) the higher the immobilization of elements. The mobility of heavy metals in the soil varies. In acidic soils, Cd, Ni, and Zn are particularly mobile, Cr is moderately mobile and Cu and Pb are immobile. In neutral and alkaline soils, Cr is highly mobile, Cd and Zn are moderately mobile, and Ni is immobile. Other factors, such as cation exchange capacity, redox potential, organic matter content, type and amount of clay minerals, and oxide content of antagonistic elements Fe, Al, and Mn, also determine the increase of heavy metals in the soil and thus their availability to plants [18].
The natural cadmium content in soils is 0.2–1.05 mg kg−1 d.m. It is a highly mobile, active element, and easily assimilated by plants because of the available form of Cd2+ ion. The environmental hazard is related to the fact that Cd is one of the most toxic metals that show adverse effects on soil biological activity, plant metabolism, human health, and the animal kingdom. Excess cadmium in the plant manifests itself by twisting of leaves and the appearance of brown spots on the leaves [7].
Another toxic element is lead. Its natural content in soil is strongly related to the composition of the rock substrate. It is characterized by the lowest mobility among heavy metals. The highest Pb content in soil is found in highly industrialized areas. Lead can enter the body from two sources—the food chain and through inhalation of soil dust. It is a very dangerous metal with negative effects on humans, animals, and plants. Excess lead leads to reduced yields and dark green or red spots on leaves. Lead content in soil exceeding 500 mg kg−1 is a toxic value. A characteristic feature of this heavy metal is its accumulation in the human body, as it does not disintegrate in this environment. Getting into the human body a dose of about 20–50 g leads to death [7, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
In the case of copper, its excess causes tissue damage and elongation of root cells, alteration of membrane permeability and leakage of ions (e.g., K) and solutes from roots, peroxidation of chloroplast membrane lipids and inhibition of photosynthetic electron transport, immobilization of Cu in cell walls, in cell vacuoles and nondispersive Cu-protein complexes, as well as DNA damage and consequently inhibition of photosynthetic processes. Manganese, on the other hand, has a significant effect on some soil properties, particularly raising pH. Mn compounds are known for their rapid oxidation and reduction under varying soil conditions, thus oxidizing [7].
Nickel has become a major pollutant that is released during emissions from metal processing and increasing coal and oil burning, sludge application. Some phosphate fertilizers may also be an important source of Ni [3, 7].
In Poland, the permissible content of heavy metals (so-called risk-causing substances) on agricultural land is defined by the Regulation of the Minister of Environment of September 1, 2016, on the manner of conducting the assessment of land surface pollution (Annex No. 1 to the Regulation) [24]. According to the Ordinance, risk-causing substances that are particularly important for the protection of the earth surface and the permissible contents of these substances in the soil and the permissible contents of these substances in the soil [mg kg−1 dry mass of the earthy parts of the soil (<2 mm)] are defined (Table 2)—for depths 0–0.25 m ppt and more than 0.25 m ppt, with the division taking into account the soil groups and separated based on their use, the soil subgroups separated based on the soil properties (defined for the soil group II) and the soil and groundwater permeability.
Element | Permissible content |
---|---|
Arsenic (As) | 10–50 |
Chromium (Cr) | 150–500 |
Cadmium (Cd) | 2–5 |
Cobalt (Co) | 20–60 |
Copper (Cu) | 100–300 |
Molybdenum (Mo) | 10–50 |
Nickel (Ni) | 100–300 |
Lead (Pb) | 100–500 |
Mercury (Hg) | 2–5 |
Koncewicz-Baran and Gondek [25] investigated the content of general forms and bioavailable elements (Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Mn) in agriculturally used soils showed that among the investigated soils, the natural content of Ni, Cu, and Pb was the highest. In other soils, increased content of Cd and Zn was determined.
Li et al. [26] pointed out the problem of soil contamination in China due to increased industrial development and urbanization. In Hunan Province, Central China, a study was conducted on the content of heavy metals in soil (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, As, Hg, Cr, and Ni). The results showed that the content of each heavy metal in the soil varied spatially. The highest accumulation was shown for Cd, followed by Pb, Zn, As, and Hg.
Plants can accumulate toxic metals from the soil over a very wide range. This depends on its temperature, reaction, water capacity, and potential. Under conditions of high immission, plants take up heavy metals from the air through the leaf blades. Strong accumulation of heavy metals in the root system and the aboveground parts of plants is a result of a poorly developed mechanism of chemical homeostasis in plants, which leads to non-selective absorption of elements and creates a high risk of including heavy metals in the food chain system. Changes in toxic metal concentrations in fodder plants may occur as a result of drying, ensiling, and granulation processes. In addition, heavy metals can be introduced into animal feed rations through enrichment with yeast, meat, bone, and fish meals and inorganic mineral additives, such as phosphate, dolomite, and chalk [3].
Karimi et al. [27] investigated the levels of toxic heavy metals (As, Cd, Hg, Pb) in agricultural products, such as legumes, wheat, and potatoes, in Markazi Province, Iran. Markazi Province is the most industrialized region in the country. Lead mines and other industrial activities are located there, which carries the presence of heavy metals in the soil. The results showed that among the samples analyzed, the carcinogenic risk index was within the acceptable level. However, in the case of wheat, it was found to be the most important source of toxic metal exposure due to its high consumption compared to the other crops, i.e., earthlings and legumes.
Studies conducted in Nigeria, where soils are contaminated with oil, showed that among the heavy metals tested (Pb, Cd, Cr, Mn, Fe, and Zn), for crops in the test samples, the elements Pb and Cr exceeded the limits set by WHO [28]. In Turkey of 12 districts of Sakarya city where cucurbit crops are grown, organochlorine pesticides have been applied to fields for more than 30 years. Studies of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn) showed that the concentrations of Cu, Ni, and Cr were at 108.2 mg kg−1, 219.9 mg kg−1, and 173.1 mg kg−1, respectively, and were the highest, i.e., 2–7 times higher than the limits given in the Turkish Soil Pollution Control Regulation [29].
Exposure of animals to heavy metals from drinking water is a very big problem. It is difficult to estimate, especially when animals use random intakes and when they are kept in an extensive (poultry) or grazing (sheep, cattle) way. Naveedullah et al. [11] conducted a study on the distribution of selected metals (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Cr, Cd, and Pb) in soils in the Siling reservoir watershed in China, the various ecological and health risks associated with selected metals to the inhabitants. Protection of soil quality in the reservoir watershed is of great importance to preserve water quality, which is a source of drinking water. The study revealed seasonal variations of selected heavy metal content in soil samples. In addition, the multivariate analysis conducted showed significant anthropogenic, point, and non-point pollution of selected metals in the Siling reservoir watershed. Through the use of enrichment factor, geoaccumulation index and contamination factor, moderate to high contamination was found in soil samples during the summer and winter seasons. Low soil pH and high organic matter content increase the leaching of some elements from the soil into the aquifer formations and increase the toxic metal content in the water sources. According to the authors, the quality and quantity of fertilizers used were important causes leading to the accumulation of heavy metals in soils depending on land use.
Among animal products, cow’s milk generally contains a number of trace elements in its composition, and its value as an environmental bioindicator is quite low. The mammary gland of cows forms a natural biological barrier that limits the passage of toxic elements from the mother’s body to the food. However, milk may contain higher amounts of heavy metals, as a result of their breeding in industrial areas or secondary contamination in technological processes. The conducted studies on the content of heavy metals in animal tissues and raw materials of animal origin mostly confirm bioaccumulation of these elements in living organisms and products of animal origin. For example, in Poland, on farms located in the direct vicinity of the Turów power plant, high concentrations of Pb, reaching even 1.865 mg kg−1,were detected in milk. Also, in milk collected directly from cows on smallholder farms in Lower Silesia, Pb content in 22.6% of samples exceeded the permissible level, Cd in 29.4%, and Hg in 50% of samples [30].
In pigs, the main source of possible contamination of pig tissues is feed, which due to the use of various additives may increase the concentration of heavy metals. The sources may be also dust and gas emissions from the industry caused by intensive air exchange in the livestock building. The average Pb content in the muscle tissue of fattening pigs is 0.05–0.58 mg kg−1 d.m. The concentration of Cd in muscles ranges from 0.02 to 0.04 mg kg−1 [30].
Sheep belong to good bioindicators of the environment because they are kept in extensive and pasture systems. Research shows that in industrial areas, cadmium accumulated in kidneys and udder. On the other hand, lead was found in the ribs, liver, and long bones. Zinc was most abundant in ribs and long bones, and Cu in kidneys, bones, and udder [30].
Conventional farms in central Greece were analyzed for the heavy metal content of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and chromium (Cr) in muscle tissues, livers, kidneys, feces and staple mixtures for livestock, such as cows and sheep. The study showed that the transfer of heavy metals from feed to animal products varied below acceptable risk levels. In experiment 2, feed for animals kept under different feeding systems and seasons on different farms (sheep, dairy cows, and pigs) was studied. The analyses conducted showed relatively high concentrations of Cu in pig feces (155 ± 9.13) and Zn in sheep feces (144.56 ± 5.78) [31].
Excessive accumulation of heavy metals can occur in poultry, particularly from backyard rearing. Poultry is exposed to landfills (farm waste), animal feces, and contaminated roadside ditches. It may eat contaminated soil, plants, and geohelminths. The study by Kołacz et al. [30] shows that in hens kept in the Lower Silesia region exceedances of Pb in chicken muscles occurred in 20% of samples, and chicken eggs in I4.3% of samples. In the case of Cd, exceedances concerned I4.8% and 7.9%, whereas Hg exceedances concerned 45.5% and 64.5%, respectively. Relatively high accumulation of mercury occurred in hen eggs, with averages often exceeding the nationally permissible limit of 0.02 mg Hg kg−1. Kołacz et al. [32] performed an assessment of the degree of bioaccumulation of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn) in the muscles and livers of free-range hens in the copper Belt region. The results showed that the organ accumulating the higher amounts of heavy metals was chicken liver, in which the permissible content of Pb and Cd was exceeded. In the muscles, however, the Pb content was exceeded.
Duck and goose eggs are a good indicator of environmental contamination with heavy metals in the rural environment. Studies performed in industrialized areas exposed to metal-bearing dust emissions and other sources have shown many times higher concentrations of As, Cd, and Hg, slightly less Pb and Cu compared to sites not exposed to industrial emissions [33].
Bees are a very good bioindicator of the heavy metal content of micronutrients and toxic metals in the environment. Roman [34] conducted a study in two regions—industrial and agroforestry, with the aim of indicating whether worker bees and drones accumulate toxic metals. Toxic elements (Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd, and Se) were found in all samples, with higher concentrations of Ni, Cr, Cd, and Pb detected in the organisms of worker bees, while higher concentrations of Se were found in the organisms of drones. The organism of worker bees is a filter that retains from 20.45 (Pb) to 36.36% (Cd) of toxic metals from the honey raw material in the process of processing it into honey. In a study conducted in Wroclaw, Poland, concerning the content of heavy metals in multiflower honey and propolis, it was found that the highest concentration of elements was in propolis: Zn—48.1, Cu—6.95, Pb—5.74, As—0.66, and Cd 0.19 mg kg−1. Statistically, a significantly lower concentration of zinc, copper, arsenic, and cadmium was in honey, except for lead, whose content was higher than permissible values in 85% of samples [35].
Horses due to their use in different environmental conditions belong to a group of animals potentially exposed to bioaccumulation of heavy metals, especially in industrialized and urbanized areas. Few studies show that horse muscles do not contain excess As, Cd, Hg, and Pb, while kidneys almost always accumulate large amounts of Cd, and liver Zn and Cd [30].
Szkoda et al. [36] also conducted studies on the content of lead, cadmium, and mercury in tissues of game animals from selected main industrial areas in Poland—roe deer (
Heavy metal levels of wildlife biotopes from two different industrially exploited areas in Slovakia were studied in the Zemplín region of Slovakia. Various tissues (lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen, heart, and muscles) were sampled from animals, such as red deer, roe deer, mouflon, chamois, wild boar, European hare, among others. The content of elements exceeded the legal limits allowed for human consumption—mercury in 29%, cadmium—28%, and lead—23%. Chromium concentration did not exceed the limit in any sample. Of the wildlife living there, wild boar was the most heavily burdened species [37].
Heavy metals enter the human and animal body through the respiratory tract, sometimes even through the skin in the case of chemicals capable of crossing the skin barrier, and the digestive tract. Food is the main source of toxic elements. The deficiency of macro- and micro-nutrients in the body causes heavy metals to be absorbed in their place. When there is poor nutrition and a lack of essential nutrients in the body, the liver that performs detoxification cannot perform this important task [8, 38].
Copper is one of the elements with important functions in the human and animal body. It takes part in oxidation-reduction processes, regulates the metabolism, transport of iron. In the form of complexes with amino acids and albumin, it is transported to the liver, kidneys, intestines, and other tissues. Excess copper mainly causes decreased hemoglobin concentration, liver, and kidney damage [8, 14, 39].
Zinc accumulates in vertebrates in the liver, forming complexes with various proteins, and also in the kidneys and sex glands. Symptoms of zinc intoxication are—impaired immune response, reduction of HDL cholesterol fraction, decreased level of copper in the blood. On the other hand, acute zinc poisoning is manifested by vomiting, epigastric pain, fatigue, and sluggishness. Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) is irritating to the skin, mucous membranes, and conjunctiva, causing burns in higher concentrations [8, 14, 39].
Cadmium is easily absorbed in living organisms. It enters the human body primarily through food, water, and inhalation as a result of tobacco smoking. Cadmium accumulates primarily in the kidneys and liver. Cadmium poisoning causes nausea, vomiting, salivation, abdominal pain, kidney damage, and circulatory failure. In addition, exposure to cadmium oxide fumes, exceeding the concentration of 0.5 mg Cd kg−3 causes, among others—emphysema, kidney function damage, changes in the skeletal system, pain in the limbs and spine [8, 14, 39].
Mercury poses a very high risk to living organisms. Mercury enters the body primarily from food via the digestive system and inhalation. Mercury compounds can interfere with most enzymatic reactions because they react with proteins containing sulfhydryl groups. The highest concentrations of mercury are found in the kidneys, but the brain is the most susceptible. Mercury vapor toxicly affects the lungs, eventually causing respiratory failure and death. In addition, chronic exposure to low concentrations of mercury vapor causes damage to the central nervous system with symptoms of weakness, memory impairment, mood swings, headache and limb pain, mucositis and gingivitis, and others [8, 14, 39].
Lead is also a highly toxic element. It enters the human body through the digestive system with water and food, and inhalation. It accumulates in the liver, heart, kidneys, as well as in the skin and muscles. Symptoms of lead poisoning of the human organism include disorders of the blood-forming system and the central nervous system. Lead is a mutagenic, carcinogenic, and embryotoxic element [8, 14, 39].
Kołacz et al. [40] conducted a study on the blood of cows from the copper industry region (LGOM) showed a significantly higher Cu content (1.67 mg l−1) compared to the agricultural region (0.72 mg l−1). In both regions, the content of Cd did not exceed 1.65 μg l−1, Pb in the industrial region was 0.021 mg l−1, and in the agricultural region 0.031 mg l−1. On the other hand, the level of Hg in the blood of cows, in both regions was similar and was about 0.03 μg l−1. It was found that the copper industry does not adversely affect the blood parameters of dairy cows. In the whole blood of dairy cows, a lead level of 0.1 mg l−1 is considered normal, 0.1–0.3 mg l−1 is considered elevated, and above 0.35 mg l−1 is considered toxic.
Accumulation of heavy metals by crop plants varies genotypically. The transfer coefficient of elements from soil to plant is expressed as the ratio of the concentration in the plant to the total concentration in the soil. For example, low transfer coefficients for cadmium are found in maize, pea, oat, and wheat grains, while high Pb and Cd are found in wheat grains. Low coefficients are found for Zn transfer in spinach and lettuce leaves and roots of various plants. Therefore, it is better to grow crops with low metal uptake (some cereals, legumes, vegetables) on polluted soils, while leafy vegetables on unpolluted soils [41].
The mechanisms of plant tolerance to metal are important in plant breeding. It depends on the species, plant growth phase, tissue or organ, type of metal, time of action, and applied dose. In zinc tolerance, mainly processes related to its detoxification by organic acids and storage in vacuoles are involved. In tolerance to lead mainly processes in the cell walls are immobilized, while for cadmium mainly detoxification by phytochelatins or accumulation in the cell walls are involved. Due to the existing network of mechanisms in plants that protect against toxic effects of heavy metals, in the future, it may be a way to restore the biocenotic balance in ecosystems destroyed by industrial human activities [42].
Some plants have a natural ability to accumulate heavy metals, which is used in the process of environmental cleanup (so-called phytoremediation). Known species accumulate 1–2% of metals in tissues (so-called hyperaccumulators), for example, boll weed (Thlaspi sp.). However, due to the low biomass yields of these species, the practical usefulness of the plants is limited. Plants that are to be effective in the uptake of heavy metals should be characterized by the following features—fast growth, high biomass yield and easy harvesting, deep root system, and accumulation of large amounts of heavy metals in the aboveground parts. Several phytoremediation technologies can be distinguished—phytoextraction, i.e., removal of heavy metals by accumulation in the above-ground parts of plants, phytostabilization, i.e., immobilization of metals in soil and reduction of their availability in the environment, phytostimulation, i.e., support by plants of naturally occurring microbial degradation processes in the rhizosphere, phytodegradation, i.e., decomposition of organic substances by plants and related microorganisms and phytovolatilization, i.e., transformation of contaminants into a volatile state. The plants most commonly used for bioaccumulation belong to many families, of which the crucifers (Cruciferae), grasses (Poaceae), butterflies (Papilionacae), composite plants (Asteraceae), willow plants (Salicaceae), and clove plants (Caryophyllaceae) deserve special attention [17].
Barrero-Moreno et al. [43] conducted biofilter modeling using rice husk as filter material to remove heavy metals from water. The use of bioadsorption represents great potential because lignocellulosic materials can be obtained in large quantities, are inexpensive, and can selectively remove Cd (II), Cu (II), and Cr (VI) from aqueous solutions. Based on the results, rice husk was found to be a good alternative for making filters with the ability to remove Cd (II), Cu (II), and Cr (VI) with 83.21%, 67.11%, and 92.18% efficiency, respectively, for specific values of filter height, temperature, and pH.
In sustainable agricultural production, one of the ways to reduce environmental and human, and animal health risks is to use fertilizer from agricultural biogas plants. It can be used in liquid or solid form as fresh matter, granulate, or compost. The introduced organic matter can prevent the leaching of toxic elements on the one hand, and their uptake by plants on the other [41]. Studies on the content of selected heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd, Ni, and Cu) in soils fertilized with mineral fertilizers (NPK and CaNPK) and with digestate and granulate did not show exceeding of permissible standards. The content of elements was compared to unfertilized objects. It was found that the applied post-fermentation masses are safe for fertilizer use. Statistically lower contents of Zn, Cu, and Mn were found after fertilization with fresh digestate compared to control objects, while lower amounts of Cu, Fe, and Cd were found after the application of granules [44].
Compost from digestate is also a product used in fertilization. The content of selected heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd, Ni, and Cu) in soils fertilized with mineral fertilizers (NPK and CaNPK) and with compost was analyzed to demonstrate its environmental safety and, indirectly, animal and human health. The content of elements was compared to objects not fertilized with mineral fertilizers (object 0) and with compost (K—control). The study showed that the long-term application of nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium fertilizers increased the content of available forms of heavy metals in the soil. On the other hand, application of compost from post-fermentation mass caused a statistically significant decrease in bioavailable forms of metals, especially in object CaNPK—Ni, Pb, and Fe and object 0—Zn and Ni. In the case of the NPK object, a significant reduction in the content of all the metals studied except Cu occurred [45].
Detoxification of contaminated natural environments is based on different solutions—the use of antagonistic type interactions in reducing bioaccumulation in animal tissues and the use of properties of compounds of organic and mineral origin.
Vitamins play a special role in reducing the bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the animal organism. They actively participate in body protection by increasing the absorption and cellular bioavailability of elements that are antagonists, maintaining the physiological concentration of ions of these elements, and participating in free radical reactions. Vitamin C in animal feed rations reduces cadmium retention and increases the effectiveness of elements antagonistic to this element, such as Fe, Cu, and Ca. Vitamin C can reduce cadmium concentration in the kidney and liver by 35–40%. Vitamin D, with Ca and Zn, and vitamin A with calcitriol and fluorine can also significantly reduce Cd concentration in tissues. On the other hand, vitamin E can counteract the activity of dehydrogenases, lowered by cadmium [46, 47]. Antagonists of cadmium are elements, such as Zn, Cu, Se, Fe, Mn, Mg, and Ca. In the case of lead, the antagonists are: Fe, Cu, Zn, Mg, Se, Ca, P, and K, while mercury may be selenium. Interactions involve competition in absorption for common transport sites and mutual displacement from metalloproteins, enzymes, DNA, RNA, and cell receptors [46].
Aluminosilicates (e.g., zeolites bentonites, kaolin), humic acids, or flavonoids play a special role in the process of heavy metals reduction in the animal organism. Aluminosilicates, due to their complex-forming, sorption, and ion-exchange properties, counteract the bioaccumulation of heavy metals in animal tissues. Studies using kaolin and zeolite as litter additives for broiler chickens showed a reduction of Hg by over 93%, Pb by almost 31%, and Cd by over 31% in birds’ livers. The use of aluminosilicates in animal feed rations resulted in a reduction of Cu, Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni content in animal tissues. The study with the application of a mixture of humic acids (brown coal and peat) and aluminosilicates (bentonite) showed more than twofold decreased Pb accumulation in animal livers. From the group of flavonoids, quercetin is an organic compound showing the ability to attach metal ions and form complex compounds. Flavonoids that are present in propolis can form chelate compounds with heavy metals, which contributes to the detoxifying effect of this bee product [46].
Industry, motorization, agriculture, and other sources are the cause of heavy metal contamination of the natural environment (soil, plants, water). Toxic metals easily pass into the organism, sometimes they excessively accumulate in tissues and organs, for example, in muscles, blood, liver, or animal hair, as well as in milk of cows, eggs of poultry, and honey, creating certain dangers for human health. There are various ways to reduce the accumulation of these elements in crop plants and deactivation in living organisms. For this purpose, the mechanisms of tolerance of plants to metal, plants having a natural ability to accumulate heavy metals in the process of cleaning the environment (phytoremediation), or the use of fertilizers which are a byproduct of agricultural biogas plants are used. For the deactivation of heavy metals in the body of humans and animals, antagonistic type interactions and the properties of compounds of organic and mineral origin are used.
Orthodontics and orthodontists have always worked towards delivering better care for patients. This has led to the invention of various bracket systems along with the changes in the protocol of management of extraction cases.
The Self Ligating Brackets (SLB) has come into orthodontic practice since 1930’s with the invention of Boydband bracket. These bracket systems along with the thermally activated NiTi wires have reduced the treatment duration, chair-side time, and improved the treatment efficacy and patient co-operation. This led to the invention of Damon’s system by Dr. Dwight Damon in the year 1996. It is called as “System” rather than “Brackets” because it utilizes the benefits of both the brackets and copper NiTi wires, thus delivering a “low force- low friction” mechanics for the management of dental malocclusion [1].
There has been lot of evidence in literature which states that “atraumatic” remodeling of periodontal tissues was rarely achieved using conventional orthodontic bracket system. This is mainly because the tooth was always moved in group. In Damon’s system, the tooth is allowed to move individually, yet stay in the group. The bracket system allows for easy sliding of the tooth along the path of least or no resistance thus leading to faster leveling and alignment and reduced treatment duration [2]. The aim of this chapter is to describe the bracket prescription, efficiency of the appliance, the possible outcomes and its influence on orthodontic therapy.
Damon philosophy uses the concept of passive self-ligation technique which claims to have the lowest frictional resistance of any ligation system. Reduction in friction helps the force to transmit directly from the arch wires to the teeth and its supporting structures without any force dissipation by the ligature system [3].
Comparing the other prescriptions, Damon system has lots of benefits:
Limitations in the use of intraoral expansion appliances such as quad-helix or jack-screw as the optimal forces from the arch wires completely allows the connective tissue and alveolar bone to follow tooth movement with uninterrupted vascular supply to the tooth and its surrounding system thereby providing the necessary expansion [3, 4, 5].
In a study stated that Damon System produced a significant transversal increase in the posterior region of the arches with differences in teeth buccolingual inclinations at post-treatment [6].
Faster alignment of teeth as passive self-ligation produces lower resistance thus allowing a wire to slide.
Reduced amount of pain experienced by patients, and higher treatment efficiency as this friction-free system produces less forces on the teeth [4, 5].
Reduction in the need for extraction as the force applied is minimal that the pressure from lips can control unwanted tipping of incisors during alignment stage [5].
Decreased demand for the use of anchorage devices comparing the conventional appliances as there is reduced friction between the ligation for better tooth control [7].
Reduction in the overall duration of orthodontic treatment up to 7 months and also reduced number of appointments have been found in few researches [8, 9].
Control of tooth position because there is an edgewise slot of adequate width and depth [3].
Decreased discomfort experienced by the patients with the Damon prescription as the forces applied to the teeth are kept minimal throughout the treatment [4].
More efficient chair-side due to reduced ligation time [10].
Promotes periodontal health with better infection control [11].
In orthodontics achieving ideal inclination of anterior using the edgewise system is challenging. In an attempt to overcome this drawback, Damon’s system has different torque prescription. This includes:
These brackets can be used in cases where the incisors or cuspids are severely retroclined or palatally placed. Examples are:
Class I extraction cases with proclined of anterior.
Class II division 1 malocclusion.
Class II division 2 malocclusion with retroclined incisors.
Palatally placed incisors or cuspids.
These brackets can be used in cases where the inclination of anterior is satisfactory and when there will not be any obvious change in the inclination during the course of the treatment.
Examples of the cases include:
Anterior open bite cases with severe proclination of anteriors.
Moderate and severe crowding.
Treatment mechanics which may result in proclination of anteriors.
Incisors with palatally positioned roots.
In class II fixed functional cases or class II elastics cases where control of lower incisor proclination is necessary.
Lingually placed lower incisors [3].
The tip and torque values of Damon’s system are as in Tables 1 and 2.
Upper arch | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
U1 | U2 | U3 | U4 | U5 | U6 | U7 |
+5° | +9° | +6° | +2° | +2° | ||
Lower arch | ||||||
L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 |
+2° | +2° | +5° | +2° | +2° |
Tip values in Damon’s system.
Upper arch | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
U1 | U2 | U3 | U4 | U5 | U6 | U7 | |
High torque | +17° | +10° | +7° | ||||
Standard torque | +12° | +8° | 0° | −7° | −7° | −18° | −27° |
Low torque | +7° | +3° | |||||
Lower arch | |||||||
L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |
High torque | +7° | ||||||
Standard torque | −1° | −1° | 0° | −12° | −17° | −28° | −10° |
Low torque | −6° | −6° |
Torque values in Damon’s system.
Clinically proven
Enhances facial esthetics
More comfortable than traditional braces
Reduced friction and faster tooth movement
Shorter treatment duration
Lesser visits
Expensive than traditional braces
“Metal Mouth” look
The phases of tooth movement are generally.
Initial leveling and aligning – where initial round wires made of multistranded steel or NiTi are used, starting from the smaller dimensions then proceeded with the larger dimensions.
Retraction and space closure – where rigid rectangular wires are used for major mechanics like torque expression and space closure.
Finishing and detailing – round steel wires are usually used.
There are two sequences which are generally followed in pre-adjusted edgewise prescription.
An older concept of a sequence which initially uses round steel wires from sizes.014, .016, .018 and .020 followed by rectangular steel wires from dimensions.018 × .025, .019 × .025 and.021 × .025 in.022 slots.
Multi-stranded wires of dimensions .015 and .0175 were used for initial aligning before .014 round Steel wire came into practice and finishing and detailing was done with.014 steel wires.
Later with the introduction of MBT prescription, arch wire sequencing started with initial .016 CuNiTi wire followed by .019 × .025 CuNiTi and then .019 × .025 Steel wire was used for major biomechanics and detailing was done with .014 round steel wire [12, 13].
A clinical research by Mandall, in which three wire sequences were randomly allocated to patients to compare are as follows:
Group A - 0.016 NiTi, 0.018 × 0.025nNiTi, and .019 × 0.025 Steel wires.
Group B- 0.016 Niti, 0.016 SS and finally 0.020-inch Steel wires.
Group C - 0.016 × 0.022 CuNiTi wire, followed by 0.019 × 0.025 CuNiTi, and ending with 0.019 × 0.025 Steel wire,
And found that all sequences were equally effective. However, the CuNiTi may be preferred by the clinicians as it reduces the number of appointments [14].
In another study by Ong, the three different archwire sequences were applied are as follows:
0.014 Niti, 0.017×0.017 HANT, 0.016×0.022 Steel
0.014 Sentalloy, 0.016×0.022 Bio force, 0.016×0.022 Steel
0.014 CuNiTi, 0.014×0.025 CuNiTi, 0.016×0.022 Steel,
And found that there were no differences among the archwire sequences in terms of aligning or discomfort [15].
Phase 1: Light Round Wires
This phase of treatment uses 0.013, 0.014, or 0.016 CuNiTi arch wires. The aim of this first phase of treatment is to achieve tooth alignment including rotation correction except second molars, level the arches and initiate arch development with light forces to permit the soft tissues to desired arch shape. This phase of treatment normally extends from 10 to 20 weeks and the intervals between appointments are about 10 weeks.
Phase 2: High Rectangular Wires
Phase 2 uses two arch wires: 0.014 × 0.025 CuNiTi followed by 0.018 × 0.025 CuNiTi wires. In case of well aligned arches only 0.016 × 0.025 CuNiTi are used in this phase. If intrusion of anteriors is planned, 0.017× 0.025 or 0.019× 0.025 CuNiTi arch wires with preformed curves or reverse curves of Spee or additional torque can be applied anteriorly in this stage.
The main purposes of this phase are:
Continue arch development
achieve complete alignment of all teeth including second molars,
consolidate anterior spaces and maintain tooth contact,
Initiate torque control and bite opening,
The duration of this phase ranges from 20 to 30 weeks. The first archwire is placed from 8 to 10 weeks and the second is from 4 to 6 weeks.
Phase 3: Major Mechanics
Preposted stainless steel arch wires of size 0.019 × .025 are used. Presence of cross bite at this stage when persisted can be corrected with the use of 0.016 × 0.025 preposted stainless steel arch wire with the use of cross elastics where buccal and lingual tipping can be achieved at this stage.
The main purposes of this phase are:
Finish torque control,
Consolidate posterior space and
Maintain the arch form which developed during the initial two phases,
Completely correct the tooth position in all the three relationships.
This phase of treatment extends from 8 to 10 weeks with an interval about 10-weeks between appointments.
Phase 4: Finishing and Detailing
The stainless steel arch wires continued in this phase with elastics for achieving proper interdigitation. But for individual teeth position 0.019× 0.025 ß-titanium arch wires may also be used [2, 3, 16].
In a study by Handem, used the arch sequence with initial round wires 0.014 or 0.016, followed by rectangular 0.016 × 0.025, 0.018 × 0.025, and 0.019 × 0.025 CuNiTi arch wires subsequently, rectangular 0.017 × 0.025 or 0.019 × 0.025 Steel arch wires [17].
Various clinicians have put forth bracket placement methodologies of the Damon bracket system to achieve the desired smile arc protection, functional occlusion and enhancing the facial esthetics.
Standard bracket placement by Dwight Damon [18]:
According to him, the arch wire slot should be at the distances mentioned below from the incisal edge.
Maxillary
U-l 4.75 mm.
U-2 4.50 mm.
U-3 5.00 mm.
U-4 4.50 mm.
U-5 4.25 mm.
Mandibular
L-l 4.75 mm.
L-2 4.50 mm.
L-3 5.00 mm.
L-4 4.50 mm.
L-5 4.25 mm.
The upper brackets open occlusally and the lower brackets open gingivally.
The mesiodistal width of the pad and the mesiodistal edges of the teeth should be given importance.
Panorex view prior to bracket placement allows to identify root position.
The internal slot and the horizontal components should be parallel to the occlusal plane. This is of greater importance in the lower anteriors.
The scribe line of the bracket and crown long axis should be focused while placing the bracket.
Dr. Dwight Damon advises placement of the bracket within the green zone (in between the green lines). The Damon prescription has variable torque prescriptions to foster the need for different clinical cases. A clinician can place the upper and lower mid-bracket slot within the green lines without dramatically impacting torque.
Dr. Thomas. R. Pitts Protocol [19]:
Dr. Thomas. R. Pitts worked with a philosophy of “beginning with the end in mind”. He believed that developing acumen in precise bracket placement is the single most important protocol to achieve an esthetically pleasing smile and functional occlusion.
Basic principles of the Pitts placement protocol:
Detailed bonding plan before the day of bonding and to select brackets of appropriate torque based on the demand of the case.
Ensure tray setup entails all items for an efficient bonding.
Use two assistants to assist in bonding.
Recontour teeth for esthetics and bracket fit.
Follow an exacting placement protocol to achieve an ideal smile arc in the anteriors and leveling buccal cusps and marginal ridges in the posteriors.
Dr. Pitts bonds the maxillary anteriors to achieve a consonant smile arc at the end of the treatment, the mandibular anteriors for overjet and overbite and the remaining teeth for a good occlusion. He first bonds the mandibular teeth, from the second molar to canine on one side, and repeats the same on the opposite side, followed by lateral to lateral. This is followed to achieve symmetry on either side. The same sequence is repeated in the upper arch. He believed in keying off the maxillary canine to ensure that the canine-lateral and canine- premolar contacts are esthetic and functional.
In the posteriors, to achieve leveled marginal ridges and contact points, the teeth are bonded using the contact points as reference. This is done up to the canine and then the incisors are bonded based on the slot of the maxillary canine to give a sweep in the smile arc which gives a pleasing appearance Figures 1 and 2.
Standard bracket placement of damon bracket.
Picture depicting the “green zone” for bracket placement in the Damon system.
Dr. Pitt’s occluso gingival positioning of brackets is slightly more gingival to the conventional placement on both arches. He believed positioning the brackets more incisally will prevent us from achieving the ideal smile arc and hinders torque control (Figure 3). Dr. Pitts along with Dr. Mike Steffan developed a method to making the bracket positioning easier by drawing lines on the stone models from contact points for the canine, premolars and molars to prevent mistakes in bracket positioning in the transition of contact points from posteriors to anteriors (Figure 4).
Gingival bracket placement for smile arc protection by Dr. Thomas Pitts.
Marking the contact points reference for establishing occlusogingival positioning of brackets.
The position of the maxillary canine is given the prime importance for the sweep in the smile arc. Based on the positioning of this bracket, other anterior brackets were placed. In this method, the incisal edge of the canine bracket wing needs to be placed on a line drawn from mesial to distal contact at the height of contour interproximally. This line was called the mesiodistal (M-D) contact line. The level of the slot of this bracket was used as a reference for maxillary central and lateral incisor positioning. The maxillary lateral incisor bracket is placed 0.5 mm gingival to the canine bracket and central incisor bracket 0.25 mm gingival to this to achieve the ideal smile arc (Figure 5) Further to avoid the bracket positioning error, the author advises the use of a two inch large front surface mirror to avoid any error in bracket positioning (Figure 6).
Bracket positioning in the maxillary incisors and canines.
Use of a large front surface mirror to prevent errors in bracket positioning.
The maxillary premolars are positioned by aligning the scribe line with the crown long axis at the height of contour paralleling the central groove and the M-D buccal line angle. Following correct bracket placement, the bracket on the first premolar would seem too distal to the height of contour and the second premolar at times would appear mesial to the height of contour when viewed from the buccal aspect. The occlusal edge of the brackets should touch the M-D contact line (Figure 7).
Bracket positioning in the maxillary premolars.
The mesiodistal positioning of the buccal tube is done by centering the buccal tube pad over the buccal groove of the teeth and the occluso gingival positioning is done by placing the occlusal edge of the pad on the M-D contact line of the first molar. The second molars follows the same rule for mesiodistal positioning but placed 1.5 mm more occlusally to the first molar tube (Figure 8).
Bracket positioning in the maxillary molars.
The mandibular incisors are placed such that the scribe line is aligned with the long axis of the tooth. The bracket position is viewed from the incisal aspect. For deep bite, the position of the top of the slot is 3.5 mm from the incisal edge to reverse the curve of spee and for open bite; the position of the top of the slot is 5 mm from the incisal edge to open the curve of spee (Figure 9).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular anteriors.
The mesiodistal positioning is done by aligning the scribe line to the long axis of the crown at the height of contour. The position is verified by viewing from the incisal aspect. The occluso gingival positioning is placing the incisal edge of the bracket wing at the M-D contact line (Figure 10).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular canine.
The mesiodistal positioning is done by aligning the scribe line to the crown long axis and viewed from the occlusal aspect. The occluso gingival positioning is based on positioning the occlusal edge of the bracket wing 0.5 mm gingival to the M-D contact line (Figure 11).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular premolars.
The mandibular molars are placed in the same way as the maxillary molars in terms of mesiodistal positioning by orienting the center of the buccal tip of the buccal tube with that of the buccal groove of the tooth. Unlike the maxillary molars, both the mandibular molars are placed at the same height, which is 0.5 mm gingival to the M-D contact line (Figure 12).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular molars.
Another technique that was proposed was the bracket placement in Beethoven’s Orthodontic center. The bracket placement was similar to that given by Dr. Pitts except some modifications that were made in the maxillary canines. According to him, the maxillary canine bracket is placed by aligning it 1 mm mesially away from the long axis of the crown. The slot of the canine was used as a reference for placing the incisor brackets. The slots of the central and lateral incisor brackets are raised 0.5 mm consecutively (Figure 13).
Figure showing placement of brackets in the maxillary anteriors.
Dr. Damon has said that force applied to the bracket should be as light as possible to stimulate tooth movement. His philosophy was to employ the concept of biological adaptation and facially driven treatment plan that focuses on facial esthetics as a critical foundation for diagnosis.
The treatment objective in Damon cases is to
Gain maxillary and mandibular arch length.
Establish upper and lower incisor position to give lip support.
Establish maxillary and mandibular posterior arch width to support mid-face.
Establish ideal maxillary lip-to-tooth relationship.
Design treatment mechanics to eliminate need for higher force rapid palatal expansion.
With low-force mechanics to work with the orofacial muscle complex, bone, and tissue to establish a physiologic tooth position
Damon system can be used in the following cases
Class I- Non Extraction- Young patient with severe crowding and a flat profile
Class I- Non Extraction- Adult patient with severe crowding and a flat profile
Class I- Non Extraction- Young patient- Open bite with posterior crossbite and very narrow deep palate.
Class I- Non Extraction- Adult patient- Open bite with posterior crossbite and very narrow deep palate.
Class I- Extraction- Bimaxillary protrusion and crowding.
Class II division I subdivision with functional shift- Non Extraction
Class II division I- Severe crowding and deep bite
Class II division II- Severe crowding and deep bite
Class III- Severe crowding.
Using the light forces from the Copper NiTi wires and friction less passive self-ligating brackets along with Superelastic NiTi open coil springs wherever required we can achieve a desired treatment outcome with the Damon system.
In case of Class II patients with retrognathic mandibles we can go for Phase 1 therapy with functional appliances or fixed functional appliances.
The Damon self-ligating appliances have certain characteristics such as ease in ligation, wire engagement without undesirable force relaxation of elastomeric modules, which helps in maintaining a constant active status of engaged wires. This makes the Damon appliance more suitable than conventional appliances. This is in agreement with the findings by various other orthodontists, Berger [20], Harradine [9], Turnbull and Birnie [4].
Ormco, Damon Company keeps evolving over the years, coming out with different and more compatible bracket systems. Starting from Damon 3©, to Damon 3mx©, to Damon Q©, to Damon Q2© followed by the latest development, the Damon Ultima™© system. In clear ceramic braces from Damon clear© they have recently developed the Damon Clear 2© system.
They are completely esthetic passive self-ligating brackets made of polycrystalline alumina (PCA) material, which is resistant to staining from coffee, mustard, red wine and other agents. It eliminates the need for the use of elastomers (modules) which generally stain and collect bacteria during the course of the treatment.
Damon Clear 2© brackets have a sturdy base with a fortified slide, window channel and tie wings for extra strength and durability. The four solid walls enable effective torque expression and rotation control for a good and meticulous finishing (Figures 14 and 15).
Damon clear 2© bracket.
Enhanced strength for effective torque expression.
The base design of the Damon Clear 2© brackets is a patented laser etched pad that provides optimal bond strength for greater reliability (Figure 16). The contours of the brackets are smooth and rounded, which ensures patient comfort. The is an option to switch to brackets that have discrete contoured hooks for elastics and other auxiliaries (Figure 17).
Laser etched base for enhanced stability.
Discrete contoured hooks for auxiliaries.
Generally ceramic brackets are thought of as messy, while debonding as they tend to crack and splutter while using a debonding plier to remove the bracket. Whilst, for Damon Clear 2©, Ormco has a patented debonding instrument, the Damon Clear Debonding Instrument ©, which results in fast and comfortable debonding experience for patients (Figure 18). There is also no requirement for removing flash after the debonding procedure.
Debonding of the bracket with Damon clear Debonding instrument ©.
Removable positioning gauge with scaler notch is present in each of the clear brackets for easy and efficient placement of the bracket (Figure 19). There are color-coded positioning gauges on brackets (13–23) present that denote torque values.
Removable position gauge with scalar notch.
For a higher efficient and quality treatment, proper wire sequencing must be employed. The initial arch wires being the Damon Optimal-Force Copper Ni-Ti® to low-friction TMA and stainless-steel arch wires. Each wire must have sufficient time to express itself before progression to the next wire. For anterior torque expression, either pre-torqued nickel titanium arch wires or TMA arch wires are to be used. For rotational bends, TMA arch wires or titanium niobium arch wires are to be used. However, care should be taken in employing finishing bends in stainless steel wires, since such bends may result in fractures.
Damon Ultima ™ © was designed and introduced for a faster and a more precise finishing. Traditional passive self-ligating brackets and wires have significant play which generally results in poor control, manual adjustments and extended treatment time. The Damon Ultima ™© system is the first system that is completely reengineered to virtually eliminate play, for a precise control of rotation, angulation and torque [3].
The enhanced features in Damon Ultima ™© are as follows:
Completely re-engineered tie-wing is said to improve the ability to engage and ligate elastomeric chains (Figure 20).
Smoother tie wings were designed for a better patient comfort and minimal occlusal interference (Figure 21).
The base of the bracket with 80 gauge mesh designed for reliable and increased bond strength throughout treatment and for a predictable debonding experience (Figure 22).
Easy to open and close the slot door design with low reciprocal forces and tactile feedback. The bracket door and wire are designed to reduce door closure interference (Figure 23).
Rhomboid shaped pad with enhanced scribe line help in guiding bracket placement (Figure 24).
Presence of vertical slot for convenient placement of drop-in hooks (Figure 25).
Reengineered tie wing in Damon Ultima ™©.
Smoother tie wings for patient comfort.
Base of the bracket of Damon Ultima ™©.
The enhanced bracket door design.
Rhomboid shaped pad in Damon Ultima ™©.
Vertical slot for placement of drop-in hooks.
The retrocline and procline bracket options were introduced for enhanced torque control. Brackets were designed from the centre point of the clot to the line-up with the FA point to express desired torque and provide easier and more precise placement (Figure 26).
Adversity of procline and retrocline brackets in the Damon Ultima ™© system, that can be used to incorporate torque whenever needed.
Additionally, extra arch wire options were included, for torque control when needed. Sizes available are: 0.019*0.0275, 0.0020*0.0275, and 0.021*0.0275 in Copper NiTi, TMA and SS (Figure 27).
Reengineered arch wire for better torque control.
Passive self-ligation offers the most direct transmission of force from the arch wire to the tooth with very low friction, a very secure ligation along with excellent control of tooth position. Every contemporary modality of orthodontic treatment achieves tooth alignment; however passive self-ligation achieves the results effectively and efficiently. With the evolution of various systems like Damon Clear2 and Damon Ultima ©, the orthodontic tooth movement is achieved at its best.
Dr. Suvetha Siva- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Shreya Kishore- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Suganya Dhanapal- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Janani Ravi- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Chandhini Suresh- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Our journals are currently in their launching issue. They will be applied to all relevant indexes as soon as they are eligible. These include (but are not limited to): Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, MEDLINE, Database of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar and Inspec.
\n\nIntechOpen books are indexed by the following abstracting and indexing services:
",metaTitle:"Indexing and Abstracting",metaDescription:"IntechOpen was built by scientists, for scientists. We understand the community we serve, but to bring an even better service to the table for IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we partnered with the leading companies and associations in the industry and beyond.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/indexing-and-abstracting",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Clarivate Web Of Science - Book Citation Index
\\n\\nCroatian Library (digital NSK)
\\n\\nOCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - WorldCat® Digital Collection Gateway
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Clarivate Web Of Science - Book Citation Index
\n\nCroatian Library (digital NSK)
\n\nOCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - WorldCat® Digital Collection Gateway
\n\n\n\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5944},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17700}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133952},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"7"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11477",title:"Public Economics - New Perspectives and Uncertainty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a8e6c515dc924146fbd2712eb4e7d118",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Habtamu Alem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11477.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"414400",title:"Dr.",name:"Habtamu",surname:"Alem",slug:"habtamu-alem",fullName:"Habtamu Alem"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian Sloboda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11774",title:"International Law - A Practical Manual",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c607e873911da868c0764770dc224313",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael Underdown",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11774.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"478218",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Underdown",slug:"michael-underdown",fullName:"Michael Underdown"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11775",title:"Global Peace and Security",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"131303f07b492463a5c4a7607fe46ba9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Norman Chivasa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11775.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"331566",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman",surname:"Chivasa",slug:"norman-chivasa",fullName:"Norman Chivasa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11776",title:"Fashion Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e8d53d1029a7bccf825aa55d43fecc68",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11776.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12133",title:"Agricultural Value Chain",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19892b77680b500f259ea7a506365cdc",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12133.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12134",title:"Sustainable Tourism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb510c876f827a1df7960a523a4b5db3",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12134.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12138",title:"Online Advertising",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d1a7aaa841aba83e7199b564c4991cf1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12138.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr.Ing. Ireneusz Miciuła",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Joseph Crawford",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12239",title:"Topics on Globalization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"43443244d8385c57f1424d5d37c91788",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Elsadig Musa Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12239.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"268621",title:"Prof.",name:"Elsadig",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"elsadig-ahmed",fullName:"Elsadig Ahmed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:120},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:11},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4420},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Emeje",slug:"martins-emeje",fullName:"Martins Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar El-Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-el-sayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar El-Sayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1",title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology",parent:null,numberOfBooks:2684,numberOfSeries:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:57959,numberOfWosCitations:107732,numberOfCrossrefCitations:65268,numberOfDimensionsCitations:140690,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar El-Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-el-sayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar El-Sayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Emeje",slug:"martins-emeje",fullName:"Martins Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11158",title:"New Advances in Semiconductors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"238b808626f765e883b9bff8b62eae18",slug:"new-advances-in-semiconductors",bookSignature:"Alberto Adriano Cavalheiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201848",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Cavalheiro",slug:"alberto-adriano-cavalheiro",fullName:"Alberto Adriano Cavalheiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:"progress-in-volcanology",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10821",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:"Theories and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18463c2291ba306c4dcbabd988227eea",slug:"automation-and-control-theories-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10632",title:"Theory and Practice of Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49",slug:"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2684,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9248,totalCrossrefCites:162,totalDimensionsCites:393,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"60680",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76082",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16114,totalCrossrefCites:178,totalDimensionsCites:384,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"36171",doi:"10.5772/36942",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:9225,totalCrossrefCites:130,totalDimensionsCites:375,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko"}]},{id:"41411",doi:"10.5772/53659",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20608,totalCrossrefCites:97,totalDimensionsCites:305,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"17237",doi:"10.5772/24553",title:"Hydrogels: Methods of Preparation, Characterisation and Applications",slug:"hydrogels-methods-of-preparation-characterisation-and-applications",totalDownloads:65847,totalCrossrefCites:86,totalDimensionsCites:277,abstract:null,book:{id:"248",slug:"progress-in-molecular-and-environmental-bioengineering-from-analysis-and-modeling-to-technology-applications",title:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering",fullTitle:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering - From Analysis and Modeling to Technology Applications"},signatures:"Syed K. H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35255",title:"Mechanical Transmissions Parameter Modelling",slug:"mechanical-transmissions-parameter-modelling",totalDownloads:7279,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Isad Saric, Nedzad Repcic and Adil Muminovic",authors:[{id:"101313",title:"Prof.",name:"Isad",middleName:null,surname:"Saric",slug:"isad-saric",fullName:"Isad Saric"}]},{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:24813,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:10511,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The characterization of the diversity of species living within ecosystems is of major scientific interest to understand the functioning of these ecosystems. It is also becoming a societal issue since it is necessary to implement the conservation or even the restoration of biodiversity. Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12245,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82418",title:"Bayesian Networks for Decision Support in Emergency Response: A Model for Missing Person Investigations",slug:"bayesian-networks-for-decision-support-in-emergency-response-a-model-for-missing-person-investigatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105047",abstract:"The successful operation of Emergency services (Police, Fire, Medical Emergency) relies heavily upon Information Systems and particularly Decision Support Systems. Missing person cases consume resources from the already overstretched resources of Police Forces. Such cases predominantly come from at-risk groups such as children in care, people suffering from depression, or elderly people suffering from dementia. This chapter reviews current practices used for missing person cases and describes a decision support model based on Bayesian networks.",book:{id:"11068",title:"Contemporary Issues in Information Systems - a Global Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11068.jpg"},signatures:"Denis Reilly"},{id:"82413",title:"Utilization of Biopolymers in Water Based Drilling Muds",slug:"utilization-of-biopolymers-in-water-based-drilling-muds",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105516",abstract:"With the increase in energy demand, deeper wells drilling is one of the solutions to fulfill the energy demand, which demands specialized drilling mud formulation. These muds are composed of thermally stable materials that can sustain in high-temperature conditions. Biopolymers are widely used out of various mud additives for improving the rheology and filtration characteristics of mud. Owing to the high temperature and poor thermal stability of such additives, these additives lose their primary functions, resulting in the nonproductive time and irreversible problems. The book chapter highlights the uses of water-based mud, its limitations, and the degradation of biopolymers. Various additives’ significance and susceptibility in harsh borehole conditions have been discussed. The existing additives used for the rheological and filtration characteristics improvements and their shortcomings are presented. Furthermore, the field applications of native and modified polymeric-based mud formulations have been further examined and presented.",book:{id:"11929",title:"Drilling Engineering and Technology - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11929.jpg"},signatures:"Imtiaz Ali, Maqsood Ahmad, Aftab Hussain Arain, Vahid Atashbari and Asif Zamir"},{id:"82123",title:"Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis Process: From a Laboratory Scale to an Industrial Plant",slug:"microwave-assisted-pyrolysis-process-from-a-laboratory-scale-to-an-industrial-plant",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104925",abstract:"One of the great challenges for the European Union (EU) is the “Circular Economy Package,” and to achieve this goal, materials at the end of their life cycle must be recycled using a sustainable process. In this way, as a thermochemical treatment, pyrolysis represents a significant opportunity so long it leads to the recovery of both energy and chemical content of mixed, contaminated, or deteriorated plastics. An excellent history of an academic-industrial adventure started in 2008 at the Department of Chemistry of the University of Florence demonstrates the possibility of employing microwaves to recycle plastics to preserve their energy and chemical content. After that, Techwave started industrialization of the process in 2019, realizing a small-scale prototype followed by a full-scale pilot plant using different plastic materials (e.g., polystyrene, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and polypropylene). Nowadays, the plant may process 90 kg/h of plastics with a low formation of char and gas and an interesting amount of liquid useful as a source of chemicals or fuel because it has an LHV of 35–43 kJ/kg. The Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (MAP) is an industrial novelty in plastic recycling, and it looks very promising for a much more modern and innovative plastic waste recovery system.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"Marco Frediani, Piero Frediani, Gianni Innocenti, Irene Mellone, Roberto Simoni and Gianpaolo Oteri"},{id:"82420",title:"Applications of Microwaves in Medicine and Biology",slug:"applications-of-microwaves-in-medicine-and-biology",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105492",abstract:"This chapter deals with the description of recent research activities oriented on the perspective of microwave technologies in medicine and biology. It brings new ideas about the possibilities of using microwaves in thermotherapy—above all toward hyperthermia in cancer treatment. Development of new types of hyperthermia applicators (based, e.g., on technologies such as metamaterials, evanescent modes in waveguides, and other types of transmission structures) will be discussed here. Furthermore, we would like to underline in this chapter perspectives of microwaves in medical diagnostics. It is possible to expect that, e.g., microwave differential tomography, UWB radar, and microwave radiometers (all three can be used both for medical diagnostic and for noninvasive temperature measurement) will soon play an important role in it. Finally, experimental equipment necessary for research on the biological effects of EM fields is presented.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"David Vrba, Jan Vrba, Ondrej Fiser, Jesus Cumana, Milan Babak and Jan Vrba Senior"},{id:"82158",title:"A Usability Analysis of the DAO Concept Based on the Case Study of a Blockchain Game",slug:"a-usability-analysis-of-the-dao-concept-based-on-the-case-study-of-a-blockchain-game",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105347",abstract:"Games based on a blockchain exist in all variants and facets, mostly as single- or multiplayer games. This chapter deals with the implementation of a multiplayer strategy game (Connect Four), using blockchain technology for decentralized data storage and the entire game logic. The focus is on the use of the decentralized autonomous organization (DAO) principle, for coordination and voting within the teams. The chosen game just stands as an example; other games or gamification approaches in which users can take decisions collaboratively can be used here. A web application was implemented acting as a central interface between players and the blockchain. Hence, it was possible for players to compete against each other in teams and to collectively decide the next move by participating in a roundly voting. With the help of a standardized questionnaire, answered by each player after each match, possible impacts of the voting mechanism on the usability were determined.",book:{id:"11552",title:"Gamification - Analysis, Design and Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11552.jpg"},signatures:"Lars Karbach, Mortiz Korte, Nils Orbat, Daniel Muschiol and March Jansen"},{id:"82415",title:"Power Consumption in CMOS Circuits",slug:"power-consumption-in-cmos-circuits",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105717",abstract:"In this chapter, we explain the two types of power consumption found in a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) circuit. In general, a CMOS circuit tends to dissipate power at all times—be it active or inactive. The power consumed by the circuit when it is performing computational tasks is known as dynamic power. On the contrary, the power lost due to current leakage during which the circuit is dormant is referred to as static power. By carefully and properly designing the circuit, current leakage can be suppressed to its minimum. Hence, dynamic power consumption is usually significantly higher than its static counterpart. Some of the techniques that could be adopted to save dynamic power consumption include reducing the supply voltage, clock frequency, clock power, and dynamic effective capacitance. By probing into the activity factors of the design modules, the techniques can be applied to those with high power consumption.",book:{id:"11948",title:"Field-Effect Transistor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11948.jpg"},signatures:"Len Luet Ng, Kim Ho Yeap, Magdalene Wan Ching Goh and Veerendra Dakulagi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:797},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:315,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",signatures:"Anat Raviv",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82310",title:"Knowledge of Intergenerational Contact to Combat Ageism towards Older People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105592",signatures:"Alice Nga Lai Kwong",slug:"knowledge-of-intergenerational-contact-to-combat-ageism-towards-older-people",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"81993",title:"Emergent Chemistry: Using Visualizations to Develop Abstract Thinking and a Sense of Scale Within the Preschool Setting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105216",signatures:"Karina Adbo",slug:"emergent-chemistry-using-visualizations-to-develop-abstract-thinking-and-a-sense-of-scale-within-the",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82252",title:"Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105157",signatures:"Analía Mignaton",slug:"early-childhood-enriched-environments-and-roles-of-caring-adults",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",slug:"thresholding-image-techniques-for-plant-segmentation",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79491",title:"Fuzzy Perceptron Learning for Non-Linearly Separable Patterns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101312",signatures:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",slug:"fuzzy-perceptron-learning-for-non-linearly-separable-patterns",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Raja Kishor",surname:"Duggirala"}],book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81234",title:"Cognitive Visual Tracking of Hand Gestures in Real-Time RGB Videos",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103170",signatures:"Richa Golash and Yogendra Kumar Jain",slug:"cognitive-visual-tracking-of-hand-gestures-in-real-time-rgb-videos",totalDownloads:39,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81331",title:"Machine Learning Algorithm-Based Contraceptive Practice among Ever-Married Women in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Machine Learning Classification Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103187",signatures:"Iqramul Haq, Md. Ismail Hossain, Md. Moshiur Rahman, Md. Injamul Haq Methun, Ashis Talukder, Md. Jakaria Habib and Md. Sanwar Hossain",slug:"machine-learning-algorithm-based-contraceptive-practice-among-ever-married-women-in-bangladesh-a-hie",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Applied Intelligence",value:22,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Computer Vision",value:24,count:8,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:26,count:10,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9883",title:"Biosensors",subtitle:"Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9883.jpg",slug:"biosensors-current-and-novel-strategies-for-biosensing",publishedDate:"May 5th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Jesús Villarreal-Gómez and Ana Leticia Iglesias",hash:"028f3e5dbf9c32590183ac4b4f0a2825",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Biosensors - Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",editors:[{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. Varkey",hash:"de9fa48c5248dbfb581825b8c74f5623",volumeInSeries:0,fullTitle:"Peptide Synthesis",editors:[{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",hash:"da2c90e8db647ead30504defce3fb5d3",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261466/images/system/261466.jpeg",institutionString:"Medical University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7437",title:"Nanomedicines",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7437.jpg",slug:"nanomedicines",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",hash:"0e1f5f6258f074c533976c4f4d248568",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Nanomedicines",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63182/images/system/63182.png",institutionString:"Forman Christian College",institution:{name:"Forman Christian College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",value:9,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",value:8,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",value:7,count:9}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:3}],authors:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{id:"424419",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew",middleName:"Ayorinde",surname:"Ayorinde Adebayo",slug:"matthew-ayorinde-adebayo",fullName:"Matthew Ayorinde Adebayo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/424419/images/17356_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"354033",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Nasri",slug:"ahmed-nasri",fullName:"Ahmed Nasri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"435702",title:"Dr.",name:"Amel",middleName:null,surname:"Hannachi",slug:"amel-hannachi",fullName:"Amel Hannachi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"420857",title:"Prof.",name:"Ezzeddine",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"ezzeddine-mahmoudi",fullName:"Ezzeddine Mahmoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"420856",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamouda",middleName:null,surname:"Beyrem",slug:"hamouda-beyrem",fullName:"Hamouda Beyrem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"435703",title:"Dr.",name:"Hary",middleName:null,surname:"Demey",slug:"hary-demey",fullName:"Hary Demey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Cartagena",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"425026",title:"Mr.",name:"Kholofelo",middleName:null,surname:"Clifford Malematja",slug:"kholofelo-clifford-malematja",fullName:"Kholofelo Clifford Malematja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"435701",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Allouche",slug:"mohamed-allouche",fullName:"Mohamed Allouche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"420855",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Aïssa",slug:"patricia-aissa",fullName:"Patricia Aïssa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"435699",title:"Dr.",name:"Takoua",middleName:null,surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"takoua-mhadhbi",fullName:"Takoua Mhadhbi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"442300",title:"Prof.",name:"Véronique",middleName:null,surname:"Perrier",slug:"veronique-perrier",fullName:"Véronique Perrier",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Montpellier",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"445179",title:"Mr.",name:"Aman",middleName:null,surname:"Jaiswal",slug:"aman-jaiswal",fullName:"Aman Jaiswal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"445178",title:"Mr.",name:"Dhiraj",middleName:null,surname:"Dutta",slug:"dhiraj-dutta",fullName:"Dhiraj Dutta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Defence Research Laboratory",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"445180",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama",middleName:null,surname:"Dubey",slug:"rama-dubey",fullName:"Rama Dubey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Defence Research Laboratory",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424992",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Helal",slug:"mohamed-helal",fullName:"Mohamed Helal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"428329",title:"Mr.",name:"Collet",middleName:null,surname:"Maswanganyi",slug:"collet-maswanganyi",fullName:"Collet Maswanganyi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Limpopo",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428546",title:"MSc.",name:"Ndivhuwo",middleName:null,surname:"Shumbula",slug:"ndivhuwo-shumbula",fullName:"Ndivhuwo Shumbula",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"352155",title:"Dr.",name:"Poslet",middleName:"Morgan",surname:"Shumbula",slug:"poslet-shumbula",fullName:"Poslet Shumbula",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Limpopo",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"435064",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammadtaghi",middleName:null,surname:"Vakili",slug:"mohammadtaghi-vakili",fullName:"Mohammadtaghi Vakili",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Yangtze Normal University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"437268",title:"Dr.",name:"Linda Lunga",middleName:null,surname:"Sibali",slug:"linda-lunga-sibali",fullName:"Linda Lunga Sibali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437269",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter P.",middleName:null,surname:"Ndibewu",slug:"peter-p.-ndibewu",fullName:"Peter P. Ndibewu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"424106",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Siyabonga",middleName:null,surname:"Aubrey Mhlongo",slug:"siyabonga-aubrey-mhlongo",fullName:"Siyabonga Aubrey Mhlongo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"424233",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ifeoluwa Oluwafunmilayo",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"ifeoluwa-oluwafunmilayo-daramola",fullName:"Ifeoluwa Oluwafunmilayo Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446429",title:"Dr.",name:"Dev Vrat",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboj",slug:"dev-vrat-kamboj",fullName:"Dev Vrat Kamboj",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"425585",title:"Dr.",name:"NISHA",middleName:null,surname:"GAUR",slug:"nisha-gaur",fullName:"NISHA GAUR",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"226635",title:"Prof.",name:"Amany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Sikaily",slug:"amany-el-sikaily",fullName:"Amany El-Sikaily",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"435668",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ghanem",slug:"sara-ghanem",fullName:"Sara Ghanem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"426808",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yesim",middleName:null,surname:"Gucbilmez",slug:"yesim-gucbilmez",fullName:"Yesim Gucbilmez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"423291",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Cagnetta",slug:"giovanni-cagnetta",fullName:"Giovanni Cagnetta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82013",title:"Streamlining Laboratory Tests for HIV Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105096",signatures:"Ramakrishna Prakash and Mysore Krishnamurthy Yashaswini",slug:"streamlining-laboratory-tests-for-hiv-detection",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. Subba Tata",hash:"083e5d427097d368a3f8a02bd6c76bf8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8762",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70489",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246279/images/system/246279.jpg",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.png",institutionString:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6897",title:"Biophysical Chemistry",subtitle:"Advance Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6897.jpg",slug:"biophysical-chemistry-advance-applications",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohammed A. A. Khalid",hash:"0ad18ab382e2ffb9ff202d15282297eb",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Biophysical Chemistry - Advance Applications",editors:[{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:315,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"