Parameters of water quality.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5847",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Aerial Robots - Aerodynamics, Control and Applications",title:"Aerial Robots",subtitle:"Aerodynamics, Control and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Few years ago, the topic of aerial robots was exclusively related to the robotics community, so a great number of books about the dynamics and control of aerial robots and UAVs have been written. As the control technology for UAVs advances, the great interaction that exists between other systems and elements that are as important as control such as aerodynamics, energy efficiency, acoustics, structural integrity, and applications, among others has become evident. Aerial Robots - Aerodynamics, Control, and Applications is an attempt to bring some of these topics related to UAVs together in just one book and to look at a selection of the most relevant problems of UAVs in a broader engineering perspective.",isbn:"978-953-51-3464-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3463-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4661-2",doi:"10.5772/65604",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"aerial-robots-aerodynamics-control-and-applications",numberOfPages:194,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"340f32fcf4dae90d01d22d6a394b9d85",bookSignature:"Omar Dario Lopez Mejia and Jaime Alberto Escobar Gomez",publishedDate:"September 6th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5847.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21124,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:41,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:90,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 11th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 9th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 28th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 28th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 27th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186649",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",middleName:"Dario",surname:"Lopez Mejia",slug:"omar-lopez-mejia",fullName:"Omar Lopez Mejia",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186649/images/6014_n.jpg",biography:"Omar Dario Lopez Mejia, PhD, is an associate professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Universidad de los Andes in Bogota, Colombia. Prof. Lopez obtained his PhD degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Texas in Austin, USA, with specialization in thermal-fluid systems. His area of expertise is related to the simulation of external flows at moderate and high Reynolds number, including the simulation of the flow around MAVs, both fixed-wing and with rotors. Specifically, Prof. Lopez is interested in developing computational frameworks in which unsteady fluid dynamics simulation, structure interaction (RBD or flexible), and energy efficiency and control (including flow control) are highly coupled.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"195448",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Escobar",slug:"jaime-escobar",fullName:"Jaime Escobar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195448/images/6015_n.jpg",biography:"Jaime A. Escobar Gomez received his bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Universidad de America in Colombia and his master’s degree in Aerospace Engineering from the Concordia University in Montreal, Canada. He is also a private pilot, an aviation maintenance technician, and an aviation aficionado. He joined the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the Universidad de San Buenaventura, Bogota, in 2008 where he has taught courses in aerodynamics, aircraft performance, flight dynamics, and case studies with applications in industry and CFD. His research work is focused on UAS and MAV design and innovation, applied low Reynolds number aerodynamics, and applied CFD for external flows. Mr. Escobar co-founded “Advector: Unmanned Systems” in 2010 where he leads the development team for the unmanned aerial systems.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"682",title:"Aerodynamics",slug:"aerospace-engineering-aerodynamics"}],chapters:[{id:"55909",title:"Computational Aeroelasticity of Flying Robots with Flexible Wings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69396",slug:"computational-aeroelasticity-of-flying-robots-with-flexible-wings",totalDownloads:2002,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A computational co‐simulation framework for flying robots with flexible wings is presented. The authors combine a nonlinear aerodynamic model based on an extended version of the unsteady vortex‐lattice method with a nonlinear structural model based on a segregated formulation of Lagrange’s equations obtained with the Floating Frame of Reference formalism. The structural model construction allows for hybrid combinations of different models typically used with multibody systems such as models based on rigid‐body dynamics, assumed‐modes techniques, and finite‐element methods. The aerodynamic model includes a simulation of leading‐edge separation for large angles of attack. The governing differential‐algebraic equations are solved simultaneously and interactively to obtain the structural response and the flow in the time domain. The integration is based on the fourth‐order predictor‐corrector method of Hamming with a procedure to stabilize the iteration. The findings are found to capture known nonlinear behavior of flapping-wing systems. The developed framework should be relevant for conducting aeroelastic studies on a wide variety of air vehicle systems.",signatures:"Sergio Preidikman, Bruno Antonio Roccia, Marcos Leonardo\nVerstraete, Marcelo Federico Valdez, Dean T. Mook and Balakumar\nBalachandran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55909",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55909",authors:[{id:"201035",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Preidikman",slug:"sergio-preidikman",fullName:"Sergio Preidikman"},{id:"201037",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno A.",surname:"Roccia",slug:"bruno-a.-roccia",fullName:"Bruno A. Roccia"},{id:"201038",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos L.",surname:"Verstraete",slug:"marcos-l.-verstraete",fullName:"Marcos L. Verstraete"},{id:"201039",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo F.",surname:"Valdéz",slug:"marcelo-f.-valdez",fullName:"Marcelo F. Valdéz"},{id:"201040",title:"Dr.",name:"Balakumar",surname:"Balachandran",slug:"balakumar-balachandran",fullName:"Balakumar Balachandran"},{id:"201041",title:"Dr.",name:"Dean T.",surname:"Mook",slug:"dean-t.-mook",fullName:"Dean T. Mook"}],corrections:null},{id:"56607",title:"Overview of Coandă MAV as an Aerial Robotic Platform",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70157",slug:"overview-of-coand-mav-as-an-aerial-robotic-platform",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the increasing need of micro‐air‐vehicles (MAVs) and advances in MAV technology, Coandă MAVs offer new promises and challenges. In this context, Coandă MAVs capabilities are analyzed. As a baseline, a mathematical model for a spherical Coandă MAV in hover and translatory motion is developed and analyzed from first physical principles. A computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations for a Coandă MAV generic model are carried out to assess the theoretical prediction and obtaining further physical insight on the Coandă MAV flow physics. The mathematical model and performance measures are developed to assess the capability of the semi‐spherical Coandă MAV in performing effective flight as an aerial robotic platform, as indicated by the relationships between the relevant parameters of the mathematical model of the Coandă MAV to its system of flight forces.",signatures:"Harijono Djojodihardjo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56607",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56607",authors:[{id:"121104",title:"Dr.",name:"Harijono",surname:"Djojodihardjo",slug:"harijono-djojodihardjo",fullName:"Harijono Djojodihardjo"}],corrections:null},{id:"56571",title:"Innovative Propulsion Systems and CFD Simulation for Fixed Wings UAVs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70273",slug:"innovative-propulsion-systems-and-cfd-simulation-for-fixed-wings-uavs",totalDownloads:1434,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, mobile applications demand, in large extent, an improvement in the overall efficiency of systems, in order to diversify the number of applications. For unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), an enhancement in their performance translates into larger payloads and range. These factors encourage the search for novel propulsion architectures, which present high synergy with the airframe and remaining components and subsystems, to enable a better UAV performance. In this context, technologies broadly examined are distributed propulsion (DP), thrust split (TS), and boundary layer ingestion (BLI), which have shown potential opportunities to achieve ambitious performance targets (ACARE 2020, NASA N+3). The present work briefly describes these technologies and shows preliminary results for a conceptual propulsion configuration using a set number of propulsors. Furthermore, the simulation process for a blended wing body (BWB) airframe using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) OpenFOAM software is described. The latter is examined due to its advantages in terms of versatility and cost, compared with licensed CFD software. This work does not intend to give a broad explanation of each of the topics, but rather to give an insight into the state of the art in modeling of distributed propulsion systems and CFD simulation using open-source software implemented in UAVs.",signatures:"Esteban Valencia and Victor Hidalgo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56571",authors:[{id:"198406",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Esteban",surname:"Valencia",slug:"esteban-valencia",fullName:"Esteban Valencia"},{id:"198408",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victor",surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"victor-hidalgo",fullName:"Victor Hidalgo"}],corrections:null},{id:"56112",title:"Comparison between Semiempirical and Computational Techniques in the Prediction of Aerodynamic Performance of the Rotor of a Quadcopter",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69730",slug:"comparison-between-semiempirical-and-computational-techniques-in-the-prediction-of-aerodynamic-perfo",totalDownloads:2068,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is a growing technology used in different industries, and the main platform used for the UAVs is the quadcopter. The rotor of a quadcopter typically operates at low to moderate Reynolds number, so that the aerodynamics and an early prediction of the performance of the propellers are important in the design of the quadcopter. In the present chapter, the performance of a commercial propeller used in quadcopters is analyzed with three different techniques: momentum theory, blade element theory, and computational fluid dynamics. By applying the momentum and blade element theory, it was possible to estimate the thrust generated for a propeller in hover. A computational model based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was implemented and used to simulate a propeller in hover; the model predicts the wake and the thrust of the propeller as well. The results of the theory and computational approximations were compared with experimental measurements of flying tests.",signatures:"Andres Mauricio Pérez Gordillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56112",authors:[{id:"199813",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Andres",surname:"Pérez",slug:"andres-perez",fullName:"Andres Pérez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55883",title:"Nonlinear Dynamics and Control of Aerial Robots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69641",slug:"nonlinear-dynamics-and-control-of-aerial-robots",totalDownloads:1550,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aerial robotics is one of the fastest growing industry and has a number of evolving applications. Higher agility make aerial robots ideal candidate for applications like rescue missions especially in difficult to access areas. This chapter first derives the complete nonlinear dynamics of an aerial robot consisting of a quadcopter with a two-link robot manipulator. Precise control of such an aerial robot is a challenging task due to the fact that the translational and rotational dynamics of the quadcopter are strongly coupled with the dynamics of the manipulator. We extend our previous results on the control of quadrotor UAVs to the control of aerial robots. In particular, we design a backstepping and Lyapunov-based nonlinear feedback control law that achieves point-to-point control of the areal robot. The effectiveness of this feedback control law is illustrated through a simulation example.",signatures:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu and Muhammad Rehan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55883",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55883",authors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],corrections:null},{id:"56312",title:"Design and Development of Aerial Robotic Systems for Sampling Operations in Industrial Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70005",slug:"design-and-development-of-aerial-robotic-systems-for-sampling-operations-in-industrial-environment",totalDownloads:1480,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the development of an autonomous fluid sampling system for outdoor facilities, and the localization solution to be used. The automated sampling system will be based on collaborative robotics, with a team of a UAV and a UGV platform travelling through a plant to collect water samples. The architecture of the system is described, as well as the hardware present in the UAV and the different software frameworks used. A visual simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) technique is proposed to deal with the localization problem, based on authors’ previous works, including several innovations: a new method to initialize the scale using unreliable global positioning system (GPS) measurements, integration of attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) measurements into the recursive state estimation, and a new technique to track features during the delayed feature initialization process. These procedures greatly enhance the robustness and usability of the SLAM technique as they remove the requirement of assisted scale initialization, and they reduce the computational effort to initialize features. To conclude, results from experiments performed with simulated data and real data captured with a prototype UAV are presented and discussed.",signatures:"Rodrigo Munguia, Edmundo Guerra, Sarquis Urzua, Yolanda Bolea\nand Antoni Grau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56312",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56312",authors:[{id:"13038",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoni",surname:"Grau",slug:"antoni-grau",fullName:"Antoni Grau"},{id:"18024",title:"Dr.",name:"Yolanda",surname:"Bolea",slug:"yolanda-bolea",fullName:"Yolanda Bolea"},{id:"163432",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Munguia",slug:"rodrigo-munguia",fullName:"Rodrigo Munguia"},{id:"165970",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Edmundo",surname:"Guerra",slug:"edmundo-guerra",fullName:"Edmundo Guerra"},{id:"201103",title:"Mr.",name:"Sarquis",surname:"Urzua",slug:"sarquis-urzua",fullName:"Sarquis Urzua"}],corrections:null},{id:"55917",title:"On-Board High-Performance Computing For Multi-Robot Aerial Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69443",slug:"on-board-high-performance-computing-for-multi-robot-aerial-systems",totalDownloads:8052,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With advancements in low-energy-consumption multi/many core embedded-computing devices, a logical transition for robotic systems is Supercomputing, formally known as high performance computing (HPC), a tool currently used for solving the most complex problems for humankind such as the origin of the universe, the finding of deceases’ cures, etc. As such, HPC has always been focused on scientific inquires. However, its scope can be widening up to include missions carried out with robots. Since a robot could be embedded with computing devices, a set of robots could be set as a cluster of computers, the most reliable HPC infrastructure. The advantages of setting up such an infrastructure are many, from speeding up on-board computation up to providing a multi-robot system with robustness, scalability, user transparency, etc., all key features in supercomputing. This chapter presents a middleware technology for the enabling of high performance computing in multi-robot systems, in particular for aerial robots. The technology can be used for the automatic deployment of cluster computing in multi-robot systems, the utilization of standard HPC technologies, and the development of HPC applications in multiple fields such as precision agriculture, military, civilian, search and rescue, etc.",signatures:"Leonardo Camargo Forero, Pablo Royo and Xavier Prats",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55917",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55917",authors:[{id:"198597",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Prats",slug:"xavier-prats",fullName:"Xavier Prats"},{id:"198598",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Royo",slug:"pablo-royo",fullName:"Pablo Royo"},{id:"198626",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo",surname:"Camargo Forero",slug:"leonardo-camargo-forero",fullName:"Leonardo Camargo Forero"}],corrections:null},{id:"55936",title:"Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs) for Environmental Monitoring: A Review with Applications in Coastal Habitats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69598",slug:"unmanned-aerial-systems-uass-for-environmental-monitoring-a-review-with-applications-in-coastal-habi",totalDownloads:2455,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nowadays the proliferation of small unmanned aerial systems or vehicles (UAS/Vs), formerly known as drones, coupled with an increasing interest in tools for environmental monitoring, have led to an exponential use of these unmanned aerial platforms for many applications in the most diverse fields of science. In particular, ecologists require data collected at appropriate spatial and temporal resolutions to describe ecological processes. For these reasons, we are witnessing the proliferation of UAV-based remote sensing techniques because they provide new perspectives on ecological phenomena that would otherwise be difficult to study. Therefore, we propose a brief review regarding the emerging applications of low-cost aerial platforms in the field of environmental sciences such as assessment of vegetation dynamics and forests biodiversity, wildlife research and management, map changes in freshwater marshes, river habitat mapping, and conservation and monitoring programs. In addition, we describe two applications of habitat mapping from UAS-based imagery, along the Central Mediterranean coasts, as study cases: (1) The upper limit of a Posidonia oceanica meadow was mapped to detect impacted areas, (2) high-resolution orthomosaic was used for supporting underwater visual census data in order to visualize juvenile fish densities and microhabitat use in four shallow coastal nurseries.",signatures:"Daniele Ventura, Andrea Bonifazi, Maria Flavia Gravina and Gian\nDomenico Ardizzone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55936",authors:[{id:"198366",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Ventura",slug:"daniele-ventura",fullName:"Daniele Ventura"},{id:"205321",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Bonifazi",slug:"andrea-bonifazi",fullName:"Andrea Bonifazi"},{id:"205335",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Flavia",surname:"Gravina",slug:"maria-flavia-gravina",fullName:"Maria Flavia 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\r\n\tAlthough the diagnosis and overall survival of patients with various cardiac diseases have improved in the last years, there still remains a significant proportion of patients with unfavorable prognoses. The evaluation of these patients necessitates effective imaging techniques in both diagnosis and long-term follow-up. Even though Cardiac Magnetic Resonance imaging is currently the imaging modality of choice for tissue characterization, advanced echocardiography represents a modern alternative. Speckle tracking echocardiography can be used to assess myocardial deformation at both segmental and global levels. Since distinct myocardial pathologies affect deformation differently, information about the underlying tissue can be offered by strain imaging. Echocardiography advances also show promising results in the improvement of diagnostic accuracy, management, and follow-up and a major advantage of echocardiography over other imaging modalities is the ability to use it in real-time, in the cardiac catheterization laboratory, allowing for the performance of imaging immediately before, during, and after interventional procedures. Furthermore, the prevalence of adult congenital heart disease continues to grow due to advances in surgical and diagnostic techniques. Echocardiography has proven to be a useful tool in the diagnosis and follow-up of these patients, both after percutaneous and surgical procedures, and its utility has expanded significantly due to the development of better technology. In addition, stress echocardiography could be useful in the evaluation of several cardiac diseases and should be preferred over other imaging modalities due to the lower cost, wider availability, and radiation-free nature.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
Water is the second most important need for life to exist after air. As a result, water quality has been described extensively in the scientific literature. The most popular definition of water quality is “it is the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water” [1, 2]. Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose [3, 4].
Based on its source, water can be divided into ground water and surface water [5]. Both types of water can be exposed to contamination risks from agricultural, industrial, and domestic activities, which may include many types of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, hazardous chemicals, and oils [6].
Water quality can be classified into four types—potable water, palatable water, contaminated (polluted) water, and infected water [7]. The most common scientific definitions of these types of water quality are as follows:
There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological [8, 9]. They are summarized in Table 1.
Turbidity is the cloudiness of water [10]. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate materials in water [2].
Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically unacceptable, which makes the water look unappetizing. The impact of turbidity can be summarized in the following points:
It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses [11].
The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield them from the disinfection process [12].
Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases, reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish catching method [13, 14].
Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides [15].
The amount of available food is reduced [15] because higher turbidity raises water temperatures in light of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat. Consequently, the concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased since warm water carries less dissolved oxygen than cold water.
Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in suspension [10].
Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU [10]. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil [9, 16].
Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by temperature [10]. Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen demand (BOD) are temperature dependent [11]. It also affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in water [17, 18]. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable [10, 19].
Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such as soil, stones, and rocks impart color to water, which is objectionable for esthetic reasons, not for health reasons [10, 20].
Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions or colored glass disks [10]. One color unit is equivalent to the color produced by a 1 mg/L solution of platinum (potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6)) [10].
The color of a water sample can be reported as follows:
Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless, which is equivalent to 0 color units [10].
Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses [19]. These materials may come from natural, domestic, or agricultural sources [21].
The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by measuring a volume of sample A and diluting it with a volume of sample B of an odor-free distilled water so that the odor of the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 ml [19, 22]. The unit of odor or taste is expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:
where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the threshold taste number.
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension [22]. These two types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the water sample passes through [22]. By definition, the suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the water [10].
If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated, the solids as a residue. This material is usually called total dissolved solids or TDS [10].
Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows:
freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
The residue of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a defined period of time and at a specific temperature is defined as fixed solids. Volatile solids are those solids lost on ignition (heating to 550°C) [10].
These measures are helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes [1, 22]. Figure 1 describes the interrelationship of solids found in water [22]. They are calculated as follows [10]:
Total solids:
Interrelationship of solids found in water [
where TSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total dissolved solids:
where TDSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TDSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total suspended solids:
where TSSA = weight of dish and filter paper + dried residue and TSSB = weight of dish and filter paper in milligram.
Fixed and volatile suspended solids:
where VSSA = weight of residue + dish and filter before ignition, mg and VSSB = weight of residue + dish and filter after ignition, mg.
The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry or conduct an electrical current [22]. Since the electrical current is carried by ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration [10] of ions increases. Therefore, it is one of the main parameters used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation and firefighting.
Units of its measurement are as follows:
U.S. units = micromhos/cm
S.I. units = milliSiemens/m (mS/m) or dS/m (deciSiemens/m)
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity [2, 10]. Typical conductivity of water is as follows:
Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m;
Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;
Seawater: 5 S/m.
The electrical conductivity can be used to estimate the TDS value of water as follows [10, 22]:
TDS can be used to estimate the ionic strength of water in the applications of groundwater recharging by treated wastewater [22]. The normal method of measurement is electrometric method [10].
pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [9, 12]. It is a dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution [23]. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is [19, 20]. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions [2].
As shown in Figure 2, pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution [2, 24]. Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas [10]. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need [24].
pH of water.
A change of 1 unit on a pH scale represents a 10-fold change in the pH [10], so that water with pH of 7 is 10 times more acidic than water with a pH of 8, and water with a pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 7. There are two methods available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric methods [10].
Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine [21]. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances [10].
Pollution can modify the pH of water, which can damage animals and plants that live in the water [10].
The effects of pH on animals and plants can be summarized as follows:
Most aquatic animals and plants have adapted to life in water with a specific pH and may suffer from even a slight change [15].
Even moderately acidic water (low pH) can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic insect gills, and damage membranes [14].
Water with very low or high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 or above 10 will kill most fish, and very few animals can endure water with a pH below 3 or above 11 [15].
Amphibians are extremely endangered by low pH because their skin is very sensitive to contaminants [15]. Some scientists believe that the current decrease in amphibian population throughout the globe may be due to low pH levels induced by acid rain.
The effects of pH on other chemicals in water can be summarized as follows:
Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly acidic water (lower pH). This is important because many heavy metals become much more toxic when dissolved in water [21].
A change in the pH can change the forms of some chemicals in the water. Therefore, it may affect aquatic plants and animals [21]. For instance, ammonia is relatively harmless to fish in neutral or acidic water. However, as the water becomes more alkaline (the pH increases), ammonia becomes progressively more poisonous to these same organisms.
Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level [10]. Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates [10]. Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological activities [10].
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The level of acidity is determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using phenolphthalein as an indicator [10, 20].
The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all titratable bases [10]. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime and soda needed for water softening (e.g., for corrosion control in conditioning the boiler feed water) [22]. Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a mixture of two of these ions in water. As stated in the following equation, the possibility of OH− and HCO3− ions together are not possible because they react together to produce CO32− ions:
Alkalinity is determined by titration with a standard acid solution (H2SO4 of 0.02 N) using selective indicators (methyl orange or phenolphthalein).
The high levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of industrial or chemical pollution. Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources such as volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity in natural waters provide a buffering action that protects fish and other aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had natural alkalinity, a neutralization reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH of the lake water remains unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity should be at least 20 mg/L as calcium carbonate.
Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater pollution [7]. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.
Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been connected to kidney and heart diseases [25]. Small amounts of chlorides are essential for ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life.
Sodium chloride may impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or calcium chloride are generally not detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L [10]. Standards for public drinking water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L. There are many methods to measure the chloride concentration in water, but the normal one is the titration method by silver nitrate [10].
Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and wastewater for disinfection [10]. While chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not harmful to human health. In drinking water, a residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The residual concentration which is maintained in the water distribution system ensures good sanitary quality of water [11].
Chlorine can react with organics in water forming toxic compounds called trihalomethanes or THMs, which are carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl3 [11, 22]. Chlorine residual is normally measured by a color comparator test kit or spectrophotometer [10].
Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of sulfate in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt) or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt) [11, 26]. If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects [26], but there is no significant danger to public health.
There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen [10]. If water is contaminated with sewage, most of the nitrogen is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by microbes to form nitrites and nitrates [22]. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to the growth of plants and can be a growth-limiting nutrient factor [10].
A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the algae which degrades the water quality [22]. Nitrates can enter the groundwater from chemical fertilizers used in the agricultural areas [22]. Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes an immediate and severe health threat to infants [19]. The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s ability to hold oxygen which leads to a disease called blue baby or methemoglobinemia [10, 19].
A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental health [10, 19]. About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children [10].
Excessive amounts of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental fluorosis [11, 19, 26]. The maximum allowable levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on local climate [26]. In the warmer regions of the country, the maximum allowable concentration of fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to 2.4 mg/L is allowed.
There are four methods to determine ion fluoride in water; the selection of the used method depends on the type of water sample [10].
Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health problems, they impart a noticeable bitter taste to drinking water even at very low concentration [10, 11].
These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) ions. When these ions are exposed to air, they form the insoluble ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) forms making the water turbid and unacceptable to most people [10].
These ions can also cause black or brown stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures [7]. They are measured by many instrumental methods such as atomic absorption spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry, electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) [10].
Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small concentrations [10]. Actually, they are both essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals [25]. They can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to the water [10]. They are measured by the same methods used for iron and manganese measurements [10].
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters [10]. The dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in producing lather with soap [11].
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters [9]. They enter water mainly from contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits [10, 27].
These ions are present as bicarbonates, sulfates, and sometimes as chlorides and nitrates [10, 26]. Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water. There are two types of hardness:
Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and more than 150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and water with less than 75 mg/L is considered to be soft.
From health viewpoint, hardness up to 500 mg/L is safe, but more than that may cause a laxative effect [10]. Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene diamine tetra acidic acid or (EDTA) and Eriochrome Black and Blue indicators. It is usually expressed in terms of mg/L of CaCO3 [10, 19].
An accepted water classification according to its hardness is as in Table 2 [19].
No. | Types of water quality parameters | ||
---|---|---|---|
Physical parameters | Chemical parameters | Biological parameters | |
1 | Turbidity | pH | Bacteria |
2 | Temperature | Acidity | Algae |
3 | Color | Alkalinity | Viruses |
4 | Taste and odor | Chloride | Protozoa |
5 | Solids | Chlorine residual | |
6 | Electrical conductivity (EC) | Sulfate | |
7 | Nitrogen | ||
8 | Fluoride | ||
9 | Iron and manganese | ||
10 | Copper and zinc | ||
11 | Hardness | ||
12 | Dissolved oxygen | ||
13 | Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) | ||
14 | Chemical oxygen demand (COD) | ||
15 | Toxic inorganic substances | ||
16 | Toxic organic substances | ||
17 | Radioactive substances |
Parameters of water quality.
Water classification | Total hardness concentration as mg/L as CaCO3 |
---|---|
Soft water | <50 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Moderately hard | 50–150 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Hard water | 150–300 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Very hard | >300 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Classification of water according to its hardness.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution [10]. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. For example, the saturation concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L [22].
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.
There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen concentrations: the colorimetric method—quick and inexpensive, the Winkler titration method—traditional method, and the electrometric method [10].
Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen [10, 22]. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction [22].
When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water, the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD [22].
The complete decomposition of organic material by microorganisms takes time, usually 20 d or more under ordinary circumstances [22]. The quantity of oxygen used in a specified volume of water to fully decompose or stabilize all biodegradable organic substances is called the ultimate BOD or BODL.
BOD is a function of time. At time = 0, no oxygen will have been consumed and the BOD = 0. As each day goes by, oxygen is used by the microbes and the BOD increases. Ultimately, the BODL is reached and the organic materials are completely decomposed.
A graph of the BOD versus time is illustrated as in Figure 3. This is called the BOD curve, which can be expressed mathematically by the following equation:
BOD curve [
where BODt = BOD at any time t, mg/L; BODL = ultimate BOD, mg/L; k = a constant representing the rate of the BOD reaction; t = time, d.
The value of the constant rate k depends on the temperature, the type of organic materials, and the type of microbes exerting the BOD [22].
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances [22]. It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be available in just 2 h [10]. COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample [22].
A wide variety of inorganic toxic substances may be found in water in very small or trace amounts. Even in trace amounts, they can be a danger to public health [11]. Some toxic substances occur from natural sources but many others occur due to industrial activities and/or improper management of hazardous waste [22]. They can be divided into two groups:
There are more than 100 compounds in water that have been listed in the literature as toxic organic compounds [11, 22]. They will not be found naturally in water; they are usually man-made pollutants. These compounds include insecticides, pesticides, solvents, detergents, and disinfectants [11, 21, 22]. They are measured by highly sophisticated instrumental methods, namely, gas chromatographic (GC), high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC), and mass spectrophotometric [10].
Potential sources of radioactive substances in water include wastes from nuclear power plants, industries, or medical research using radioactive chemicals and mining of uranium ores or other radioactive materials [11, 21]. When radioactive substances decay, they release beta, alpha, and gamma radiation [34]. Exposure of humans and other living things to radiation can cause genetic and somatic damage to the living tissues [34, 35].
Radon gas is of a great health concern because it occurs naturally in groundwater and is a highly volatile gas, which can be inhaled during the showering process [35]. For drinking water, there are established standards commonly used for alpha particles, beta particles, photons emitters, radium-226 and -228, and uranium [34, 35].
The unit of radioactivity used in water quality applications is the picocurie per liter (pCi/L); 1 pCi is equivalent to about two atoms disintegrating per minute. There are many sophisticated instrumental methods to measure it [35].
One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the presence or lack of living organisms [10, 15]. Biologists can survey fish and insect life of natural waters and assess the water quality on the basis of a computed species diversity index (SDI) [15, 19, 36, 37]; hence, a water body with a large number of well-balanced species is regarded as a healthy system [17]. Some organisms can be used as an indication for the existence of pollutants based on their known tolerance for a specified pollutant [17].
Microorganisms exist everywhere in nature [38]. Human bodies maintain a normal population of microbes in the intestinal tract; a big portion of which is made up of coliform bacteria [38]. Although there are millions of microbes per milliliter in wastewater, most of them are harmless [37]. It is only harmful when wastewater contains wastes from people infected with diseases that the presence of harmful microorganisms in wastewater is likely to occur [38].
Bacteria are considered to be single-celled plants because of their cell structure and the way they ingest food [10, 37]. Bacteria occur in three basic cell shapes: rod-shaped or bacillus, sphere-shaped or coccus, and spiral-shaped or spirellus [19]. In less than 30 min, a single bacterial cell can mature and divide into two new cells [39].
Under favorable conditions of food supply, temperature, and pH, bacteria can reproduce so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain 20 million cells per milliliter after just 1 day [22, 37]. This rapid growth of visible colonies of bacteria on a suitable nutrient medium makes it possible to detect and count the number of bacteria in water [39].
There are several distinctions among the various species of bacteria. One distinction depends on how they metabolize their food [38]. Bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism are called aerobic bacteria, while those live only in an oxygen-free environment are called anaerobic bacteria. Some species called facultative bacteria can live in either the absence or the presence of oxygen [37, 38, 39].
At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly. As the temperature increases, the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to the optimum temperature for the species) [38]. The majority of the species of bacteria having an optimal temperature of about 35°C [39].
A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, namely, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, leptospirosis, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera [19]. Sometimes, the absence of good sanitary practices results in gastroenteritis outbreaks of one or more of those diseases [19].
Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll [37, 39]. They are autotrophic organisms and support themselves by converting inorganic materials into organic matter by using energy from the sun, during this process they take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen [38, 39]. They are also important for wastewater treatment in stabilization ponds [22]. Algae are primarily nuisance organisms in the water supply because of the taste and odor problems they create [2, 16]. Certain species of algae cause serious environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green algae can kill cattle and other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing those species [37, 39].
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information necessary for their own reproduction [19]. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic microscope [39]. Viruses are parasites that need a host to live [39]. They can pass through filters that do not permit the passage of bacteria [37]. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis [19, 25, 37]. Most of the waterborne viruses can be deactivated by the disinfection process conducted in the water treatment plant [19].
Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animal [19], consume solid organic particles, bacteria, and algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as food by higher level multicellular animals [37]. Aquatic protozoa are floating freely in water and sometimes called zooplankton [37]. They form cysts that are difficult to inactivate by disinfection [19].
A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria called coliforms [20]. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and millions are excreted with body wastes [37]. Consequently, water that has been recently contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms [19].
A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is
A measured volume of sample is filtered through a special membrane filter by applying a partial vacuum [10, 39].
The filter, a flat paper-like disk, has uniform microscopic pores small enough to retain the bacteria on its surface while allowing the water to pass through. The filter paper is then placed in a sterile container called a petri dish, which contains a special culture medium that the bacteria use as a food source [39].
Then, the petri dish is usually placed in an incubator, which keeps the temperature at 35°C, for 24 h. After incubation, colonies of coliform bacteria each containing millions of organisms will be visible [10]. The coliform concentration is obtained by counting the number of colonies on the filter; each colony counted represents only one coliform in the original sample [10, 39].
Coliform concentrations are expressed in terms of the number of organisms per 100 mL of water as follows:
Water quality requirements differ depending on the proposed used of water [19]. As reported by Tchobanoglous et al. [19], “water unsuitable for one use may be quite satisfactory for another and water may be considered acceptable for a particular use if water of better quality is not available.”
Water quality requirements should be agreed with the water quality standards, which are put down by the governmental agency and represent the legislation requirements. In general, there are three types of standards: in-stream, potable water, and wastewater effluent [19], each type has its own criteria by using the same methods of measurement. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established minimum standards for drinking water that all countries are recommended to meet [25].
The physical, chemical, and biological parameters of water quality are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods. The classification of water according to its quality is also covered with a specific definition for each type.
Uruguay is a small country located in South America. According to the 2010 Strategic Energy Development Plan for Uruguay, the diversifying of the energy matrix should be prioritized. Alternative and renewable energy sources rose to be exploited at a major scale. Because of its windy climate, wind energy is now one of the most important sources in our country: currently, Uruguay has more than 1500 MW of installed power lying on this green energy source.
The fast growing development of wind power in Uruguay has encouraged research on many environmental issues, especially those related to wind turbines operation. In many countries—Uruguay included—the method of ISO Standard 9613-2 is the preferred tool for predicting environmental sound pressure levels due to stationary noise sources. However, it is well known that it can incur on great underestimations when sources are large wind turbines, especially under certain atmospheric conditions [1].
This paper is focused on the prediction of environmental sound pressure levels due to the operation of large wind turbines, emphasizing in the prediction model developed by the Research Group on Noise Pollution at the Faculty of Engineering (UdelaR). For its development, the theoretical analysis of the phenomena involved on noise emissions was complemented with tests at the University wind tunnel and, of course, with sound pressure levels measurements at some wind farms in Uruguay. The aerodynamic phenomena involved in acoustic emissions were analyzed with the Research Group on Wind Energy at the Faculty, which has been working on wind energy for nearly 30 years.
The application of the prediction model allows obtaining the expected sound pressure levels at different points. Only airborne sound propagation is considered, as the importance of ground propagation does not involve an important amount of acoustic energy for onshore wind farms.
Environmental sound pressure levels related to stationary sources are usually predicted as prescribed by the ISO Standard 9613-2. It is not only a standardized method of calculation, but it has been for a long time the recommended one in the European Union [2]. This is a strong argument at some developing countries. Convincing the decision-makers about the need of developing another prediction method to achieve more reliable results in the case of wind turbines is not an easy task.
This section aims to point out the main hypothesis of the ISO Standard 9613-2 [3] and to discuss their applicability to wind turbine noise.
In 1981, CONCAWE (a group of oil companies, aiming toward the research on the conservation of water and air quality in Europe) hired C. J. Manning for developing a prediction model of environmental sound pressure levels [4]. Some novel prediction methods were inspired on it, as the ISO Standard 9613-2 was.
According to CONCAWE, the environmental sound pressure levels at remote places due to a noise source can be obtained by solving the following expression:
Where Lp is the sound pressure level in the short time for the octave band
The ISO Standard 9613-2 general expression is just the same:
The definitions of Eq. (1) are valid for Eq. (2). Ai are the attenuation terms (atmosphere absorption, ground absorption, presence of obstacles or noise barriers, etc.). The subscript
Both calculation methods assume the divergence law to be quadratics, thus the emitter is supposed to be a point source. Also, both calculation methods promote their application by frequency octave bands. Nevertheless, if there is not enough information to work by bands, ISO Standard 9613-2 will accept calculating in A-weighted sound pressure levels using all formulae and coefficients corresponding to the octave band centered at 500 Hz. If the acoustic emissions have high energy content in low frequencies, this way of calculating will cause a great underestimation of immission sound pressure levels.
CONCAWE’s model uses the meteorological categories proposed by Parkin and Scholes instead of the currently preferred Pasquill-Gifford ones. ISO Standard 9613-2 does not consider calculating differences due to different meteorological conditions when the main calculation hypothesis is satisfied: wind speed between 1 and 5 m/s at a height between 3 and 11 m above the ground and averaged over a short period of time or moderate temperature inversion with its base at ground level. These conditions are not always met when the source is a wind turbine.
In this century, it has been verified that the differences between environmental sound pressure levels predicted by ISO Standard 9613-2 and those that do occur due to the operation of wind turbines would be very important: underestimations of 15 dB or more have been reported during the occurrence of certain combination of environmental conditions [5, 6].
Then, ISO Standard 9613-2 calculation method has been submitted to a deeper analysis.
Aerodynamic noise generation during operation of wind turbines is inherent to them in nature: the major acoustic emissions from large wind turbines are caused by the interaction between the air flow and the blades. The acoustic emissions occur all along each blade, most of them at low frequencies. Then, the height of the noise source is from about 40–130 m above the ground. The incident wind speed largely varies between these two heights, so that the wind turbine becomes a heterogeneous and complex sound emission source.
There are some limitations for the use of ISO Standard 9613-2 to predict environmental sound pressure levels due to large size wind turbines [1]. Some of the general ones are the following:
The hypothesis about wind speed and atmospheric stability is not always fulfilled.
Atmospheric conditions (neutral, instability, or under an inversion layer) have a great incidence both on generation and on propagation of noise [6].
At the typical distances of interest, a wind turbine cannot be supposed to be a point source [7].
The Standard supposes the distance from source to receiver to be between 100 and 1000 m.
The average height of source and receiver should be between 0 and 30 m (then, the maximum height of the source will not exceed 60 m if the receiver is at 0 m height).
Source and receiver should be placed over a plain surface (a surface with a continuous slope, i.e., the method is not valid for complex terrain).
If the calculations are done based on A-weighted sound pressure levels (as it is allowed by the Standard), a greater underestimation should be done at low frequencies.
Some experimental findings also refer to better results when not considering ground attenuation effects during propagation [8].
But there are also two of the major assumptions that are at the very beginning of the conceptual framework of environmental acoustics that are not fulfilled by the physic/fluid mechanic phenomena involved in the aerodynamic sound generation from wind turbines [9]:
The hypothesis that acoustic processes are adiabatic, because they occur very fast and involve only very small amounts of energy. Most of vibration phenomena can be well described as adiabatic ones, but this is not the case of the aerodynamic noise related to wind turbines’ operation. Noise generation is related to turbulent phenomena, which are not adiabatic but very dissipative ones.
The hypothesis of ideal fluid, which is opposite to the main phenomena that are related to release of eddies from a boundary layer; these phenomena only can occur if the air is considered as a viscous or real fluid.
These are thought to be the root causes for both CONCAWE and ISO methods not to being appropriate for predicting the environmental sound pressure levels related to wind turbines’ operation, as they cannot describe the main involved phenomena on a right way [1, 9, 10, 11].
In order to improve the current prediction method, we have proposed several modifications. We have focused on the noise generation phenomena, but we have also worked on two other points: the explicit consideration of the atmospheric stability condition and the dissipative nature of the main phenomena during propagation.
The wind velocity is usually measured at 10 m height above the ground. One of the main causes of underestimating the environmental sound pressure levels is related to calculating the wind speed at the hub height using a neutral atmospheric profile with basis on its value at 10 m. To avoid this problem, the atmospheric stability class (according to Pasquill-Gifford) has to be explicitly taken into account for this calculation. The atmospheric stability does not only influence the wind speed profile but also the turbulence intensity and, therefore, the acoustic energy depletion law.
If a stable or thermal inversion atmospheric condition occurs, not including it in the prediction method will conduct to:
A great underestimation of the wind speed at the hub height, which would result in the underestimation of the emitted acoustic power level.
A great overestimation of the sound pressure levels depletion, due to the lower atmospheric turbulence and hence, the lower energy dissipation during propagation.
If the atmospheric thermic profile is not known, the wind speed at the hub height should be obtained by supposing a strong atmospheric stability profile (class F according to Pasquill-Gifford), to be in the most demanding hypothesis for protecting the health of noise receivers.
Then, the wind speed at the hub height should be met by converting the measured wind speed data—that are usually taken at 10 m over the ground—using a proper method.
Using the logarithmic profile approach for wind velocity (Eq. (3)) is better than using the potential profile approach (Eq. (4)), even though there are good experimental values for the potential approach. Indeed, since several authors refer that the usual values of
Pasquill stability class | m | ||
---|---|---|---|
Class | Description | Usual bibliography values | Van den Berg experimental values [from 6] |
A | Highly unstable | 0.09 | 0.15 |
D | Neutral | 0.28 | 0.40 |
F | Highly stable | 0.41 | 0.65 |
Values of
Where:
u(hhub) wind velocity at hub height
u* friction velocity
k von Karman’s constant
z0 roughness length
ψm thermal stratification function
L* Monin-Obukhov length
Where:
uhub wind velocity at hub height hhub
uref measured wind velocity at a reference height href
m coefficient depending on Pasquill-Gifford class of atmospheric stability (see Table 1)
The calculation procedure that we recommend to meet the wind velocity at hhub height, taking into account its value at any other height href, is as follows [10, 11, 12]:
If the stability class to which uref corresponds is known, the velocity at the hub height can be met by applying either Eqs. (3) or (4).
If the stability class to which uref corresponds is not known, a stable atmospheric profile should be assumed for calculating the velocity at hub height with basis on the wind velocity at a reference height (usually 10 m above the ground).
Once the wind velocity at the hub height (uhub) has been obtained, a “corrected” wind velocity at 10 m in height should be calculated. This is the 10 m height wind velocity to be used for meeting the acoustic power level of the wind turbine from tables or charts provided by the manufacturer. Figure 1 sketches the procedure.
How to reach the wind speed at 10 m height to obtain LW,A (redrawn from [
Please note:
If the wind speed at the hub height is known, the wind velocity at 10 m must always be obtained assuming a neutral atmosphere (even when the stability class is known not to be neutral).
For obtaining the sound pressure level resulting from a wind velocity value measured at a height “H” (other from hhub) in any given atmospheric condition “X”: uhub should be calculated assuming the class of stability “X”; then, the “corrected” wind speed at 10 m in height should also be calculated by assuming neutral atmosphere (class D). The acoustic power shall be read from the datasheet provided by the manufacturer; it will also be associated with that atmospheric stability class:
Wind turbine manufacturers often provide tables or graphs relating the wind velocity at 10 m in height (u10) to the acoustic power level (in dBA) emitted by the wind turbine in neutral atmosphere conditions. However, providing emission spectra in frequency bands is not so common. If this information is not available, a reference spectrum should be used, e.g., spectrum in Table 2.
f (Hz) | 16 | 31.5 | 63 | 125 | 250 | 500 | 1000 | 2000 | 4000 | 8000 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Add to LWA (dB) | −44 | −26 | −21 | −14 | −7 | −6 | −6 | −9 | −12 | −22 |
Reference spectrum of acoustic power of 2 MW wind turbines in octave bands (based on [13]).
Table 2 (based on [13]) presents the values to be added arithmetically to the acoustic power level of the wind turbine (LWA) to obtain the acoustic power levels in each octave band, also in dBA (LW,f,A).
We aim to obtain the sound pressure levels due to the operation of a typical three-blade wind turbine, at a generic receiver point located downwind at a distance
Aerodynamic noise is generated by the interaction of wind with the blades of the machine. Most of the acoustic emissions occur in low frequencies, so the acoustic print of wind turbines can be found at large distances from the sources, making the problem more complex to manage.
There are three main processes causing the fluctuation of the pressure field and then the acoustic emissions [14]:
The turbulence of the incoming wind, which causes pressure fluctuations around the blades; it is variable over time and it is called “incoming flow noise.”
The viscous forces in the boundary layer over the solid surfaces of the turbine, such as blades, tower, and hub. Viscous forces in this layer are not negligible compared with the inertial forces (related to the medium air flow). The release of eddies with negative gauge pressure at their cores, developed on solid surfaces such as blades, tower, and hub due to viscous stresses, causes a continuous noise called “trailing edge noise.”
The power exchange between the wind and the machine that produces the release of two families of eddies linked to each blade; one of them has helical motion and the other one is centered on the rotation axis, and its length scale is about the length of the diameter of the rotor.
These phenomena are related to three different geometric scales [14, 15]:
Macroscale: it is the scale related to the largest eddies. If U, L, and T are the scales of velocity, length, and time associated to these eddies, the Reynolds number of the biggest eddies is the same as for the main flow.
Intermediate scale: it includes lower scales than the macroscale ones; there is still no power dissipation. The range of scales included here is called “inertial range.”
Microscale: it is the lowest scale, in which the energy dissipation occurs. Unlike what happens in the macroscale, the smallest eddies are isotropic, as if the flow has “forgotten” where it comes from.
The turbulent cascade hypothesis is then to be considered. According to it, the larger eddies are dissipating into smaller scale eddies with increased kinetic energy. However, there is a length scale at which the power transfer to a smaller eddies scale is not possible. At this point, the turbulent cascade ends and the energy from the last eddies is finally dissipated. The smallest eddies scale is the Kolmogorov scale; the so-called Kolmogorov frequency or dissipation frequency is the generation frequency of these smallest eddies [15]. According to their frequency and energy, the released eddies are able to produce audible phenomena, i.e., they can become noise sources (Figure 2).
Atmospheric conditions for propagation. From: [
The passage of the blades ahead the tower imposes a fluctuation of the sound level pressures emitted by the abovementioned phenomena. It results in an amplitude-modulated noise, called the “blade passage noise.” It has a double nature, one related to the flow and one related to the geometry of the source. The modulation is the most related process to annoyance in wind turbine noise. This process is not modeled in detail: the informed sound pressure levels are the highest of those corresponding to the fluctuation.
A first approach to describe the wind turbines operation is to model the rotor as an active disk, which absorbs kinetic energy from the incoming wind, resulting in a reduction in the flow speed downstream of the turbine.
If v1 is the incoming velocity and v2 is the outcoming velocity, the velocity induction coefficient “
Applying mass and energy balances to the incoming flow, and supposing an adiabatic and incompressible flow, the maximum amount of power absorbed by the disk is:
In Eq. (6), ρ is the air mass density, and A is the swept area or rotor area.
The power absorbed is maximized when
The wind turbine operates at its maximum power for each wind velocity, while the wind velocity is under the rate value. As consequence of the power exchange process between the wind and the machine, the flow downwind the rotor rotates around the turbine axis.
The force over the blade, consequence of the interaction between the flow and the blade, is split in two components: the drag effort (D) and the lift one (L) (Figure 3). The magnitude of these components strongly depends on the angle of attack (α), which is the angle between the chord of the blade and the incoming flow relative to the blade. When the drag component increases, the noise generation increases too. This usually occurs when the angle of attack α increases.
Drag FD and lift FL efforts over the blade (from [
There are several analytical expressions to describe the universal shape of the turbulence spectrum. One of that, the Von Karman’s spectrum, expresses the spectrum as function of a nondimensional ratio built with turbulence integral length scale Lu and the main flow speed
According to Von Karman spectrum, we propose to estimate the energy content in a third-octave band centered at a frequency
To meet the acoustic power level, we accept that each blade is composed of a group of discrete thin elements or slices. Each one would be sufficiently thin to be thought as a noise point source. Then, the total acoustic power emitted by one blade element should be obtained as the superposition of the acoustic power emitted by the incoming flow (LW,IF) and the trailing edge (LW,TE) as following (Eq. (10)):
The incoming flow noise is the result of the fluctuation of the lift effort on the blade, which makes the drag effort to fluctuate. We propose estimate of the pressure field fluctuation using McLaurin series, where first-order terms are related to the turbulent fluctuation.
The length scale of interest, for the incoming turbulence, is similar to the length of the blade chord, which corresponds to the length scale of the eddies that produce the greatest amplitude fluctuation on the pressure field. Van den Berg proposes to use a length scale equal to 60% of the blade chord for this length [8]. Smaller eddies would produce lower fluctuations on the pressure field. Then, the shape of the spectrum of the incoming edge noise, associated to eddies with length scale larger than the blade chord, will be the same as Von Karman’s spectrum.
The trailing edge noise is due to the turbulent boundary layer separation over the blade. The length scale of interest in this case is about the boundary layer thickness.
We built a routine for obtaining the emitted acoustic power level by third-band octave. Its aim is to obtain the predicted sound pressure levels at a point placed at 100 m downwind of the wind turbine tower. We discretize the blade in infinitesimal length blade elements. The coordinates of each slice in every moment could be thought as [x(t), y(t), z (t)]. Then, the propagation into the first 100 m from the tower axis is done assuming that each one of the blade elements is a nonstationary noise point source (Figure 4).
Sketch of calculation of sound pressure levels in the first 100 m (from [
For the propagation from each blade element to the receiver location, our routine only considers the geometrical divergence and the atmospheric sound absorption as indicated at ISO Standard 9613-1 [16]. The output of this routine is the input for the propagation module [10, 11].
For computing sound propagation, the input data are the results of the computing at 100 m far from the tower of the wind turbine. Not only geometric divergence but also atmospheric absorption and turbulent dissipation are considered; both phenomena depend on the frequency. The final sound pressure levels at a given reception point are obtained by superposing the sound pressure levels due to different wind turbines operation. All computations are done in octave bands, and the final results are expressed as LAeq values [11].
The analysis of the evolution of eddies generated due to wind turbine operation requires the use of the cascade process as it is usual in turbulent flow studies. According to it, the larger eddies are melting into smaller ones, increasing its kinetic energy. At some point, small eddies cannot continue to transfer power to smaller ones; so, they dissipate their remaining energy, thus ending the cascade process. The scale of these last eddies is the order of the Kolmogorov’s scale.
Under atmospheric instability condition, the turbulence is very high and the eddies scale interval is broad; the cascade process is very efficient to dissipate the produced turbulence. For distances greater than the one at which that dissipation occurs, it shall be assumed that the flow conditions are the same as upstream the wind turbine. The ratio between the current wind velocity up and downstream the machine tends to 1 for greater distances, and the difference between them is practically negligible at a distance of about 6 or 7 rotor diameters downstream of the wind turbine (i.e., about 600 m).
In strong atmospheric instability conditions, the prior distance is the shortest one to fully carry out the whole energy cascade process. For any other atmospheric conditions, the dissipation process occurs in greater distances.
Under strong atmospheric stability conditions (i.e., class “F” according to Pasquill-Gilfford stability classes), the effect of turbulence should be negligible. The only mechanism that affects the energy depletion process in any frequency band—in addition to the geometric divergence or attenuation by distance—is the atmospheric absorption.
The effect of atmospheric absorption can be considered as the depletion of the acoustic energy of a wave over a given distance, due to energy loss caused by the viscosity of the propagation medium (currently, the atmosphere). To estimate the effect of the atmospheric absorption, the computation method of the ISO Standard 9613-1 was used [16].
The attenuation due to atmospheric absorption in dB of a pure tone with frequency
Where Γi is the atmospheric absorption in the
The generation and propagation phenomena of eddies can be described from a wave approach. Then, close to the source, the sound pressure levels should be estimated considering energy depletion by geometric divergence (
The threshold of perception at each frequency band should be another criterion for determining the distance upon which the sound is still audible. Hearing threshold levels were retrieved from ISO Standard 226 [17].
For the depletion of sound pressure levels due to distance, the adjustment is focused on the exponent (
As one of the main hypotheses of linear acoustics was broken (nonviscous effect), we intend not to be mandatory for
Here,
For the calculations of geometric divergence, the turbulent cascade approach is taken into account (Figure 2). The released eddies can propagate along great distances while the turbulent cascade occurs [15]. These distances are related to a certain energy level and a length scale. They are also closely related to atmospheric stability.
We calculated the length scale where the turbulent cascade is expected to end by considering it to depend on the incoming wind velocity and the frequency of the released eddies. This is based on prior consideration of the atmospheric stability during the calculation of noise emissions [10, 11].
Different sets of
Field data were taken at a height of 1.2 m with class 1 sound pressure meters, close to three different wind farms over plain terrain; the distances of measurements covered from 100 m to about 2000 m.
The best set of values was found to be the one obtained for
The values of n(f, d, u) are given in octave bands according to whether the calculation distances are closer or further than 750 m and that the wind speed at the hub height is less or greater or equal to than 6.5 m/s (Table 3).
f (Hz) | 16 | 31.5 | 63 | 125 | 250 | 500 | 1000 | 2000 | 4000 | 8000 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Closer than 750 m, less than 6.5 m/s | 0.37 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.66 | 1.60 | 1.67 | 1.94 | 1.61 | 0.85 | 0.43 |
Closer than 750 m, 6.5 m/s or more | 0.52 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.22 | 0.93 | 0.79 | 1.04 | 1.07 | 1.06 | 0.65 |
Further than 750 m | 0.45 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.72 | 1.58 | 1.71 | 2.03 | 1.60 | 0.67 | 0.34 |
Divergence coefficient “
Several sound pressure level measurement campaigns were conducted at three different wind farms with large wind turbines (rate power of 1.8 MW), covering several operating conditions.
Sound pressure level records were taken at 1.2 m height, simultaneously with records of wind speed and direction at 10 m height. In addition, the records of wind speed and direction were obtained from the wind farm anemometer, located at 66 m high and close to the turbines. To carry out the measurements, we used two sound level meters class 1 (Brüel and Kjaer 2250 and Casella 633C), an anemometer (Extech EN-300), a GPS, and two computers.
The measurement points covered four different geographical locations:
A hilly zone, far from external sources such as houses or roads, to avoid introducing disturbances to the data obtained.
A flat zone close to the sea, where 10 large wind turbines are installed.
Another flat zone where two 1.8 MW wind turbines are installed.
A location in the countryside close to a private company, which has only one wind turbine. This location was particularly interesting for this study, since the records are not affected by other turbines or any external sources.
A set of 59 measurements was used during the calibration and validation processes. The main findings showed that the model gave a good approach for the environmental sound pressure levels related to the operation of wind turbines for wind speeds over 5 m/s at the hub height.
In order to validate the model, another set of field data was used. It was another set of data of 49 cases from 10 wind farms in different locations in Uruguay:
The four abovementioned places.
A flat zone in the northern of the country, where 35 wind turbines are installed.
Two hilly wind farms placed on the Southern part of the country, each one with around 25 wind turbines
Three rather flat zones in the center/south-western part of the country, having from 20 to 35 wind turbines each one.
Some adjustments were needed for improving the prediction of noise propagation from wind farms built on uneven terrain.
The results obtained in the verification of the performance of the model are presented in Tables 4–6. Almost 80% of the cases are reproduced within ±3 dB range.
Number of cases | Cases in ±3 dB | ||
---|---|---|---|
Number | % | ||
d closer than 750 m | 30 | 24 | 80 |
d further than 750 m | 18 | 14 | 78 |
Total | 48 | 38 | 79 |
Quality of results according to distance to the wind turbine.
Number of cases | Cases in ±3 dB | ||
---|---|---|---|
Number | % | ||
u lower than 6.5 m/s | 12 | 10 | 83 |
u higher than 6.5 m/s | 36 | 28 | 78 |
Total | 48 | 38 | 79 |
Quality of results according to wind velocity at the hub height.
Number of cases | Cases in ±3 dB | ||
---|---|---|---|
Number | % | ||
d closer than 750 m, u lower than 6.5 m | 8 | 7 | 88 |
d closer than 750 m, u higher than 6.5 m | 22 | 17 | 77 |
d further than 750 m, u lower than 6.5 m | 4 | 3 | 75 |
d further than 750 m, u higher than 6.5 m | 14 | 11 | 79 |
Total | 48 | 38 | 79 |
Quality of results according to distance to the wind turbine and wind velocity at the hub height.
As important as the percentage of accurate predictions is to state that not only the levels in scale A are predicted in a reasonably adjusted way, but particularly that the spectra obtained with the proposed model are also rightly adjusted to the measured ones [10].
Figure 5 shows some results for short and long distances. The blue bar is the measured sound pressure level; the pink bar is the computed sound pressure level using ISO 9613-2 with attenuation only due to geometric divergence and atmospheric absorption; and the dark red bar is the result of our prediction proposal. As it can be seen, our model achieves a good performance as a prediction tool.
Comparison of results; left bar: Measured sound pressure levels; center bar: ISO 9613-2 predicted sound pressure levels; left bar: Our prediction proposal. All sound pressure levels are in dBZ. (Adapted from [
It is not usual to find references that use a variable depletion law according to the frequency.
We compared our attenuation curves with those presented in a paper published in 2021 [18]. The authors estimate the sound pressure level related to wind turbines with a nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF), a machine learning technique.
They present some attenuation filters in third-octave bands from 31.3 to 2000 Hz, for attenuation only and for attenuation considering three kinds of residual noise designed by the authors with basis on real noise samples. The filters were published in graphic format for three distances: 500, 1000, and 1500 m. We read the graphs and compared the attenuations proposed in [18] with the attenuation achieved for our prediction model in the same frequencies range.
The comparison was done using the Wilcoxon’s test for differences between pairs. H0 was the equivalence of the compared curves; accepting H0 at 95% confidence means that our attenuation curves are equivalent to those from [18]. Test results are summarized in Table 7. We conclude that each one of our attenuation curves reasonably fit at least one case of the filters suggested by [18], the filter with residual noise 1 being the most similar to our proposal.
Only attenuation | With residual noise 1 | With residual noise 2 | With residual noise 3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
500 m, u less than 6.5 m/s | Accept H0 | Reject H0 | Reject H0 | Reject H0 |
500 m, u 6.5 m/s or higher | Reject H0 | Accept H0 | Reject H0 | Reject H0 |
500 m (all together) | Reject H0 | Accept H0 | Reject H0 | Reject H0 |
1000 m | Reject H0 | Accept H0 | Accept H0 | Accept H0 |
1500 m | Reject H0 | Accept H0 | Accept H0 | Accept H0 |
Comparison between our attenuation curves and those from [18].
Our proposed calculation process has two steps: at first, modeling the noise generation and its propagation in the short scale (less than 100 m); and propagating the output of the first step from short to large distances far away from the source. At the beginning of the process, the atmospheric stability class is to be taken into account by a correction to the wind velocity; this is very important, to avoid underestimations.
The first step of the calculation process divides the blade in infinitesimal length slices that behave as point sources, and for them the sound pressure level associated to the three mentioned generation processes for each source is calculated and summed logarithmically.
The propagation model takes into account the geometric divergence and the atmospheric absorption, considering
Figure 6 shows a sketch of the procedure.
Calculation process of this prediction proposal (adapted from [
We presented an alternative proposal for predicting sound pressure levels from wind turbines. It is a simple method that has shown very good results, it is easy to build, and it does not need special hardware or software requirements.
The whole model was calibrated, validated, and verified, with field measurements made in different wind farms located in Uruguay. Field data for calibration and validation were taken at distances between 300 and 2000 m from the tower of the wind turbine.
Although this method can be used for different turbines, our results were obtained for 2 MW power rate turbines with between 80 and 90 m of hub height.
More, our prediction model seems to be a good one to be used in noise impact studies related to environmental impact assessments for getting the environmental license of wind farms before their construction.
We presented the accuracy of the predicted A-weighted sound pressure levels, which are good or very good in most of the cases; we also showed the obtained spectra fit accurately to the measured ones.
This fitting is more noticeable at low frequencies, the most problematic ones for noise phenomena in wind turbine, because the energetic content in those frequencies is potentially related to people’s annoyance.
This chapter is the result of many years of research. It has been supported by funds from cooperation with the National Program of Wind Energy (National Energy Directory of the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Mining of Uruguay, DNE – MIEM), by the Sectorial Energy Fund of the National Agency of Research and Innovation (Project ANII_FSE_1_2013_1_10942) and the Research Commission of the Universidad de la República through their Fund for Research and Development Groups (CSIC I + D Groups 2014).
Many people have been involved in our team along the years. Here they are, in alphabetical order: Fabiana Bianchi Falco, Pablo Bonilla Medina (in memoriam), Nicolás Cunha Apatie, Matteo Deambrosi Papini, Pablo Gianoli Kovar, Matías Hernández Castellani, Marcos Raúl Lisboa, Joaquín Montero Croucciée, Luciana Olazábal Barrios, Juan Ignacio Pais, Martín Paz Urban, Nicolás Rezzano Tizze, Felipe Silva Rodríguez, and Guillermo Sugasti Sánchez. We thank all of them for taking part in this research.
The authors declare they have no conflict of interest.
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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. 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Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"57717",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71923",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:14810,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:"Cytotoxicity is one of the most important indicators for biological evaluation in vitro studies. In vitro, chemicals such as drugs and pesticides have different cytotoxicity mechanisms such as destruction of cell membranes, prevention of protein synthesis, irreversible binding to receptors etc. In order to determine the cell death caused by these damages, there is a need for cheap, reliable and reproducible short-term cytotoxicity and cell viability assays. Cytotoxicity and cell viability assays are based on various cell functions. A broad spectrum of cytotoxicity assays is currently used in the fields of toxicology and pharmacology. There are different classifications for these assays: (i) dye exclusion assays; (ii) colorimetric assays; (iii) fluorometric assays; and (iv) luminometric assays. Choosing the appropriate method among these assays is important for obtaining accurate and reliable results. When selecting the cytotoxicity and cell viability assays to be used in the study, different parameters have to be considered such as the availability in the laboratory where the study is to be performed, test compounds, detection mechanism, specificity, and sensitivity. In this chapter, information will be given about in vitro cytotoxicity and viability assays, these assays will be classified and their advantages and disadvantages will be emphasized. The aim of this chapter is to guide the researcher interested in this subject to select the appropriate assay for their study.",book:{id:"6310",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]},{id:"42016",doi:"10.5772/55187",title:"Why are Early Life Stages of Aquatic Organisms more Sensitive to Toxicants than Adults?",slug:"why-are-early-life-stages-of-aquatic-organisms-more-sensitive-to-toxicants-than-adults-",totalDownloads:3490,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:103,abstract:null,book:{id:"3408",slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Azad Mohammed",authors:[{id:"147061",title:"Dr.",name:"Azad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"azad-mohammed",fullName:"Azad Mohammed"}]},{id:"28120",doi:"10.5772/19206",title:"Experimental and Computational Methods Pertaining to Drug Solubility",slug:"experimental-and-computational-methods-pertaining-to-drug-solubility",totalDownloads:7301,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:null,book:{id:"1507",slug:"toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Abolghasem Jouyban and Mohammad A. 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The risk factors responsible for this increase in cancer incidences are assumed to be genetic and/or environmental in nature. The environmental factors include exposure to carcinogenic contaminants such aflatoxins (AFs). However, the exact causes of the increase in cancer incidences and prevalence in many developing countries are not fully known. Aflatoxins are known contaminants produced by the common fungi Aspergillus flavus and the closely related Aspergillus parasiticus which grow as moulds in human foods. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is most common in food and is 1000 times more potent when compared with benzo(a)pyrene, the most potent carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). Aflatoxins have therefore drawn a lot of interest in research from food safety and human health point of view. In this chapter, the chemistry, synthesis, identification, toxicology and potential human health risks of AFB1 in Kenya are discussed.",book:{id:"8094",slug:"aflatoxin-b1-occurrence-detection-and-toxicological-effects",title:"Aflatoxin B1 Occurrence, Detection and Toxicological Effects",fullTitle:"Aflatoxin B1 Occurrence, Detection and Toxicological Effects"},signatures:"Joseph Owuor Lalah, Solomon Omwoma and Dora A.O. 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The objective of this work was to summarize the removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater using various chemical techniques and to emphasize the superiority of RSM in these studies.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",authors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"},{id:"266549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olcay",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan Ince",slug:"olcay-kaplan-ince",fullName:"Olcay Kaplan Ince"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"220",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. 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He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. 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He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. 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He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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