Chemical composition and theoretical ethanol yields of weed biomass.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80355-607-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-606-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-608-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6cf0b844f6881c758c61cca10dc8b134",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Gülşen Akın Evingür and Dr. Önder Pekcan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11830.jpg",keywords:"Elasticity, Toughness, Modulus, Compression, Extension, Optical Properties, Swelling, Drying, Diffusion, Release, Transmission Loss, Sound Absorption Coefficient",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Evingür is a researcher in polymer composites and a lecturer at a maritime university. She has edited 2 books and has had 5 chapters published in international books, and 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Pekcan received their Ph.D. from the University of Wyoming, United States of America, in 1974. He has more than 362 SCI articles, 26 chapters, and 10 projects and is a member Science Academy in Turkey.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180256",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gülşen",middleName:null,surname:"Akın Evingür",slug:"gulsen-akin-evingur",fullName:"Gülşen Akın Evingür",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180256/images/system/180256.jpeg",biography:"Gülşen Akın Evingür graduated from Physics Department at the Yıldız Technical University (YTU, İstanbul, Turkey) in 1996. She completed her Master of Science degree in 2002 at the same department. The titled of her thesis was 'Electrical Properties of Polystyrene”. She received her PhD from Physics Engineering at İstanbul Technical University in 2011. The title of the thesis was 'Phase Transitions in Composite Gels”. She worked as an Assistant Professor between 2011 and 2018, and she is currently working as an Assosciate Professor at Pîrî Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. She has been engaged in various academic studies in the fields of composites and their mechanical, optical, electrical, and acoustic properties. She has authored more than 60 SCI articles, 92 proceedings in national and international journals, respectively. She has edited \n 2 book, and has had 5 chapters published in international books, 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",institutionString:"Piri Reis University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Piri Reis University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"27949",title:"Dr.",name:"Önder",middleName:null,surname:"Pekcan",slug:"onder-pekcan",fullName:"Önder Pekcan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27949/images/system/27949.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Pekcan received his MS Degree in Physics at the University of Chicago in June 1971, and then in May 1974 his PhD thesis on solid state physics was accepted at the University of Wyoming. \n\nHe started his career at Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey as Assistant Professor in 1974. Habilitation thesis on solid state physics was accepted in 1979. He became Associate Professor at Hacettepe University in 1979. \nHe visited ICTP Trieste, Italy as Visiting Scientist between June and August 1980. Between 1980 and 1981 he was a Visiting Scientist at the Technical University of Gdansk, Poland. \nHe worked as Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada between 1981 and 1988. \nHe was appointed as full Professor at the Department of Physics, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey and worked there between 1988 and 2005. \nHe became an Elected Member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA) in January 1995. \nHe became the Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Istanbul Technical University in 1997. \nHe received the Science Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 1998. Prof. Pekcan was elected as Member of the Council of TÜBA in 2001 and Scientific Board of TÜBİTAK in 2003, respectively. \nHe was Head of the Department of Physics, and then became Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Işık University between 2005 and 2008.\nHe worked as Dean at the School of Art and Sciences, Kadir Has University (2008—2012). \nNow he is Professor at the Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Kadir Has University. Since 2012 he is a member of Science Academy. In the last few years Prof. Pekcan’s work covers mostly the area of biopolymers and nanocomposites.",institutionString:"Kadir Has University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kadir Has University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6851",title:"New Uses of Micro and Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49e0ab8961c52c159da40dd3ec039be0",slug:"new-uses-of-micro-and-nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola, Jairo Useche Vivero and Andres Guillermo Marrugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112233",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Marcelo Rubén",surname:"Pagnola",slug:"marcelo-ruben-pagnola",fullName:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61522",title:"Potential of Weed Biomass for Bioethanol Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77507",slug:"potential-of-weed-biomass-for-bioethanol-production",body:'\nRapid economic and population growth have resulted in drastic increase in energy consumption especially in the transportation sector. To meet growing demand for fuel energy, most countries around the world depend heavily on imported petroleum fuel [1]. However, concerns have been raised about gradual depletion of fossil fuels and environmental pollution as a result of its combustion [2]. This has necessitated the search of alternative sustainable and eco-friendly source(s) of fuel energy. As part of the search, many governments worldwide are promoting the use of biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel as alternative transportation fuel [3].
\nBioethanol is currently the most widely used liquid biofuel [4]. It is an eco-friendly and renewable fuel produced from plant-based starches and sugars [5]. Global production of bioethanol is mainly from food-related crops such as corn, cassava, sugarcane, rice, and sweet potatoes [3]. However, these feedstock are directly consumed by humans as food or as animal feed. Continuous use of these crops for bioethanol production may put pressure on productive agricultural lands and result in higher food prices [6]. Concerns about sustainability of bioethanol production from food-related crops have raised attention to the potential of lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol production [7].
\nLignocellulosic biomass is inexpensive and abundant worldwide. It includes agricultural and forestry waste, grasses, and other nonfood plants [8]. This type of biomass is a rich source of biopolymers, chemicals, and sugars [9]. Current research into bioethanol production is mainly focused on assessing the potential of nonfood crops as feedstock and improving the efficiency of their conversion [10]. Lignocellulosic biomass from invasive weeds is a good feedstock for the economic production of bioethanol [2]. These weedy cellulosic substrates do not need extra expenses as they grow on agriculturally degraded land or water bodies [11]. Large numbers of such invasive species are found all over the world. The potential of weed biomass for the production of bioethanol has been explored and discussed in this chapter.
\nThe major components of lignocellulosic biomass are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are the main carbohydrates in lignocellulosic biomass. The contents of these components vary significantly depending on the type of biomass and source [6]. Cellulose is a crystalline and linear structure made up of units of glucose strongly linked together by β-1-4-glycosidic bonds. These linkages give cellulose very high crystalline structure making it resistant to degradation. It is the most abundant organic polymer on earth. Hemicellulose on the other hand, consists of linear and highly branched mixture of pentoses (xylose and arabinose) and hexoses (glucose, galactose, and mannose). Lignin is a highly branched polyphenolic polymer, which gives stability to biomass structure [12]. Cellulose and hemicellulose, the major substrates for bioethanol production, form the main components of the total dry weight of lignocellulosic biomass [7]. These fractions are linked together by covalent and hydrogen bonds, which are further strongly bonded to lignin. This gives lignocellulosic biomass a very complex structure, which is very resistant to degradation. Digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass is therefore affected by the degree of complexity and composition [11]. The structure and composition of different lignocellulosic biomass differ and this greatly affects the efficiency of their conversion to bioethanol.
\nLignocellulosic biomass from weedy plants is one of the most sustainable alternative feedstock for bioethanol production [12]. Annual and perennial weedy plants are found all over the world at all seasons. They invade large areas of land and water bodies causing environmental and socioeconomic problems [2]. They grow rapidly on marginal lands under extreme conditions such as drought, low nutrient and high temperatures, hence requiring no additional economic input such as fertilizer and pesticides [7]. Weed biomass contains large amounts of chemicals and materials, which can be extracted for several industrial applications [13]. These plants have been reported to produce high dry matter yield and contain high and low percentages of cellulose and lignin contents, respectively [14]. The high dry matter yield and cellulose contents of weedy plant species make them ideal feedstock for bioethanol production. They also have an added advantage as feedstock for bioethanol production since they do not compete with food crops for productive agricultural lands [15]. Moreover, due to seasonal nature of agricultural wastes, lignocellulosic biomass from weed species is very important in ensuring continuous production of bioethanol throughout the year [16]. A wide range of weedy species are grown naturally on marginal lands all over the world that can be used as feedstock for bioethanol production. Perennial grasses and short rotation forest plants are among these weedy species growing worldwide [17]. The possibility of converting biomass from invasive weeds to fuel bioethanol is currently an area of great research interest around the world. The physical characteristics and bioethanol production potential of several weedy species have been studied.
\nIn an earlier research, different types of weedy plants were identified in six provinces in lower Northern Thailand (Table 1). Majority of these weed biomass were found to contain high cellulose but low lignin contents. The cellulose contents of most of these weed biomass is higher or similar compared to well-known lignocellulosic materials from agricultural residues including corn stalk bagasse (43.4%) [20], corncob (31.5 ± 1.2%) [21], wheat straw (35.2 ± 0.3%) [22], paddy straw (32.6%) [23], soybean straw (34.40%) [24], and sugarcane bagasse (27.3%) [25]. High theoretical bioethanol yields were also estimated for these weed biomass based on the contents of cellulose and hemicellulose. Bioethanol yield of between 548.4 ± 1.4 and 394.0 ± 5.3 L/ton was realized from some of the weed species [14]. Majority of these weed species are potential substrate for bioethanol production.
\nScientific name | \nCellulose (%) | \nHemicellulose (%) | \nLignin (%) | \nAsh (%) | \nEtOH TY (L/Ton) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
44.4 ± 0.1 | \n31.1 ± 0.0 | \n6.7 ± 0.0 | \n6.9 ± 0.0 | \n548.4 ± 1.4 | \n|
37.4 ± 0.1 | \n34.2 ± 0.0 | \n5.1 ± 0.1 | \n16.9 ± 0.2 | \n521.0 ± 0.9 | \n|
56.0 ± 0.3 | \n16.0 ± 0.4 | \n6.8 ± 0.1 | \n5.1 ± 0.1 | \n520.3 ± 5.4 | \n|
41.6 ± 0.7 | \n28.6 ± 0.4 | \n7.5 ± 0.1 | \n10.5 ± 0.3 | \n509.7 ± 8.1 | \n|
44.4 ± 0.1 | \n25.8 ± 0.2 | \n6.6 ± 0.5 | \n8.8 ± 0.3 | \n508.8 ± 2.6 | \n|
39.7 ± 0.4 | \n29.6 ± 0.2 | \n7.2 ± 0.2 | \n5.5 ± 0.1 | \n502.9 ± 4.7 | \n|
35.6 ± 0.1 | \n32.3 ± 0.3 | \n4.7 ± 0.3 | \n7.4 ± 0.1 | \n493.6 ± 3.2 | \n|
35.8 ± 0.6 | \n31.8 ± 0.4 | \n6.3 ± 0.3 | \n13.9 ± 0.2 | \n491.4 ± 7.4 | \n|
50.0 ± 0.3 | \n17.0 ± 0.3 | \n10.9 ± 0.1 | \n10.3 ± 0.1 | \n484.8 ± 4.4 | \n|
37.0 ± 0.0 | \n29.5 ± 0.1 | \n5.3 ± 0.3 | \n13.1 ± 0.0 | \n483.2 ± 1.1 | \n|
37.7 ± 0.01 | \n28.8 ± 0.8 | \n5.6 ± 0.8 | \n10.9 ± 0.2 | \n482.8 ± 6.7 | \n|
35.6 ± 0.0 | \n29.9 ± 0.1 | \n6.6 ± 0.0 | \n9.1 ± 0.3 | \n476.2 ± 1.0 | \n|
55.2 ± 0.0 | \n10.1 ± 0.1 | \n16.1 ± 0.1 | \n2.6 ± 0.6 | \n471.9 ± 1.2 | \n|
34.7 ± 0.2 | \n30.1 ± 0.1 | \n4.6 ± 0.0 | \n8.9 ± 0.5 | \n470.8 ± 2.0 | \n|
33.4 ± 0.2 | \n31.0 ± 0.0 | \n6.3 ± 0.0 | \n5.4 ± 0.1 | \n468.9 ± 1.3 | \n|
47.1 ± 0.1 | \n16.9 ± 0.4 | \n10.0 ± 0.3 | \n11.3 ± 0.1 | \n462.9 ± 3.9 | \n|
32.0 ± 0.1 | \n31.6 ± 0.1 | \n7.7 ± 0.0 | \n9.5 ± 0.4 | \n462.4 ± 0.3 | \n|
53.7 ± 0.1 | \n10.2 ± 0.1 | \n8.5 ± 0.1 | \n11.7 ± 0.3 | \n461.0 ± 1.5 | \n|
40.0 ± 0.0 | \n23.3 ± 0.1 | \n6.2 ± 0.2 | \n7.5 ± 0.3 | \n459.2 ± 0.6 | \n|
32.8 ± 0.3 | \n29.0 ± 0.8 | \n4.6 ± 0.5 | \n11.2 ± 0.1 | \n448.9 ± 8.5 | \n|
48.3 ± 0.2 | \n13.4 ± 0.0 | \n15.4 ± 0.3 | \n7.4 ± 0.4 | \n446.2 ± 1.3 | \n|
44.3 ± 0.3 | \n17.2 ± 0.2 | \n9.7 ± 0.9 | \n10.0 ± 0.1 | \n445.3 ± 3.2 | \n|
41.9 ± 0.3 | \n17.5 ± 0.3 | \n8.7 ± 0.4 | \n15.2 ± 0.0 | \n429.8 ± 4.3 | \n|
49.6 ± 0.2 | \n9.1 ± 0.2 | \n11.7 ± 0.1 | \n4.3 ± 0.2 | \n423.6 ± 2.7 | \n|
36.5 ± 0.3 | \n19.1 ± 0.1 | \n6.6 ± 0.0 | \n4.5 ± 0.6 | \n402.6 ± 2.9 | \n|
43.5 ± 0.3 | \n11.4 ± 0.7 | \n9.6 ± 0.1 | \n7.5 ± 0.3 | \n396.7 ± 4.4 | \n|
29.7 ± 0.6 | \n24.6 ± 0.2 | \n10.9 ± 0.6 | \n8.8 ± 0.1 | \n394.0 ± 5.3 | \n
Chemical composition and theoretical ethanol yields of weed biomass.
Source: [14] EtOH TY = Theoretical ethanol yield.
Bioethanol is produced from three main renewable resources namely starch, sugars, and lignocellulosic biomass. The production of bioethanol from starch and sugar (first generation bioethanol production) differs significantly from that of lignocellulosic biomass. The process of bioethanol production from sugar-related crops involves direct extraction of sugars followed by fermentation to bioethanol. However, starch carbohydrates are extracted from starch-based crops and hydrolyzed into monomer sugars with subsequent fermentation of sugars to bioethanol [26]. Unlike first generation bioethanol production where carbohydrates are easily converted to bioethanol, carbohydrate portions in weed biomass are not freely available for the conversion to bioethanol. Biological conversion of weed biomass to bioethanol involves various processes (Figure 1). The major steps involved in the conversion process include pretreatment of biomass to make it easily digestible in subsequent processes. The cellulose and hemicellulose contents are then hydrolyzed to monomer sugars followed by the fermentation of sugars to bioethanol. Finally, bioethanol is purified through distillation or other processes such as dehydration to conform to world bioethanol specifications [27].
\nSchematic diagram of major steps in weed biomass conversion to bioethanol.
Like most lignocellulosic biomass, the recalcitrance of weed biomass is a major problem in their conversion to bioethanol. This is due to the crystalline structure of cellulose coupled with lignin and hemicellulose strongly bonded to each other and serving as a protective cover to cellulose. The pretreatment of weed biomass is thus very important in releasing fermentable sugars for bioethanol production [6]. It helps to break the bond between lignin and hemicellulose, hence destroying the protective cover of cellulose. It also helps to decrease cellulose crystallinity making it more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation [12]. Different pretreatment methods can be used on various types of weed biomass for bioethanol production. However, the cost of pretreatment, production of inhibitors, type of weed biomass, energy requirements, and efficiency are major factors that need to be considered in the choice of pretreatment method [28]. Pretreatment may be physical, chemical, biological, or a combination of these [29].
\nPhysical pretreatment includes methods aimed at reducing particle size of biomass. These methods consist of mechanical operations such as chipping, milling, and grinding. These processes help to increase the porosity and surface area of biomass to enhance its conversion to bioethanol [9]. Mechanical operations are usually carried out as a preparatory step during the conversion process [12]. Other methods including different kinds of irradiation and ultrasonic pretreatment have been developed to physically enhance accessibility to cellulose during the conversion process. Physical pretreatment, however, requires high amount of energy contributing to high cost of bioethanol production [9].
\nChemical pretreatment is the most common and studied pretreatment method for the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol. Different chemicals including alkali, ionic liquids, organic solvents, oxidizing agents, and acids can be used [30]. Acid pretreatment is one of the most promising methods and has been extensively studied. It mainly results in solubilization of hemicelluloses but less effective in lignin removal [27]. The type of acid, concentration, volume, and pretreatment temperature are some factors that affect the efficiency of this technique [9]. Acid pretreatment may be carried out with either concentrated or dilute acid. However, dilute acid is normally preferred as concentrated acid, which is toxic and corrosive, and results in the production of high levels of inhibitors including furfural derivatives, acetic acid, phenolics, and other aromatic compounds [31]. Pretreatment with acid may be conducted at high temperature for a short time or low temperature for a longer period [32]. Various types of acids including hydrochloric, phosphoric, nitric, oxalic, formic, acetic, and maleic have been studied as chemicals for pretreatment of lignocellulose biomass. Despite its effectiveness, acid pretreatment is toxic and generates inhibitory compounds that negatively affect enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation processes [9]. It is therefore crucial to remove these compounds, a process that adds to the cost of bioethanol production.
\nAlkaline pretreatment on the other hand breaks the intermolecular bonds between lignin and hemicelluloses and reduces cellulose crystallinity [33]. During alkaline pretreatment, biomass is treated with alkali chemicals such as sodium, calcium, ammonium, and potassium hydroxides at varying temperatures with or without pressure [5]. Alkaline pretreatment enhances accessibility of enzymes to cellulose by mainly solubilizing lignin contents of biomass. It results in less sugar degradation and produces low inhibitors compared to acid pretreatment [20]. However, alkaline pretreatment results in the production of salts are very difficult to recover [6].
\nOzone, a strong oxidizing agent is very effective for the removal of lignin in lignocellulosic biomass. This type of chemical pretreatment is normally done at room temperature and results in no inhibitor formation [30]. Organic solvents such as methanol, ethanol, ethylene glycol, glycerol, acetic acid, formic acid, phenol, and dioxane are also very effective in extracting lignin and hemicellulose [29]. Ionic liquids have been identified as promising solvents for pretreatment because of their ability to dissolve lignin and carbohydrates. A variety of ionic liquids including those containing cholinium cations and linear carboxylate anions have been identified for their ability to enhance digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass. An advantage of ionic liquid is the recovery of separate lignin and carbohydrate fractions after pretreatment. However, ionic liquids are very expensive and can inhibit enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation processes [34].
\nBiological pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass involves using different types of microorganisms including fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes [9]. These organisms have the ability to produce ligninolytic enzymes such as peroxidases (lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase) and laccases. These two groups of enzymes play significant role in lignin degradation during biological pretreatment. The most common microorganism for biological pretreatment is filamentous fungi. White-rot fungi have been identified as the most effective microorganism for the biological pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass [35]. A number of white-rot fungi including
Biological pretreatment may also be carried out with ligninolytic enzyme extracts. This has been reported to prevent degradation of carbohydrates that is associated with microbial pretreatment [31]. These enzymes are extracted from lignin degrading microorganisms, purified and used for the pretreatment process. Crude enzyme extracts have, however, been reported to contain other factors such as proteins and mediators. The presence of these factors enhance the activity of these enzymes making them more effective compared to purified ones. The major problem associated with enzymatic delignification is low enzyme production and activity. Enhancing the culturing conditions may however help to increase the activity and the yield of these enzymes [36].
\nThe effect of pretreatment on biomass varies depending on the method and type of lignocellulosic biomass. Development of effective pretreatment conditions is thus crucial for converting weed biomass to bioethanol. To release monomer sugar units from weed biomass, researchers have studied the effect of different kinds of pretreatment on different types of weed biomass (Table 2). Ratsamee [10] pretreated purple guinea grass (
Weed biomass | \nPretreatment conditions | \nEnzymatic hydrolysis | \nSugars after pretreatment/hydrolysis | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
3% H2SO4, autoclave at 121°C for 30 mins | \nAccellerase™ 1000 (9FPU/g) | \n10.1 g/L glucose | \n[10] | \n|
4% Ca(OH)2, autoclave at 121°C for 5 mins | \n11.9 g/L glucose | \n|||
7.5% H2O2 + NaOH | \nCellulase (60 U/g) + xylanase (1200 U/g) | \n506 mg/g biomass | \n[17] | \n|
529 mg/g biomass | \n||||
559 mg/g biomass | \n||||
556 mg/g biomass | \n||||
1.5% H2SO4 (v/v) | \nCellulase (15 FPU/g) | \n310 ± 9.80 mg/g biomass | \n[37] | \n|
1.0 M NaOH | \nCellulase (25 FPU/g) | \n541.2 ± 9.53 mg/g biomass | \n||
15% aq. ammonia | \nCellulase (25 FPU/g) | \n646.23 ± 8.99 mg/g biomass | \n||
80% H3PO4 | \nCellulase (30 FPU/g) + β-glucosidase (60 U/g) | \n8.0 g/L glucose | \n[38] | \n|
75% H3PO4 | \n8.6 g/L glucose | \n|||
1% (v/v) H2SO4, autoclave at 121°C for 30 mins followed by 1.5% NaOH + ultrasound irradiation | \nCellulase (135 FPU/g) + Cellobiase (75 FPU/g) | \n724.0 mg/g biomass | \n[2] | \n|
851.7 mg/g biomass | \n||||
592.0 mg/g biomass | \n||||
662.2 mg/g biomass | \n||||
758.6 mg/g biomass | \n||||
Cellulase (30 FPU/g) | \n1.2 g/L glucose | \n[39] | \n
Pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of weed biomass.
Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is followed by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis to break down cellulose and sometimes hemicellulose into fermentable sugars such as glucose and xylose [12]. Enzymatic hydrolysis is however eco-friendly and preferred to the noneco-friendly harsh acid hydrolysis [33]. The total amount of fermentable sugars produced is dependent on the type of lignocellulosic biomass and efficiency of pretreatment process [12]. Enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass is carried out in different forms. In some cases, pretreated biomass is initially hydrolyzed by enzymes followed by fermentation of sugars to bioethanol in a process called, separate hydrolysis, and fermentation (SHF). This process requires two separate distinct process conditions for both enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. A major setback back to this process is the accumulation of sugar during enzymatic hydrolysis step, which can inhibit enzymatic activities [12]. The production of monomer sugars and fermentation of these sugars may also be carried together in a process known as simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) [11]. The tendency of monomer sugar accumulation is as less as individual sugars released are converted to bioethanol at the same time. This process may however be very complex with respect to process conditions, which can lead to a decrease in bioethanol yield. Specific operating conditions must therefore be established to enhance both enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation processes [12]. An emerging method is consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) in which a microorganism or group of microorganisms are used to convert untreated biomass to bioethanol. The microorganism(s) have special inherent abilities to secret enzymes that degrade biomass and ferment sugars released to bioethanol. This method is very promising, however, research activities is still at an infant stage [12].
\nCellulase enzymes are used for enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose after pretreatment. Enzymes for hydrolysis may be obtained from commercial enzyme producers. In some cases, the enzymes may be produced, harvested, and use for hydrolysis. These enzymes are produced by both bacteria and fungi; however, most commercial cellulases are produced from fungi [33]. Cellulases are made up of three set of enzymes including endoglucanase (1,4-β-D-glucan glucanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.3), exoglucanase (1,4-β-D-glucan cellobiohydrolyase, EC 3.2.1.91), and cellobiase (β-glucosidase; EC 3.2.1.21). Endoglucanase cuts cellulose chains into fragments of glucose, cellobiose, and cellotriose while exoglucanase cleaves it into cellobiose units [11]. Cellobiase, however, breaks cellobiose units into glucose that can be fermented to bioethanol. Majority of cellulases obtained from fungi lacks β-glucosidase and must be supplemented with β-glucosidase during enzymatic hydrolysis to enhance efficiency [33]. Cellulase activity is dependent on the concentration and source. Different dosages of cellulases are used during enzymatic hydrolysis. This may depend on the composition of pretreated biomass as well as the type of pretreatment technique used. Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose requires mild conditions including pH of between 4.8 and 5.0 and temperature of approximately 50°C. High hydrolysis efficiency is however achieved with an optimized temperature, time, pH, enzyme load, and biomass concentration [4].
\nThe hemicellulose component may also be hydrolyzed with hemicellulases into monomer sugars for fermentation to bioethanol [7]. Compare to cellulose, hemicellulose hydrolysis is very complex because of its composition (mixture of pentoses and hexoses). Multiple enzyme system including endo-xylanase, exo-xylanase, and β-xylosidase together with auxiliary enzymes α-arabinofuranosidase, α-glucuronidase, acetyl xylan esterase, and ferulic acid esterase are involved in hemicellulose hydrolysis [26].
\nEnzymatic cocktails comprising cellulases and hemicellulases have been used to hydrolyze various pretreated weed biomass for bioethanol production (Table 2).
\nFollowing enzymatic hydrolysis, the supernatant containing various sugars (pentoses and hexoses) is fermented to bioethanol. Different types of microorganisms including fungi and bacteria can be used to ferment sugars from weed biomass to bioethanol.
Fermentation of bioethanol is normally undertaken in a bioreactor with three major different processes namely batch, fed-batch, and continues [4]. During batch process of bioethanol production, the fermentation ingredients including substrate, culture medium, and nutrients are fed to the bioreactor only at the start of the process. No feeding is done till the process is over after which bioethanol is harvested. The substrate, medium, and nutrients may however be fed and bioethanol removed continuously during continues fermentation process. The fed-batch process is a combination of the batch and continues processes. During this process, fermentation ingredients are continuously fed to the bioreactor but bioethanol is only harvested at the end of the process [26]. Bioethanol produced after fermentation is further purified through distillation and other cutting-edge processes such as pervaporation [7]. Different types of microorganisms have been studied for their ability to ferment weed biomass to bioethanol (Table 3).
\nWeed biomass | \nPretreatment | \nFermenting microorganism | \nEtOH production | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Alkaline peroxide | \n0.14 ± 0.01 g/L | \n[17] | \n||
0.14 ± 0.01 g/L | \n||||
cv. Ratchaburi | \n||||
Sulfuric acid | \n0.24 g/g biomass | \n[18] | \n||
0.27 g/g biomass | \n||||
0.27 g/g biomass | \n||||
Aqueous ammonia | \n0.40 ± 0.01 g/g biomass | \n[37] | \n||
Sulfuric acid | \n0.38 ± 0.02 g/g biomass | \n|||
Sodium hydroxide | \n0.39 ± 0.02 g/g biomass | \n|||
Alkaline | \n0.218 g/g biomass | \n[13] | \n||
0.197 g/g biomass | \n||||
0.215 g/g biomass | \n||||
0.189 g/g biomass | \n||||
Sodium hydroxide | \n16.0 | \n[42] | \n||
Calcium hydroxide | \n5.9 g/L | \n[10] | \n
Ethanol production from weed biomass.
Wongwatanapaiboon [17] reported a significantly higher bioethanol yield from alkaline peroxide pretreated
Weed biomass is a promising feedstock for economic bioethanol production. The abundance of weed biomass worldwide is an assurance of its sustainability as a feedstock. Current research on the conversion of weed biomass to bioethanol is focused on pretreatment techniques. Different pretreatment techniques have been explored to convert weed biomass into bioethanol. Maximum bioethanol yields have been reported after fermentation of hydrolyzates from pretreated weed biomass. However, current technologies are still inadequate for bioethanol production from weed biomass to compete with starch and sugar based bioethanol in terms of production yield and cost. Production of cellulosic bioethanol from weedy plants is only at the laboratory scale. Further research to establish cost effective and efficient conversion processes including pretreatment technique(s) for a wide range of weed biomass is needed. Predictive models will also aid in the selection, design, optimization, and process control pretreatment technologies that match biomass feedstock with appropriate method and process configuration. On the other hand, active research is going on to ensure commercial production of bioethanol from weed biomass. This includes improvements in pretreatment technologies, specific activities of enzymes as well as isolation of new fermentation microorganism from natural environment. With strong support from various governments, bioethanol production from weed biomass will play a major role in meeting energy demand globally.
\nThe author would like to devote this chapter to Emeritus Prof. Dr. Norio Takamura, Emeritus Prof. Dr. Kazuhiko Sameshima and Prof. Dr. Yoshito Ohtani, all of Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan, Emeritus Prof. Dr. Kazuhiko Ogino (Former Dean of United Graduate School Ehime, 1991–1993), Emeritus Prof. Dr. Sanro Tachibana, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan, and Emeritus Prof. Dr. Ryuichiro Kondo, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan for their immense support and encouragement throughout his career. The author is also grateful to Naresuan University for the opportunity and support in getting to this level of the academic ladder.
\nThe author has no conflict of interest to declare.
The process of joining materials layer upon layer from 3D digital model data or Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model is known as additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing as per International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 52900:2015 standard [1]. 3D printing has a long history of development for using it in the rapid prototyping of products for manufacturing since the 1980s. This development has since then led to also accessibility to the public. These developments started when Chuck Hull of 3D System Corp. filed their patent for a stereolithographic process eventually evolving into a 3D-printing technology boom [2]. Today 3D printer is priced as low as $100 [3] and is therefore accessible to the general public. Recent advances in 3D printing include, for example, the manufacturing of biomaterials for biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering. With recent advancements in the 3D printers, the industrial printers can build as small layers as 16 μm and thus creating a major milestone for biomedical applications [4]. 3D-printing technology can be used in various forms of materials printing, including fused deposition modeling (FDM), stereolithography (SLA), selective laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM). The most used techniques are stereolithography and fused deposition modeling [5].
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 52900:2015 has classified the additive manufacturing (AM) process into seven categories (Figure 1) [5, 6].
Additive manufacturing processes.
There are several benefits to using 3D printing, such as [5, 7]:
Design to component translation.
Greater customization.
Manufacturing of complex, flexible, or lightweight components with no additional cost.
Potential of zero-waste manufacturing.
On-demand manufacturing.
Excellent scalability.
Although the 3D-printing industry is rapidly growing, there have been several economic, social, and environmental challenges that need to be addressed, such as recycling of materials, energy usage, organic compounds emission, high cost of raw materials, and standards and certifications [6]. The lack of printing material [8] and the high cost of thermoplastic polymers add to the barrier to the industrialization of 3D-printing technologies [9]. The market growth potential is considerable for 3D-printing as it is estimated that the filament market will be worth $ 6.6 billion by 2026 [10]. One concern for the advancement of 3D printing other than the high cost of raw material is the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC), including iso-butanol and methyl-methacrylate [11]. To address the abovementioned economic and environmental concerns, there has been a new advancement in the additive manufacturing process which includes the addition of additives can such as diatoms [10] and biodegradable materials, such as ceramics, biomaterials, graphene, carbon fibers, binders for metals, sand, and plaster [12]. The cost of these additives is relatively much less than the thermoplastic filaments. In addition, there are added benefits including included in the addition of additives, such as improved moisture resistance that may slow down the process of decomposition of the filament material and may potentially open up other innovative functional possibilities, such as immobilization of chemical sensors and bacteria and virus-killing agents for novel biomedical applications.
In general, the structures fabricated with 3D printing either using single or multiple materials are intrinsically static, hence 3D printing cannot meet the demands where dynamic materials applications are needed including, for example, hygromorph biocomposites [13], adaptive wind turbines [14], active biocomposites [15], and self-folding microgrippers [16]. This addition of a new dimension to 3D printing has started a new era of printing known as 4D printing and includes novel materials compositions, additives, and chemical functionalization.
There are several challenges associated with manufacturing or scaling up of 3D printing mentioned as follows [17]:
Earlier 3D printing or additive manufacturing was normally used for rapid prototyping only but in the current scenario, 3D printing has already established a large pool of diverse applications, for example, in manufacturing, sociocultural, food, and biomedical sectors. There is a wide range of applications from nano to macro to large scale for 3D printing (Figure 2).
Range of applications of 3D printing.
There are several types of advancements are done recently to increase the efficiency of the additive manufacturing process, such as materials advancement, process advancement, and post-processing advancement.
There are several challenges associated with 3D printing, such as emission of volatile organic compounds, creation of voids, and high cost of thermoplastic polymers. To avoid all these issues, recent advancements have been done which include the use of fillers, such as carbon fibers, nanofibers, graphite, and diatomaceous earth [9, 10]. Carbon nanotube/polylactic acid composites (CNT/PLA) and multi-walled carbon nanotube/polylactic acid composites (MWCNT/PLA) with strong mechanical properties are being explored in microelectronics [19]. The smaller particles sizes are used in composites to produce stiffness and high density in the printed products, such as hydroxyapatite-reinforced polyethylene/polyamide composites (HA-PE/PA) [20]. Carbon black/polyamide 12 (CA/PA12) composites were fabricated which enhance the mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of printed products [21]. Nanomaterial composites, such as nanosilica/polyamide, nanoclay/polyamide, and graphite nanoplatelets/polyamide composites, have also been fabricated leading to improved mechanical properties [9]. These composites can be used for multiple applications, such as biomedical applications, because of the high surface area of fillers present (Figure 3) [10].
3D-printed Diatoms in the PLA matrix (original work).
3D-printed titanium firefighting drone [
There is an innovative advancement that mimics the living organism’s organic cellular structure and bone growth. The world’s largest 3D-printed airplane cabin component with a “bionic partition” which separates the passenger cabin from the galley has been divulged by Autodesk and Airbus. This design has made the partition very light with a 45% reduction in weight compared to traditional designs but still very strong. It has been estimated that this design would save 465,000 metric tons of CO2 emissions per year. This new bionic partition used the second-generation alloy of scandium, aluminum, and magnesium named “Scalmalloy” created by the 3D-printing expertise of Airbus subsidiary “APWorks” (Figure 5) [24].
Airbus 3D printed bionic partition cabin [Source: Airbus].
Similarly, Airbus has collaborated with Materialise to produce the 3D-printed bionic spacer panel using FDM and Materialise’s post-production processes which made the panel 15% light in weight compared to traditional panels (Figure 6) [25, 26].
3D-printed finished spacer panel, [Source: Materialise].
Stratasys has been 3D printing more Airbus cabin components for years now [27]. Airbus A350 XWB was decided to be manufactured by 3D printing (Figure 7) [28].
Airbus 3D metal-printed bionic titanium bracket [Source: Airbus].
Alquist 3D has printed the first-ever 3D-printed house in the US which was assembled in 22 hours. The printer head was connected to the tube through which the traditional concrete was being pumped. Alquist 3D has teamed up with the nonprofit organization known as “Habitat for Humanity” where they will be providing homes to the people in need. Alquist 3D has claimed that the 3D-printed houses are 10–15% less in cost compared to traditional house building. It has saved the manpower also as according to Alquist 3D, only 3–4 humans were required to operate the printer [29]. This was not the first time 3D-printed houses have been built. In France, 3D-printed houses were built and Europe’s first 3D-printed house was built in 22 days which was later shortened to 3 days. In Dubai, there have been 3D-printed offices have been built. According to the Dubai government, it has saved them almost 50% of the total cost [30]. Initially, 3D printing was used only for prototyping the construction but now 3D printing has been used for constructing the whole buildings.
Porsche has used 3D-printing technology to produce 3D-printed pistons, spare parts, and sports seats. Porsche has developed the lightweight, better thermal resistance, high-performance pistons for the twin-turbo boxer engine of the 911GT2 RS model leading to a 30-horsepower gain. This process used the laser printing or laser metal fusion process in collaboration with MAHLE & TRUMPF which uses the high-precision machine, TruPrint 3000 with a 500-Watt fiber laser and high-purity metal special aluminum alloy powder which melted to print 1200 layers ending into the desired shape (Figure 8) [31, 32].
Pistons of the twin-turbo boxer engine of 911GT2 RS [Source: Porsche AG].
Porsche has been manufacturing spare parts using selective laser melting since 2018 but recently, Porsche has started manufacturing personalized bodyform full-bucket sports seats for Porsche 911 and 718. Porsche has also invested in 3D-printing specialist INTAMSYS (Figure 9).
3D-Printed bodyform full-bucket sports seats [Source: Porsche AG].
Porsche has also produced its first complete housing for its electric drive using the additive laser fusion process which has opened the possibilities for 3D printing in the highly stressed electric sports cars sector (Figure 10) [33].
Prototype for small series production [Source: Porsche AG].
4D printing or smart printing has a unique basic characteristic that differentiates it from the static 3D-printing structures; 4D-printing materials are dynamic and able to have functionality [8]. The well-used definition describing the 4D-printing states “It is the evolution of a 3D printed structure either in shape, property, and functionality when it is exposed to external factors such as light [38], heat [39], pH [40], and water [41]”. 4D printing can be defined as the best combination of a smart material, a 3D printer, and a well-programmed automated design (Figure 11) [8].
3D vs 4D printing.
There are five factors that influence the 4D printing which are the additive manufacturing process, feedstock material, stimuli, interaction mechanism, and modeling [42].
According to F. Momeni and J. Ni, there are three laws that define the shape-changing behavior of 4D-printed objects [43]. The first law states that “all the shapes changing behaviors such as curling, twisting, coiling, bending, etc. of multi-material 4D structures are due to the relative expansion between active and passive materials.”
The second law states that “there are four physical factors behind the shape changing ability of all multi-material 4D structures i.e., mass diffusion, thermal expansion, molecular transformation, and organic growth.”
The third law states that the “time-dependent shape-morphing behavior of nearly all multi-material 4D printed structures is governed by two “types” of time constants” (Table 1).
Types of materials | Examples | References |
---|---|---|
Responsive toward moisture: Hydrogels | Hydrogels respond to moisture or water and can expand up to 200% of their original volume. Sustainable materials, such as cellulose, can be used as hydrogel printing ink compatible with various types of printers | [8, 14, 40] |
Responsive toward light: photo-responsive | Chromophore (photosensitive) materials are inserted into smart material for which light acts as an indirect stimulus because light generates the heat which eventually changes the shape of the material. | [8, 37] |
Responsive toward temperature: thermo-responsive | Temperature (heating or cooling) is used as an external stimulus either to change the shape of material – shape change effect (SCE) or to transform the deformed shape into the original shape – shape memory effect (SME). SMEs can be polymers, metals, ceramics, alloys, and gels. These smart materials are used in biomedical applications such as orthodontics, physiotherapy, orthopedics, surgeries, etc. | [8, 38] |
Materials responsive toward pH | Polyelectrolytes are used as smart material which changes their shape as the pH changes with the release or gain of protons. It has found applications in biocatalysts, valves, actuators, drug delivery, etc. | [8, 39] |
Materials responsive toward the electric field | An electric field is also the indirect stimulus that produces the heat and causes the change in shape. For instance, origami using polypyrrole | [8] |
Materials responsive toward the magnetic field | Smart materials change their shape in the presence of a magnetic field. Magnetic nanoparticles are incorporated into hydrogels which respond in the presence of a magnetic field | [8, 41, 42] |
Piezoelectric materials | The charge is produced with mechanical stress which eventually causes the deformation. | [8, 41, 42] |
Types of materials used in 4D printing.
There are revolutionary applications associated with the 4D printing, such as biomedical applications of 4D printing in drug delivery, organ regeneration and transplantation, and tissue fabrication [44]. 4D-printed structures have great potential in soft robotics because of their capability to deform, adjust to environmental changes, and flexibility [8]. 4D-printed structures with smart materials can be used as self-evolving structures [45, 46], active origami structures [47], self-sustainable satellite manufacturing parts [8], sensors responsive toward moisture, temperature, pH, magnetic energy, etc. [8]. Despite diverse applications, 4D printing needs more research and development, especially in scaling it up. Commercializing the 4D printing is troublesome because of the high production cost, installation cost and material used and availability. Multi-materials printers could be a possible solution but need furthermore research (Figure 12).
4D printed metamaterials reconfigurable object [
Additive manufacturing was invented in the 1940s and it has developed a lot with innovative inventions since then. The different additive manufacturing process techniques have specific peculiarities and the disadvantage of one technique can lead to the innovation of a new technique. The development of different types of printers has enabled the AM to use different types of materials which include plastics, metals, and ceramics. New improvements in AM techniques allow the high filler loading in thermoplastic composites.
3D printing has diverse applications include for instance food, fashion, biomedical, health, aerospace, and cultural heritage preservation. 3D printing helps the consumer to customize the product as per their requirements. There are a few challenges that need to be addressed, such as emission of volatile organic compounds, creation of voids, high cost of thermoplastic polymers, and weak mechanical strength, of printed structures. To overcome these challenges composites with fillers have been fabricated such as carbon nanotube/polylactic acid composites, nanosilica/polyamide composites, and carbon black/polyamide composites which have increased the mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of the composites.
Despite highly diverse applications of 3D printing and new advancements in 3D printing, there are still a few challenges that restrict the usage of 3D printing on a commercial scale. These include the resistance and adaptability of 3D-printed material’s properties and structures against the change in environmental factors, such as temperature, electric energy, and pH.
4D printing is basically the combination of a 3D printer, smart material, and well-designed programming that allows the 3D-printed object to change its shape, properties, and functionality with time. 4D-printed objects change or modify against environmental conditions. These materials can be responsive to heat, water, pH, electric energy, and magnetic field. 4D printing has increased the number of application areas for additive manufacturing and thus expanded to include aviation, self-sustaining material, sensors, active materials, and bioprinting.
There has been a tremendous amount of technological advancement and research on 3D and 4D printing, and its applications. New advancements have been, however, the commercialization and implementation at a larger stage are still in progress and therefore more research and development are needed. Importantly more sustainable materials need to be explored due to the environmental risks associated with some of the materials and techniques used. The potential to create solutions to some of the most challenging product development needs in various industries using 3D- and 4D-printing technologies remain high. These developments are many times related to niche products that cannot be manufactured otherwise.
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\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
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\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
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\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"19",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Science",keywords:"Animal Science, Animal Biology, Wildlife Species, Domesticated Animals",scope:"The Animal Science topic welcomes research on captive and wildlife species, including domesticated animals. 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