The comparison of phosphate ore beneficiation methods [16].
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7844",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Voice and Swallowing Disorders",title:"Voice and Swallowing Disorders",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The purpose of writing this book is to discuss the updated information on voice and swallowing disorders. The book has been written by international authors and experts in this field. You will find not only clinical aspects but also basic science aspects of voice and swallowing disorders. The chapters include the quantitative analysis of activity patterns of muscles of mastication and deglutition, and salivary secretion after facial massage and vibrotactile stimulation. You will also find the updated management of oropharyngeal dysphagia, dysphagia due to cervical facial tumors, radiation-induced dysphagia, and dysphagia in patients with a stroke. This book can be an important guide to the practicing physicians and surgeons managing voice and swallowing disorders.",isbn:"978-1-83880-366-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-365-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-105-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77662",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"voice-and-swallowing-disorders",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9a81e27eb29c12553e9524f20a93b57d",bookSignature:"Monjur Ahmed",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7844.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5945,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 16th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206355/images/system/206355.jpeg",biography:"Monjur Ahmed, MD, FRCP, is an Associate Professor of Medicine at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. He has been a practicing gastroenterologist for twenty-two years. He has a special interest in inflammatory bowel disease, eosinophilic esophagitis, gastrointestinal motility, and dysphagia. Dr. Ahmed also serves as an editor in chief for the World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology.",institutionString:"Thomas Jefferson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Thomas Jefferson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1098",title:"Otolaryngology",slug:"otorhinolaryngology-otolaryngology"}],chapters:[{id:"68087",title:"Quantitative Analysis of Activity Patterns in the Muscles of Mastication and Deglutition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88108",slug:"quantitative-analysis-of-activity-patterns-in-the-muscles-of-mastication-and-deglutition",totalDownloads:648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surface electromyograms (EMGs) were recorded from the masseter (Mass), one of the major muscles for chewing, and from the suprahyoid (SH) muscles, involved in swallowing. Activity patterns of these EMGs were analyzed with a TP method that was developed specifically to quantify muscle activity patterns. To compare individual EMG bursts in a participant with different amplitudes and active durations, the bursts were cumulatively integrated to standardize the amplitudes and active durations. Each TP value calculated by this method indicated a relative location of an EMG burst on a standardized time scale free from changes in the amplitudes and active durations. Both InP and DP values were derived from the TP values and also applied to the burst. A T50 value indicated the standardized time for half of the final cumulatively integrated EMG burst. Five groups of application samples were introduced to demonstrate the usefulness of the TP method in comparing activity patterns of the Mass and SH EMGs during chewing and swallowing, while participants were in different body positions and experiencing different tastes and textures of sample foods. Finally, limitations and perspectives of the TP method are discussed.",signatures:"Yozo Miyaoka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68087",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68687",title:"Pathology of Nonneoplastic Lesions of the Vocal Folds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88735",slug:"pathology-of-nonneoplastic-lesions-of-the-vocal-folds",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nonneoplastic vocal fold lesions are common that can cause hoarseness and voice change. Reactive lesions of Reinke’s space can be observed in all ages and genders and comprise the majority of the benign nonneoplastic vocal fold lesions. Although clinically different terms are used to define reactive lesions of Reinke’s space, they share the same histopathologic features. In order to differentiate vocal fold polyp and nodule and Reinke’s edema, clinical findings should be considered. Epithelial changes such as pseudoepitheliomatous and verrucous hyperplasia may cause diagnostic challenge due to resemblance of squamous cell carcinoma. Evaluation of the invasion border and cellular atypia may aid in correct diagnosis.",signatures:"Nil Çomunoğlu, Şebnem Batur and Ayşe Mine Önenerk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68687",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68352",title:"Swallowing Disorders in Patients with Stroke",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88341",slug:"swallowing-disorders-in-patients-with-stroke",totalDownloads:1044,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Swallowing disturbance often causes by stroke and may predispose patients to malnutrition and dehydration, as well as increases the risk of such complications as suffocation and aspiration pneumonia. As an initial evaluation, the water swallowing test can be easily carried out, but not all of the aspiration can be excluded. Therefore, videofluorography (VF) and videoendoscopic examination (VE) of swallowing should be performed to find a safety method of oral intake for providing visualization of the pharynx and larynx dysfunction. Clinical severity scale is important because once the severity is determined, the treatment strategy is also known. Swallowing training can be divided into indirect training without food (basic training) and direct training with food (eating training). In general, it is important to select conditions and training diets that are easy to swallow and have a low risk of aspiration while using indirect training and direct training that aim at gradually improving the level of oral intake.",signatures:"Aiko Osawa and Shinichiro Maeshima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68352",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68352",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70060",title:"Maxillofacial and Oral Aspects of Dysphagia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89751",slug:"maxillofacial-and-oral-aspects-of-dysphagia",totalDownloads:976,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oral cavity/mouth is first recipient of food. Food is broken down and prepared for initial phases of digestion. The oral preparatory phase is voluntary. In this phase, food is manipulated by the tongue and teeth. A bolus which is ready to swallow is prepared. Any disruption of oral cavity functions commonly due to oral infections, space infections, facial trauma, congenital-cleft lip and palate, temporo-mandibular joint disorders, salivary gland pathology, oral cancers, radiation therapy, etc., can cause dysphagia. In this chapter, we would explain the maxillofacial and oral aspects of dysphagia along with diagnosis and treatment aspects.",signatures:"Mohammed Basha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70060",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70060",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69127",title:"Radiation-Related Dysphagia: From Pathophysiology to Clinical Aspects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88779",slug:"radiation-related-dysphagia-from-pathophysiology-to-clinical-aspects",totalDownloads:772,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Western countries, head and neck cancers (HNCs) account for about 5% of all tumors. Due to tumor locations at the aero-digestive crossroad, patients frequently suffer from swallowing dysfunction caused both by primary cancer (baseline dysphagia) and cancer therapies (treatment-related dysphagia). In this regard, radiation-induced dysphagia represents a real “Achille’s heel” which historically occurs in more than 50% of patients and can lead to a malnutritional status and an increased risk of aspiration pneumonia. In fact radiotherapy, by restricting the driving pressure of the bolus through the pharynx and/or limiting the opening of the cricopharyngeal muscle, leads to a post-swallowing pharyngeal residue that may spill into the airway causing ab ingestis pneumonia. On the contrary, an organ preservation strategy should provide both the highest tumor control probability (TCP) and the minimum function impairment with the subsequent maximum therapeutic index gain. In this regard, intensity-modulated RT (IMRT) might reduce the probability of postradiation dysphagia by producing concave dose distributions with better avoidance of several critical structures, such as swallowing organs at risk (SWOARs), which might result in better functional outcomes. Similarly, a prompt swallowing rehabilitation provided before, during, and soon after radiotherapy plays an important role in improving oncologic swallowing outcomes.",signatures:"Stefano Ursino, Paola Cocuzza, Stefania Santopadre, Fabiola Paiar and Bruno Fattori",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69127",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69127",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68661",title:"Effect of Salivation by Facial Somatosensory Stimuli of Facial Massage and Vibrotactile Apparatus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88495",slug:"effect-of-salivation-by-facial-somatosensory-stimuli-of-facial-massage-and-vibrotactile-apparatus",totalDownloads:721,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We studied the effects of salivary promotion of fluid secretion after hand massage, and the apparatus of vibrotactile stimulation (89 Hz frequency, 15 min) in normal humans. Personal massage cannot be performed on handicap and stroke patients, and then giving hand massage to them for 5 min massage gives a tired feeling. So, we focused 3 min stranger massage. Salivary glands can discharge the accumulated saliva by extrusion from the acinus glands’ massages as described in the recent Japanese textbook. We think that this method may not produce realistic recovery. Our aim ideas are to relieve stress and increase temperature with lightly touch massage of the skin and for a 1 cycle of 1 s. We recorded RR interval of ECG, total salivation, facial skin temperature, OxyHb of fNIRS on the frontal cortex, and amylase activity for the autonomic changes. In increased 2°C of the facial skin temperature, the hand massage had a need for 3 min and the vibrotactile stimulation for 15 min. Increase from 700 to 1000 ms of RR intervals had a need for 3 min in the hand massage and had 15 min in the vibrotactile stimulation. Although vibrotactile stimulation needs long time of 4–7 years as effective recovery, hand massage may have more effect with a repetition of day after day.",signatures:"Tsunoda Yumi, Akatuka Sumiko, Fukui Sayaka, Nakayama Enri, Abe Kimiko, Sato Mituyasu, Kimura Masanori, Kato Syunnichiryou, Sakai Maho, Yamaoka Masaru, Watanabe Mao, Ueda Koichirou and Hiraba Hisao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68661",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68661",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70540",title:"Swallowing Disorders in Cervical Facial Tumors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90624",slug:"swallowing-disorders-in-cervical-facial-tumors",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We review current state of the art protocols on swallowing disorders associated to cervical facial tumors. The clinician needs to translate physiology notions to bedside diagnosis. Facing such a case the ENT surgeon must follow several key steps: thorough history taking, barium transit, endoscopy evaluation of swallowing, high resolution diagnosis imaging. Afterwards surgical treatment plan should take into consideration the need to careful dissection of vascular and nervous structures. Dysphagia may present from initial diagnosis or after surgical resection of the tumor or during radiation and chemotherapy. We discuss the use of various staging scales or questionnaires for assessing quality of life. We illustrate the importance of swallowing disorders management with various cases of tumors at the level of skull base, pharynx, salivary glands, larynx, esophagus, etc. There are various solutions for dysphagia ranging from nasogastric feeding tube placement to percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy to specially designed exercises. Sometimes the surgeon neglects these disorders and focuses on airway management. However, the rule should be to encourage swallowing as soon as possible after surgery. A good nutritional status is necessary for a positive prognosis in swallowing disorders. Team effort in tertiary oncology units is the key in supporting such complex cases.",signatures:"Daniela Vrinceanu and Mihai Dumitru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70540",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10315",title:"Crohn’s Disease",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ddf7dda3ec43e99aefd9d1ac1ecc35e",slug:"crohn-s-disease-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Monjur Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10315.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1758",title:"Otolaryngology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b845def701f65d6ae3487686581983f",slug:"otolaryngology",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1758.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8732",title:"Sino-Nasal and Olfactory System Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2170e4de59f7b95f9fad8d3dc343aae0",slug:"sino-nasal-and-olfactory-system-disorders",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel and Balwant Singh Gendeh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8732.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67669/images/system/67669.png",biography:"Dr. Balwant Singh Gendeh is a senior consultant ENT surgeon with a sub-specialty interest in rhinology (allergy, sino-nasal diseases, endoscopic sinus, anterior and ventral skull base surgery, and functional and cosmetic nasal surgery). He was an ENT registrar at the Royal Infirmary, Middlesbrough, UK, in 1993, and a JW Fulbright scholar, University of Pittsburgh, USA, in 1997. During his Fulbright experience, he also worked at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania (HUP), Philadelphia, USA, and St. Joseph’s Hospital, Chicago, USA, with a sub-specialty interest in rhinology and aesthetic nasal surgery. Dr. Gendeh retired after thirty-eight years of government service as a consultant ENT surgeon at the National University of Malaysia Medical Centre (UKMMC) in 2014. Currently, he is a visiting professor at the Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, UKMMC, and a resident ENT consultant at Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur. He is an executive member of numerous national and international bodies including board chairman of the Malaysian American Commission on Educational Exchange (MACEE). He was elected as a diploma of the Fellowship Academy of Medicine Malaysia (FAMM) in 2000, an international fellow of the Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery in 2004, a fellow of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (FASc) in 2016, and a fellow of Malaysian Scientific Association (FMSA) in 2017. 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The first two chapters of this book discuss the various applications of surfactants, including their use in cosmetics, oil recovery from rocks and mineral processing. Subsequent chapters cover advanced topics like new-generation polymer-based nanoparticles with microbial activity and complex phase systems formed as a result of charge-induced interactions between surfactants, polymers and proteins with potential applications in medical devices. In addition, this book reports for the first time on bio-surfactants extracted from micro-organisms present in the clouds. This report is not the only one of its kind, but it opens up a totally new area of research in terms of an unexplored source of bio-surfactants. It also paves the way for understanding their role in controlling our atmosphere and climate.",isbn:"978-1-78984-661-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-660-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-838-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77548",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"surfactants-and-detergents",numberOfPages:102,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"bca8bb6e94e26599889ff5e1190b0ed7",bookSignature:"Ashim Kumar Dutta",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7735.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:5987,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitations:34,numberOfTotalCitations:63,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 7th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 19th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 8th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 7th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"277477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashim",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dutta",slug:"ashim-dutta",fullName:"Ashim Dutta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277477/images/system/277477.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ashim Kumar Dutta presently works as the vice president (R&D) with India Glycols Limited, one of the largest manufacturers of Green Surfactants in South East Asia. Earlier, he had worked with Unilever as a senior researcher and product development manager in their Home and Personal Care Category, with United Phosphorus Limited and Indofil as their global head for agrochemical formulations. He has authored/co-authored 36 articles in international journals and 19 patents. He received his Ph.D in physical chemistry from Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS) – a premiere research institute in India in 1993. Dr. Dutta has worked on various international post-doctoral fellowships in Japan, Canada and USA. His research interests include supramolecular assemblies, ultrathin nanostructured films, nanoparticles, novel surfactants, surfactant-polymer interactions, bio-membranes and spectroscopy of Langmuir-Blodgett films, tribology and rheology of complex systems.",institutionString:"India Glycols Limited",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"504",title:"Colloid Science",slug:"colloid-science"}],chapters:[{id:"69056",title:"Introductory Chapter: Surfactants in Household and Personal Care Formulations - An Overview",slug:"introductory-chapter-surfactants-in-household-and-personal-care-formulations-an-overview",totalDownloads:951,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"277477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashim",surname:"Dutta",slug:"ashim-dutta",fullName:"Ashim Dutta"}]},{id:"67816",title:"Role of Surfactants in Mineral Processing: An Overview",slug:"role-of-surfactants-in-mineral-processing-an-overview",totalDownloads:1445,totalCrossrefCites:3,authors:[{id:"284415",title:"Ms.",name:"Abhyarthana",surname:"Pattanaik",slug:"abhyarthana-pattanaik",fullName:"Abhyarthana Pattanaik"},{id:"299016",title:"Dr.",name:"Venugopal",surname:"Rayasam",slug:"venugopal-rayasam",fullName:"Venugopal Rayasam"}]},{id:"66314",title:"Effect of Surfactants on Bubble-Particle Interactions",slug:"effect-of-surfactants-on-bubble-particle-interactions",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"289395",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavlína",surname:"Basařová",slug:"pavlina-basarova",fullName:"Pavlína Basařová"},{id:"289396",title:"Dr.",name:"Mária",surname:"Zedníková",slug:"maria-zednikova",fullName:"Mária Zedníková"}]},{id:"66593",title:"Surfactant Mixtures: Performances vs. Aggregation States",slug:"surfactant-mixtures-performances-vs-aggregation-states",totalDownloads:760,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"34533",title:"Prof.",name:"Camillo",surname:"La Mesa",slug:"camillo-la-mesa",fullName:"Camillo La Mesa"},{id:"295610",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianfranco",surname:"Risuleo",slug:"gianfranco-risuleo",fullName:"Gianfranco Risuleo"}]},{id:"65665",title:"Biomimetic Nanomaterials from the Assembly of Polymers, Lipids, and Surfactants",slug:"biomimetic-nanomaterials-from-the-assembly-of-polymers-lipids-and-surfactants",totalDownloads:838,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"123449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Carmona-Ribeiro",slug:"ana-maria-carmona-ribeiro",fullName:"Ana Maria Carmona-Ribeiro"}]},{id:"66485",title:"Cloud Microorganisms, an Interesting Source of Biosurfactants",slug:"cloud-microorganisms-an-interesting-source-of-biosurfactants",totalDownloads:919,totalCrossrefCites:4,authors:[{id:"291590",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne-Marie",surname:"Delort",slug:"anne-marie-delort",fullName:"Anne-Marie Delort"},{id:"292313",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",surname:"Renard",slug:"pascal-renard",fullName:"Pascal Renard"},{id:"292314",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",surname:"Canet",slug:"isabelle-canet",fullName:"Isabelle Canet"},{id:"292315",title:"Mrs.",name:"Martine",surname:"Sancelme",slug:"martine-sancelme",fullName:"Martine Sancelme"},{id:"292317",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Matulova",slug:"maria-matulova",fullName:"Maria Matulova"},{id:"292319",title:"Dr.",name:"Iveta",surname:"Uhliarikova",slug:"iveta-uhliarikova",fullName:"Iveta Uhliarikova"},{id:"292320",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Eyheraguibel",slug:"boris-eyheraguibel",fullName:"Boris Eyheraguibel"},{id:"292321",title:"Mr.",name:"Lionel",surname:"Nauton",slug:"lionel-nauton",fullName:"Lionel Nauton"},{id:"292322",title:"Dr.",name:"Julien",surname:"Devemy",slug:"julien-devemy",fullName:"Julien Devemy"},{id:"292324",title:"Dr.",name:"Mounir",surname:"Traikia",slug:"mounir-traikia",fullName:"Mounir Traikia"},{id:"292325",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrice",surname:"Malfreyt",slug:"patrice-malfreyt",fullName:"Patrice Malfreyt"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Phosphate rock is an important mineral commodity used in the chemical industry and production of food. Phosphate ores show a wide diversity in the composition of their gangue materials but generally fall into one of the following categories based on major associated gangue materials [1],[2],[3],[4]:
An alternative technique for the beneficiation of these ores is the calcination. Calcination is the process of heating the ore to a high temperature ranging from 800 to 1000°C to decompose CaCO3 and MgCO3 to CaO, MgO and gaseous CO2. The CaO and MgO formed are then removed as hydroxides by quenching the calcined product in water and washing. The most common chemical reagent used to enhance the removal of calcium and magnesium hydroxides is ammonium chloride.
Chemical dissolution of carbonate minerals (calcite and dolomite) from calcareous phosphate ores, without the calcination, using organic acids also proved to be capable of beneficiating the calcareous phosphate ores on the laboratory scale.
Furthermore, as a result of low calcination temperature, the reduction of calcium sulfate, present in ore, to corrosive calcium sulfide by the organic matter is minimized. During the burning of organic matter, the following two conditions must be kept: organic carbon must be decreased to less than 0.3% to minimize the gassing in the wet phosphoric acid processing, and apatite CO2 must be maintained at a level close to 2% to allow good reactivity of calcined product.
The quality factors of commercial phosphate rocks include [5]:
Sesquioxides (R2O3) that consist of three atoms of oxygen and two atoms or radicals of other elements, e.g. Al2O3, Fe2O3 and La2O3.
Increasing world demand on fertilizer in the 1960s and 1970s and the need for phosphate feedstock stimulated the efforts to develop the techniques to beneficiate low-grade ores and remove impurities. It is highly desirable, for both economic and technical reasons, to remove as much of these impurities as possible, thus to increase the apatite content and the grade of phosphate feedstock and to improve the chemical quality. Phosphate ores can be beneficiated by many methods, and usually a combination of more methods is used [6],[7], [8].
\nThe treatment of phosphate rock and end-product [
The phosphate rock concentrate must meet the following conditions to be salable [4]:
High P2O5 content (>30%);
Low CaO/P2O5 ratio (<1.6);
Low MgO content (<1%).
As will be mentioned in
Mining and beneficiation of sedimentary (a) and igneous (b) phosphate ore [
The example of a generic scheme for mining and beneficiation of sedimentary and igneous phosphate ore is shown in Fig. 2 [8].
\n\nThe first commercial production of phosphate rock began in England in 1847 and mining was undoubtedly by hand methods. Phosphate mining began in the United States in South Carolina in 1867. Platy phosphate rock beds were mined by hand and later by dredges; sorting was mainly by hand. Phosphate rock deposits were discovered in north and west Africa in the late 1800s. The exploitation of deposits in Algeria and Tunisia began prior to 1900. The production of phosphate rock began at many deposits in the north and west African region in the early to mid-20th century [5],[6],[9]. Currently, there are about 1635 operating world phosphate mines or occurrence worldwide [10].
\nA wide variety of techniques and many types of equipment are used to mine and process phosphate rock. The methods and the equipment used are very similar to methods and equipment used for coal mining. Phosphate rock is mined by both surface (open-cast, open-pit or strip mining) and underground methods. The surface mining can take many forms — from manual methods employing picks and shovels to highly mechanized operations. Surface mining is the most utilized method by far for mining phosphate deposits. In high-volume applications, the surface mining methods are typically less costly and are generally the preferred methods when the deposit geometry and other factors are favorable [5],[6],[11].
\nOpen-cast mining has developed into a versatile method with plenty of variations to match the mining depth, the slope of the original topography and the types of equipment available. The two major variations of open-cast mining are [12]:
The open-cast mining cycle consist mainly of [11],[12]:
Because the profile of the deposit layer is different, the mining process selection is needed to be adapted in order to reach the best economic effect [11]:
\nThe open-cast mining has numerous advantages and disadvantages as well. The main advantages are [12]:
Higher productivity, efficiency and safety than for underground mining;
The utilization of large equipment reduces the unit cost;
Modest development requirements allow rapid exploitation;
Relatively flexible, can increase the production by expanding operations.
The disadvantages of open-cast mining process are:
The economic limits of the method and the technological limit of the equipment impose the depth limit, which is generally about 90 m;
The economics imposes the limits of stripping ratios;
Extensive environmental reclamation of the surface is required.
Separation and classification Classification is defined as the separation of a mixture of solid particles into various fractions according to their sizes or densities [14].
Approximate range of applicability of various concentrating devices (M = mesh, Tyler standard) [
In phosphate rock beneficiation, the availability of water is of primary importance and may determine the process or processes used. Fine-grained impurities can often be removed from phosphate ores by using the combinations of comminution, scrubbing, water washing, screening and/or hydrocyclones. The disposal of tiny ore constituents (slimes) can be problematic. The beneficiation technique of froth flotation (described in
Beneficiation of phosphate rock containing carbonates, silica and pyrite as the main gangue materials [
Ore type | \nBeneficiation method | \n||
---|---|---|---|
Flotation | \nCalcination | \nOrganic acid leaching | \n|
Igneous | \nThe best approach | \nNot applicable | \nNot applicable | \n
Sedimentary with siliceous gangue | \nThe best approach | \nNot applicable | \nNot applicable | \n
Sedimentary with calcareous gangue | \n— | \nLow water consumption. Complete elimination of the carbonate gangue. | \nVery selective. Acid plants have low capital cost. Method has few environmental hazards. Leaching does not affect phosphate minerals. Organic acid can be recycled. Water consumption equal to convectional beneficiation. Final product has good quality and purity. Organic acid salts are soluble in water and easily filtered from solid product. | \n
\n | Method has not given satisfactory results. Not applicable in many cases. | \nCalcination. Plants high capital cost. Needs high thermal energy. Calcined product has no desirable quality. Calcination decreases the product solubility. Process is time consuming. | \nEconomic aspects are not well established. Organic acid price is high. | \n
The comparison of phosphate ore beneficiation methods [16].
Effective beneficiation can be achieved by various processes depending on the liberation size of phosphate and gangue minerals and other ore specifications. Different processes like screening, scrubbing, heavy media separation, washing, roasting, calcinations, leaching and flotation may be used. For example, crushing and screening are used to remove coarse hard siliceous material, and attrition scrubbing and desliming are used to remove clayey fine fractions. If silica is the main gangue material, flotation is the conventional mineral processing technique used. Igneous-type ores are also amenable to flotation, which is the best approach for the processing of this type of phosphate ore [16].
\nAlmost all minerals show some degree of conductivity. The electronic separation process uses the difference in electrical conductivity or surface charge of the mineral species of interest. The electrostatic separation process is generally confined to recovering valuable heavy minerals from beach-sand deposits. However, the growing interest in plastic and meta recycling has opened up new applications in secondary materials recovery [15].
\n\nWhen particles come under the influence of electrical field, depending on their conductivity, they accumulate charge that depends directly on the maximum achievable charge density on the particle surface. These charged particles can be separated by differential attraction or repulsion. Therefore, the first important step in electrostatic separation is to impose an electrostatic charge onto particles. Three main types of charging mechanism are the contact electrification or triboelectrification, the conductive induction and the ion bombardment (Fig. 5). Once the particles are charged, the separation can be achieved by the equipment with various electrode configurations [13],[15].
\nRepresentative methods of electrostatic separation: contact charge (a), ion attachment (b) and induced charge (c) [
In the combination with attrition, desliming and gravity separation, the electrostatic separation technique is successful in the beneficiation of phosphate ores by removing silica and/or carbonates, mostly on laboratory scale. However, low capacity of electrostatic separators limits their use in large-scale production. This technique is used to concentrate the phosphate ores of different types [1].
\n\nParticle charging mechanism: the particle charged positively has lower work function and the particle charged negatively has higher work function (a) [
The triboelectrification is a type of electrostatic separation in which two nonconductive mineral species acquire opposite charges by contact with each other. The particle charging process is the critical step for the triboelectrostatic separation since the separation efficiency is a function of the difference in charge polarity and the magnitude of different particles. The charge density achieved with conventional pneumatic chargers (including tubing charger, cyclone, honeycomb, static mixer, etc.) and belt charger is about 5 – 8·10−6 C/m2. Since the theoretical limit for the charge is 2.63·10−5 C/m2, clearly, there is a huge potential in improving the charging efficiency [17].
The particle residence time, i.e. the time for the particle traveling through the separation chamber (Fig. 6(b)), is controlled by the particle vertical motion. However, the horizontal particle motion (
where
From
where \n
Under these conditions, the terminal horizontal speed is independent of the mass. However, since the time
The particle motion in the vertical direction is influenced by the gravitational force and gas drag force. The governing equation is [17]:
where
where
The tube-type separator has the pre-charging zone and the separation zone as the integral parts of the machine (Fig. 7(a)). The pre-charging zone, or the triboelectrification process, exploits the difference in the electronic appearance of the particles involved. The particles become charged by the particle-particle contact, particle-wall contact or both. The particle-particle contact between different particles results in the transfer of electrons (charges) from the surface of one particle to the surface of the other one. After this transfer, one of the particles is positively charged and the other one possesses the negative charge. The separation zone consists of two vertical walls of rotating tubes, which oppose each other and which are electrified by opposite potential. As the charged particles enter the separation zone, they become attracted by oppositely charged electrodes. The separated products are collected at the base of separator. This separator removes very effectively silica from other nonconductive minerals, such as calcium carbonate, phosphate and talc [15].
\nOperating principle of electrostatic separator: (a) V-stat separator, (b) plate-type separator and (c) roll-type separator [
In the horizontal belt-type separator, fast-moving belts travel in opposite directions adjacent to suitably placed plate electrodes of the opposite polarity. The material is fed into a narrow gap between two parallel electrodes. The particles are swept upward by a moving open-mesh belt and conveyed in opposite directions, thus facilitating the particles’ charging by contact with other particles. The electric field attracts the particles up or down depending on their charge. The moving belts transport the particles adjacent to each electrode towards opposite ends of the separator [15].
\nIn 1792, a patent was filed by William Fullarton describing the separation of iron minerals with a magnet. The properties of magnetic materials were identified as early as 6th century BC, but the means by which magnets could move material remained only a curious phenomenon until the late 18th century. The background for electricity and magnetism, the reasons that magnets could move materials, were explained by Gauss and Helmholtz [18].
Electromagnets almost completely replaced permanent magnets as the field-generating elements in drum separators [20]. Recent progress in magnet technology has realized economically and operationally favorable cryocooler-cooled All superconducting devices share the need for sufficient refrigeration to overcome their low-temperature heat loading. This loading comes typically in two forms: (1) heal leaks from the surrounding and (2) internal heat generation in the device. In addition, the refrigeration system needs to bring the superconducting device from ambient temperature to its low operating temperature in reasonable length of time [21]. After Kamerlingh Onnes’s pioneering the demonstration in 1908 that the last so-called permanent gas helium could indeed be liquefied. His follow-up discovery of superconductivity in 1911 introduced the zero electrical current resistivity to the world. It was theorized that one could go beyond the resistive limit of a copper wire to develop a superconductor that could carry any amount of current but without the ohmic loss [23].
Drum separator using a multi-pole superconducting magnet (Klochner Humbolt-Deutz Cologne, Germany) [
Despite all this progress, the majority of the commercial magnetic separators fulfill only the simple technological objective of the removal of magnetic substances without the ability to classify them. Only three classical separation products (tails, middlings and mags, Fig. 9) are usually obtained [25].
\nClassical magnetic separation products [
Unlike the conventional filtration methods that use the blocking-type filtration, the secondary waste is not produced in high-gradient magnetic separation (HGMS), which is also known as the magnetic or electromagnetic filtration. Furthermore, because HGMS systems use much higher magnetic forces than conventional magnetic separation techniques, it can also be used to separate rapidly large quantities of diluted suspension [22].
\nAccording to the applied separation method, two classes of magnetic separators are recognized [26]:
Separators that deflect the magnetic particles from the main stream, e.g. open-gradient magnetic separation (OGMS);
Separators that usually collect the magnetic particles in matrices, e.g. high-gradient magnetic separation (HGMS).
Although current separators usually achieve high grades of separation, they cannot classify the particles Differential magnetic classification and the selectivity are different definitions. The selectivity is defined as the ability to separate one certain kind of magnetic particles from all others, independently of how close their magnetic susceptibilities may be [25].
Magnetic separation has been considered for many years a valuable method to achieve the purification of streams of particles (dry or wet) [26]. Magnetic separators have unrestricted industrial applications and are widely used in mineral beneficiation, food, textiles, plastic and ceramic processing industries. The separation efficiency of magnetic separator depends on the material characteristics and the design features of equipment along with the optimization of process variables [27].
\nThe magnetic force (\n
where
where
The basic principle behind magnetic separations is remarkably simple and remains unchanged from these early examples. It is based on a simple fact that materials with differing magnetic moments experience different forces in the presence of magnetic field gradients; thus, externally applied field can hand pick the components with distinctive magnetic characteristics out of physically similar mixtures [18]. When one of the major gangue constituents is magnetic, magnetic separators are used as one of the steps in the flow sheet to remove the magnetic constituents. This is mostly used in the beneficiation of igneous phosphate rocks. However, it was also used for the beneficiation of some sedimentary phosphate ores [1].
\nTypical magnetic pulley (a) and magnetic drum operating as lifting magnet (b) [
Paramagnetic minerals have higher magnetic permeability than the surrounding medium, usually air or water, and they concentrate the lines of source of an external magnetic field. The higher the magnetic susceptibility, the higher the field intensity in the particle and the greater the attraction up the field gradient toward increasing field strength. Diamagnetic minerals, on the other hand, have lower magnetic permeability than the surrounding medium and they repel the lines of force of magnetic field. These characteristics cause the expulsion of diamagnetic minerals down the gradient of the field towards decreasing field strength. This negative diamagnetic effect is usually orders of magnitude smaller than the positive paramagnetic attraction. Thus, a magnetic circuit can be designed to produce higher field intensity or higher field gradient or both to achieve the effective separation [15].
\nMagnets are used in the mineral industry to remove the tramp iron that might damage the equipment and to separate minerals according to their magnetic susceptibility. According to the intensity of the magnetic field, two types of magnetic separators are recognized [15]:
The gauss (G or Gs) is a unit of magnetic field (magnetic flux density) named after Carl Friedrich Gauss (1 G = 10−4 T = 1 cm−1/2g1/2s1) [28].
Rotating-drum magnetic separators (Fig. 10) are mainly used in mines. The rotating disc magnetic separator is used in so-called ferritic processes [22].
\n\nThe removal of carbonates from phosphate rock has been the focus of significant research efforts. Several countries have large deposits of phosphate rock that contain significant amounts of calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). The calcination of phosphate ores to remove carbonates is expensive because of high costs of energy. Calcination is practiced commercially at several phosphate rock mining operations around the world, mainly to improve final product quality by removing minor amounts of carbonates and organic matter. Calcination is also used to remove carbonates where the cost of natural gas is very low [1],[6].
\nCalcium and magnesium carbonates are readily dissolvable in both mineral (strong acids) and organic acids (weak acids). In the case of calcareous phosphate ores, although mineral acids dissolve carbonates at high reaction rates, they also attack the phosphorus-bearing minerals and cause losses in the P2O5 content of the ore; hence, they are not appropriate if the intention is only to beneficiate the ore not to dissolve phosphates. To avoid this problem, organic acids were studied as carbonate leaching agents, although their reaction rates are low. These organic acids may be expensive and will certainly add to the production cost. On the other hand, they are selective to leaching carbonates, their capital cost is low, they do not cause environmental hazards and they can be recycled [1].
\nThe organic acids most commonly used in carbonate leaching are acetic acid, citric acid and formic acid. They are used for some specific advantages (may be the cost, availability, etc.). Suggested reaction between acetic acid and carbonates is [1],[16],[29]:
The dissolution kinetics of calcareous material with acetic acid solution was found to fit the shrinking core model for the reaction-controlled process. The activation energy was determined to be 41.0 kJ·mol−1, which is consistent with a chemically controlled reaction. The process is driven by the surface chemical reaction kinetic model: (1 - (1 -
Proposed flow sheet for leaching of phosphate rock/ores using formic acid [
Acetic acid may be recovered by reversing the above reaction at high CO2 pressure in a separate reactor or by using sulfuric acid to precipitate calcium sulfate and to liberate acetic acid:
It is noted that the by-products such as calcium sulfate (gypsum) could be used and/or sold to lower the costs of acetic acid and its recovery by sulfuric acid (
The main factors investigated by the researchers were: leaching reagent, acid concentration, reaction time, liquid/solid ratio (pulp solid percent), temperature, particle size distribution, stirring speed and type and nature of ore [16].
\nMore than 10% of the world’s marketable phosphates are produced by calcination. Traditionally, the heat treatment of phosphate ores is defined as heating up the ore to a certain temperature to obtain a product with specific properties. The main processes that take place during the thermal treatment of apatite ore are [1],[3],[31],[32]:
The calcination process of phosphate ore is schematically shown in Fig. 12.
\nIllustration of the defluorination process of phosphate rocks [
There are various types of units that can be used for the calcination of phosphate ores, such as [1]:
Schematic diagram of annular-shaft kiln (a) and fluidized-bed calciner (b) [Fig. 13.
Rotary kilns are synonymous with cement and lime kilns probably because of the history of their evolution and development.
Schematic representation of countercurrent flow rotary kiln [
The rate of movement of the material through the kiln may be estimated using several relationships, e.g.:
where
Thermal treatment of pellet using grate-kiln technology [
The unique characteristics of flash calcination are particularly suited to pressing phosphate. Phosphate is a complicated mineral that varies from deposit to deposit with each ore requiring its own special processing consideration. During thermal treatment, it is important not to destroy the delicate crystal structure of phosphate by overheating. Flash calcination rates, very good oxygen contact and rapid cooling, all of these characteristics, are very important in the production of high-quality calcined phosphate. The operating conditions in the range from 800°C to 1000°C are required.
Schematic representation of flash furnace [
Flotation is a selective separation process that consists of attaching hydrophobic particles to rising air bubbles to form a particle-rich froth on the suspension surface, which flows over the lip of the cell. Hydrophilic particles do not attach to the bubbles and settle at the bottom to be discharged. Flotation has been the workhorse of mineral industry for over 100 years and has been expanded into many other areas, including deinking of wastepaper for recycling, water treatment and separation of plastics, crude oils, effluents, microorganisms and proteins [40].
\nThe beneficiation of phosphate ores using froth flotation method has been practiced for at least 65 years. Extensive research work has been carried out in the last 25 years on various phosphate-containing ores. Despite extensive research and industrial experience, there are some challenges remaining in particular in beneficiation of siliceous-, calcite- and heavy mineral-containing phosphate ores [41].
\nDespite the fact that the flotation of apatite is difficult due to its physicochemical properties being similar to other minerals present in phosphate ores [42],[43], the froth flotation is widely used in mineral processing technologies to separate finely ground valuable minerals from a mixture with gangue minerals initially present in a pulp. The technique involves the contact of air bubbles with the solids [44]. Flotation technology is also used to remove suspended impurities during the treatment of wastewater, water purification, recovery of bacteria, cereal cleaning, recovery of metal and colloidal matters and recovery of ions and surfactants from the solution [45].
\nMechanical flotation cell (a) and flotation column (b) [
Currently, more than half of the world’s marketable phosphates are concentrated by the flotation process [46]. Two types of flotation machines are available [4]:
Mechanical flotation cell (Fig. 17(a));
Colum flotation cell (Fig. 17(b)).
The comparison of both systems is shown in Table 2 [4]. Phosphoric tailings are fine-grained rock produced from the flotation processes [47].
\nMechanical Flotation Cells | \nColumn Flotation | \n
---|---|
Cell sizes ranging from ~0.1 to 350 m3\n | \nAvailable up to 4 m in diameter | \n
Typical heights around 9 – 15 m | \n|
Air induced or injected through the impeller to generate bubbles | \nInternal or external spargers generate air bubbles | \n
Produces smaller bubbles | \n|
Bubble-particle interaction through mixing by impeller | \nBubble-particle interaction through the countercurrent action-descending slurry and rising bubbles | \n
Less favorable for the bubble-particle attachment | \nGenerally considered more favorable for the bubble-particle attachment | \n
Better metallurgical performance (grade and recovery) | \n|
Axial mixing can significantly reduce the overall performance (especially in larger-diameter columns) | \n|
No moving parts | \n|
Well known to operators and easier to operate | \nNewer and less known by operators | \n
Convectional plant operation history and knowledge base on mechanical cells | \nHarder to operate | \n
Comparison of mechanical flotation cell and column flotation [4].
Flotation cells are usually designed to perform several functions simultaneously, some of them are [45]:
Agitation and circulation of the pulp mixture to keep all particles in suspension;
Aeration, which provides further agitation, involves dissemination of fine air bubbles throughout the pulp;
Promotion of particle-bubble collision facilitating selective attachment and transport. Such collisions can also be enhanced by the countercurrent flow of discrete particles and bubbles;
Maintenance of quiescent pulp conditions immediately under the froth layer.
In most flotation plants, the cells are interconnected in batteries, and the first flotation stage, called roughing, permits quick rejection of most of the gangue and achieves high recoveries with low grades. A schematic circuit, which includes roughing, cleaning, re-cleaning and scavenging stages, is given in Fig. 18.
\nSchematic representation of a flotation circuit [
Flotation is a dynamic process [48]. A whole range of variables can affect the performance of flotation systems (Fig. 19), such as their operating variables, particle size, reagents, ore composition and also the presence of ionic species in water [42],[46],[49]. The suspension \x3c!-- Please check if edit to this sentence is okay. The text was rewritten, thank you for your notice.
Flotation system with interrelating subsystems (chemistry, equipment and operating components)(a) and sodium oleate in an anionic collector that can be used to render apatite hydrophobic in alkaline environments (b) [
The selectivity of froth flotation processes is highly influenced by the specificity of integrations between minerals and reagents, which are used to control the hydrophobic/hydrophilic character of mineral/water interfaces [52].
\nThe use of additives is a tool for the control of surface tension of the flotation system. Additives (flotation reagents) used in phosphate flotation are synthetic organic species. They are produced via the ethoxylation of fatty alcohols. Alcohols are obtained from vegetable oils or animal fats. Ethylene oxide comes from the petroleum industry. These reagents may exhibit variable molecular composition and number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain, as well as the presence of double bonds, different stereochemistry (
The organic reagents, such as guar gum, cashew gum, tannins, dextrin, ethyl cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose, are capable of acting as depressor in the flotation of igneous phosphate ores. The performance of corn starches was consistently superior to that of those reagents [53],[54]. The depressing ability of starch and ethyl cellulose appears to be related to steric compatibility between the positions of cations present on the mineral surface and hydroxyl groups within the molecular structure of reagents [52].
\nThe role of surface and porosity was investigated by Zhong et al [55]. When the samples were not aged prior to the collector (potassium oleate) addition, the floatability was controlled by the dissolution (of calcium) and adsorption (of oleate) behaviors, which, in turn, were governed by the surface area. It appears that the surface constituted by pores had lower influence on the adsorption and dissolution characteristics than the external surface. This was suggested to be due to slow diffusion of calcium through the pores, which resulted in reduced dissolution rate, as well as the non-participation of a substantial portion of pores in the adsorption process. When the samples were aged prior to the oleate addition, the bulk precipitation of calcium oleate complex was found to play a crucial role. Since the bulk precipitation is not an interfacial process, the effect of surface area was slighter with aged samples.
\nA critical review of reagents used in the flotation of phosphate ores was performed by Sis and Chander [56]. Based on the literature, it was concluded that the usage of surfactant mixtures has certain advantages over single surfactant as the synergistic effects between surfactant mixtures were observed during different experiments such as surface tension, contact angle, adsorption and flotation. The synergism of surfactant mixtures at air/liquid, liquid/oil and liquid/solid interfaces arises from the improvement of froth properties, emulsification of hydrocarbon oil (e.g. fuel oil) and homogenous adsorption of collector on the minerals and protection of the collector from harmful effect of dissolved ions in the presence of auxiliary surfactant.
\nThe activation of apatite particles during dry milling may enhance the adsorption of reagents, which favors the recovery of apatite. However, active defects may serve as the sites for the adsorption of water and some very fine gangue particles on the apatite surfaces, causing apatite particles to be less responsive to flotation. As a result, dry milling did not have much impact on the recovery and flotation kinetics of apatite [42].
\nThe fact that microorganisms, both living and dead, and products derived from the organisms can function as flotation agents and flocculation agents is abundantly clear. They can modify the surfaces of minerals. They can function as flotation collectors and as flotation depressants and activators. In many cases, they or their products can function as specific flocculation agents [57].
\nMany strains of bacteria are able to adsorb Ca(II) and Mg(II) ions from aqueous solution and, in some cases, the adsorption can be very specific. For example,
The group of rare earths consists of 14 lanthanides or 4f elements in the periodic table along with three more elements: lanthanum, scandium and yttrium. Lanthanides comprise 15 elements with atomic numbers 57 – 71, which include lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb) and lutetium (Lu). All elements occur in nature, while promethium (Pm) originates as a part of radioactive decay. Elements La, Sc and Y have physiochemical properties similar to rare earths and are associated with the same minerals. Since they have similar chemical properties, the elements in the lanthanide series, yttrium and scandium, are considered as rare-earth elements (REE). Another classification used is light rare-earth elements (LREEs, atomic numbers 57 – 63: La, Ce, Nd, Pr, Pm, Sm and Eu) and heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs, atomic numbers 64 – 71: Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm and Yb) [59],[60].
\nApplications of REE (a) [
Most of the REE deposits exist in China, America, India, Middle Asian nations, South Africa, Australia and Canada. The demand for REEs has increased in recent years due to the uncertainty of the supply and high technological applications associated with their characteristic electronic, optical and magnetic properties (Fig. 20). RE phosphate minerals, such as monazite, florencite, xenotime, cheralite and britholite, are the most naturally abundant forms that are associated with fluorapatite [47],[61],[62],[63],[64].
\n\nThe techniques described in The processing chain for PR results in the majority of trace elements being lost either to waste disposal or to the environment (mainly soil and water) through fertilizer consumption and the food chain [47].
However, leaching efficiencies can vary significantly depending on the mineralogy of the ore and the type of acid used. H3PO4 and HF acids formed during the leaching process of FAP with acids interfere and change the leaching efficiency [61].
\nThe effect of aliphatic and aromatic low molecular weight organic acid on the release of REEs and yttrium from phosphate minerals was investigated by Goyne et al [65]. The performance of acid increases in the following order:
\nNo ligand ≈ salicylic acid < phthalic acid ≈ oxalic acid < citric acid.
\nThe utilization of organophosphorus reagents, such as Talcher organic phosphorus solvent (TOPS 99), an equivalent to di-2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid, 2-ethylhexylphosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (PC-88A) and bis(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid (Cyanex 272), etc., for the extraction of REEs was also reported [66],[67],[68],[69].
\nSystematic study of the thermal decomposition of monazite to remove phosphate in order to achieve more complete conversion of rare-earth phosphate into its oxides was performed by Kumari et al [62]. The method is based on roasting of monazite with CaO, Na2CO3 and NaOH (Fig. 21):
Washed monazite concentrate achieved from roasting was dried and leached by diluted HCl:
Optimal condition includes 2 h of leaching by 6 M HCl at the temperature of 80°C. The pulp density should be of 30 g·dm−3 [62].
\nProcess flow sheet for the separation of phosphate and recovery of REMs from monazite [
The optimization of leaching operation of rare-earth-bearing ores is a complex process since many attributes simultaneously affect the operation, with some of them being conflicting in nature. Therefore, a proper selection of leaching process with pertinent attributes is crucial for the user in order to maximize the percentage recovery at minimal operating costs. The methodology is proposed by Baral et al [70]. The parameters affecting the performance of leaching operation are listed in Table 3.
\nAttributes of leaching process | \n|||
---|---|---|---|
Physical | \nChemical | \nGeneral | \n|
1 | \nLeaching temperature | \nNature of ore | \nSource of ore | \n
2 | \nLeaching time | \nGrade of ore | \nCost of ore | \n
3 | \nAgitation time | \nChoice of leaching agent | \nMode and cost of transportation of ore to the plant | \n
4 | \nPressure | \nAcidity of leaching agent | \nPercentage recovery/extraction of REEs | \n
5 | \nPartial of mesh size of the ore sample | \nCorrosiveness of leaching agent | \nPretreatment prior to leaching | \n
6 | \nLiquid-to-solid ratio | \nReducing agents along with leaching agent | \nCost of leaching agent | \n
7 | \nSize of the leaching tank | \nPercentage gangue/impurities in ore | \nCost involved in pretreatment of ore | \n
8 | \nAmount of ore to be processed | \nRoasting of ore before leaching | \nCost involved in mechanical agitation | \n
9 | \nAmount of leaching agent to be handled | \nDissolution rate of REEs | \n\n |
10 | \nNumber of leaching stages | \nSolubility of other elements along with REEs | \n\n |
Operating conditions affecting the performance of leaching procedure [70].
Human teeth are the hardest substance in the human body that enhances the beauty of a person. It is a highly important structure that helps in food chewing to mechanically break down the food by cutting and crushing them in preparation for swallowing and digesting. It also aids in speech and its articulation of words. Human teeth consist of 20 primary (deciduous, “baby” or “milk”) teeth in children and 32 permanent teeth in adults. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. Incisors are primarily used for cutting the food into pieces, canines are used for tearing the tissues of the food, and molars help to grind the food into smaller substances [1].
Teeth are also important for cosmetic purposes as well. Many dental treatments are not purposefully dealt with filling and taking out a tooth, but indeed nowadays people turn out to esthetic dentistry to improve, straighten, lighten, reshape, and repair teeth as well. The field of esthetic dentistry includes the establishment of veneers, crown bridges, implants, tooth-colored filling, and teeth whitening procedures.
Tooth exfoliation starts from childhood. A young boy or girl loses the baby teeth, and it gets exfoliated in response to permanent teeth that start developing beneath them. This loss of primary teeth begins around the age of six and continues till 12 years of age. The primary teeth that are vulnerable are the upper and lower lateral incisors that shed at 7–8 years and upper canines are that shed around 10–12 years of age. Only the upper and lower first molars shed at 9–11 years of age and upper and lower second molars shed at 10–12 years of age [2].
Tooth loss is a condition that advances with the increase of age. This occurs as a result of mechanical disturbances and abnormal forces that act during the chewing process of hard substances, traumatic injury, etc. Also, a few conditions such as untreated dental caries (tooth decay) and severe periodontal (gum) disease might lead to loss of permanent teeth. Tooth decay is the primary cause of tooth loss. It is caused by the increased plaque retention on the teeth followed by bacterial invasion of the plaque. This ultimately results in dental caries and the formation of cavities. Untreated tooth cavities for a chronic period of time lead to the breakdown of the tooth. This bacterial invasion and retention of plaque deposits also affects the gums and bones attached to the tooth and loses its ability to hold the tooth. Periodontal structures are tissues that support teeth and their attachment to the bone. Diseases of the gums and bones are caused by bacterial invasion of teeth and retention of plaque. It results in diseases of the gums leading to periodontitis and detachment of supporting structures of the teeth and eventually causes tooth loss. So, the ultimate care of oral hygiene is the only preventive measure to prevent tooth loss. Good oral hygiene is the process of maintaining proper brushing of teeth two times a day with fluoridated toothpaste and frequent flossing. Regular dental check-ups every 6 months can be availed to ensure good teeth and prevent tooth loss [3].
There are a few conditions like bruxism otherwise called teeth grinding that occurs during sleep. This condition is very common in people who tend to be awake by profession at night. This tooth grinding increases the wear and tear action on the tooth and causes mechanical injury. The risk of tooth fractures is common in sportspeople, especially in football and goalie. Research reports claim that smoking is another important cause of tooth loss. Reports from countries, such as the United States, Germany, and Japan, show a strong relationship between cigarette smoking and tooth loss. The habit of smoking weakens the body’s immune response to infection and causes immunosuppression. This makes it harder to guard against a gum infection and takes a longer time to heal. Reports reveal that systemic diseases also relate to tooth loss. Conditions, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, cancer, and osteoporosis, also lead to permanent tooth loss due to their secondary complications. Therefore, tooth loss is not restricted to poor oral hygiene but poor maintenance of overall health [4, 5, 6].
Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition. Years after years the treatment options for missing teeth are dental implants, fixed dental bridges, removable partial dentures. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth. This procedure involves the surgical mounting of a titanium metal post or frame on the upper or lower jaw along with mounting the replaced missing tooth. This dental implant acts as a permanent base for the replaced tooth. This procedure is highly advantageous because the replaced dental implant resembles a natural tooth and can last for decades. It also acts independently and does not disturb the adjacent normal tooth. The next treatment option is a fixed dental bridge. This procedure provides bridging between the gaps caused by the lost tooth and involves the employment of a dental prosthesis or an artificial tooth. This dental prosthesis would be attached to adjacent teeth and bonded in place with dental cement. A removable partial denture consists of replacement teeth that are attached to a natural-looking pink base. The natural teeth also act to stabilize and hold the removable plastic base in its position place. This pink base is designed in a way that matches the color of the gums and the color of the normal teeth [7].
A dental implant is a material placed in or on the oral tissues that help to support the oral prosthesis. An ideal implant material should possess the following characteristics. It should be biocompatible and possess adequate strength, rigidity, good corrosive, and be capable of wear and fracture resistance. The principles of designing a dental implant should be much compatible with the physical properties of the material. Materials that are used for fabricating a dental implant can be considered according to the chemical composition of the implant and their biological responses. Many reports claim that these dental implants may be made from metals, ceramics, or polymers [8].
According to the American Society for testing and materials, there are six distinct types of titanium that are widely available as implant biomaterials. They are grade I, II, III, IV Cp Ti, various combinations of titanium, aluminum like alpha-beta alloy containing 6% Al and 4% V, alpha-beta titanium alloy containing 6% aluminum and 7% niobium, alpha-beta titanium alloy with non-ferrous metal. The physical and mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and osseointegration, elastic modulus, non-toxic nature, are quite different for the different alloys. The most important property related to the oxygen residuals in the metals and the other two titanium is considered as very low interstitial alloys. Among all the available alloys, the commercially prepared pure titanium alloys are generally considered as pure and mentioned in Grade I, Grade II, Grade III, and Grade IV titanium and has wide applications in implant manufacturing. Some trace elements, such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and iron, are also considered in this process. Although titanium possesses many strengthening characteristics, literature reports reveal that it evokes a stronger reaction in the host causing hypersensitivity reactions, failed implants with increased concentration of titanium in peri-implanted tissues, regional nodes, and pulmonary tissues based on animal models, allergy to titanium in the form of urticaria, pruritus of the mucosa or skin, atopic dermatitis, poor fracture healing, necrosis and immunosuppression and weakening of orthopedically implanted titanium [9].
Ceramics has been widely used as a dental implant coating and it was the first introduced material in the field of implant dentistry. Hydroxyapatite is one of the most known biocompatible materials commonly used as a coating for metal implants. These hydroxyapatite coatings create a good interfacial strength between bone and implant. It provides greater implant stability and improves bone healing that lies adjacent to implants. The use of hydroxyapatite improves the capacity of osseointegration and increases the rate of rehabilitation of patients. This method of implanting decreases the time from implant insertion to final reconstruction of the implant [10]. There are various methods to coat hydroxyapatite on implants, they include sol–gel coating, electrophoretic deposition, plasma spraying, sputter-deposition, and biomimetic precipitation. Ceramic materials that are used for dental implanting and coatings. The materials used are hydroxylapatite (HA), tricalcium phosphate, fluorapatite (FA), tetracalcium phosphate, calcium pyrophosphate, brushite, bioglasses, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, etc. (Figure 1).
SEM-image of hydroxyapatite.
In the field of dental implanting, metals are widely selected based on factors that involve properties belong to its biomechanical characteristics, machining characteristics, and surface finishing characteristics as well. In the present day, metals, such as Co-Cr, stainless steel, and gold are quite outdated in the dental implant industry and the currently available dental metals are alloys of titanium and zirconium as well. Certain components of dental implants such as the abutment screws and some attachments of the implants are also made of alloys of gold, stainless steel, and Co-Cr. Titanium is mostly considered as an effective material by most of the dentists for its wide intraosseous applications. It has enormous and typical properties, such as lesser readily affected or corroded by the environment, high resistance to chemical dosing, and capability to repair on its own. The resistance to being deformed elastically—modulus of elasticity was very compatible with that of bone and titanium oxide [11, 12]. Although titanium is a typical material suitable for dental implanting, it faces a lot of shortfalls. These drawbacks and detrimental properties of titanium ultimately resulted in prompting the scientists to look and research the new implant from other biomaterials [13].
The next innovation to overcome the said shortfalls led to the development of ceramic implants [14]. And as a result of this zirconia is used as another material for dental inserts. This in turn contrasted with metallic components zirconia demonstrated the least particle discharge and they are thought to be dormant in the body [15]. Zirconia acts as a tooth-like shading and possesses great mechanical properties and has great biocompatibility. In such a way, it is by all accounts an appropriate dental material [16]. The utilization of zirconia implants keeps a strategic distance from the inconvenience and acquiesces to the demand of numerous patients without metal inserts. The material additionally gives high quality, crack sturdiness, and biocompatibility [17]. There are various materials used for fabricating endosseous dental implants like titanium, titanium alloy, stainless steel, alumina, carbon, bioglass, polyurethane, etc. [18, 19, 20].
A novel implant, the ceria-stabilized zirconia-alumina-aluminate composite was developed and was established for its significant effect that it is not prone to aging. This implant represents a probable alternative to the yttrium-stabilized zirconia that is used for ceramic oral implants. This implant was evaluated for its long-term stability due to its make with Ce-TZP-comp and it proved a significant lowest fracture load after combined loading/aging [21].
A variety of polymers have been utilized as dental implant materials [22]. A portion of the polymer materials is polymethylmethacrylate, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyethylene, polyurethane, and polysulfone, etc. When polymer acts as a coating layer, inferior mechanical properties, lack of adhesion to living tissues, and adverse immunologic reactions are eliminated [23, 24, 25, 26]. In the present day, polymeric materials are constrained to assemble the shock retaining segments joined into the superstructures bolstered by inserts [26]. A wide variety of biomaterials have found profound applications in the form of inserts. This type of insert in implantology requires a suitable biomaterial of choice. The presently available biomaterials, such as bioceramics and other composite biomaterials, are under higher consideration and the precise examination of such biomaterial definitely have a promising future in the field of dental applications.
Herbal medicine is an indigenous system of traditional Hindu medicine and is native to the Indian subcontinent. Contemporary practices derived from ayurvedic traditions are also a type of alternative medicine. Ayurveda recommends some daily use therapeutic procedures for the prevention of and maintenance of oral health. It involves Dant Dhavani (brushing), Jivha Lekhana (tongue scrapping), and Gandoosha (gargling) or even oil pulling and tissue regeneration therapies. Various herbs are widely used in dentistry and they are aloe vera [27], cloves [28], eucalyptus [29], peppermint [30], and turmeric [31].
Icariin, one of the traditional Chinese herbal medicines, possesses significant evidence that it strengthens bones, enhances healing of bone, inhibits osteopenic effect, and inhibits inflammation. This idea made scientists incorporate icariin for better osseointegration of dental implants and shorten the rehabilitation time of patients and the results revealed that. Evaluation of the hypothesis: Limited success has been achieved to help implant surgery in icariin significantly improved the success rate of the dental implant [32].
Another randomized trial of preparing a biocomposite osteogenic nanofiber was developed with the incorporation of polycaprolactone, hydroxyapatite, dexamethasone, gelatin, beta-glycerophosphate, and ascorbic acid along with titanium implants was developed so that it mimics the bone extracellular matrix and eventually induced osteogenesis in the peri-implant niche and also regenerates the osseous tissue. This implant was worked on rabbit models and the results revealed that a coating of osteogenic nanofibrous tissues significantly increased the magnitude of osteogenesis around the zone of peri-implant tissue and also favored the dynamics of osseointegration [33].
Cassia occidentalis Linn belongs to the family Caesalpiniaceae and is commonly called Kasondi in Hindi. It is mostly grown in the southern parts of India and the plant products have been used for various ailments and have a rich medicinal value [34]. C. occidentalis (CO) contains significant bioactive compounds, such as terpenoids, anthraquinones, and carotenoids. The plant products were reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice [35].
Another novel dental implant synthesized a nanohydroxyapatite using different methods by utilizing the biomolecules from waste products, such as an egg-shell. In this study, an institutional controlled synthesis of nano-sized HAP was performed, which can be employed in the future for another material synthesis thereby an improved bone bonding was obtained by this novel material [36]. A novel implant synthesized with nano HAP rods was performed by an
A prepared porous scaffold using nano HAP and nylon 6,6 using a salt-leaching technique was a newly handled technique. Here HAP was dispersed on the pore walls of the scaffold bonds well with nylon 6,6 and it increased the stiffness of the scaffold. This porous scaffold acts to be effective as a three-dimensional substrate for bone tissue engineering [38]. Another method developed on dental implanting includes the synthesis of biphospho-calcium phosphate (BCP) for calcium-deficient apatites, such as enamel, dentin, and bone mineral by a process of sintering. The prepared BCP had controlled bioactivity when the HAP/βTCP ratio was controlled. This form of BCP can be used as carriers for growth factors, drug delivery systems, and in tissue engineering [39].
Another preparation included natural porous bioceramics from processing the cancellous bone. Calcined bovine bone was treated with sodium pyrophosphate and sintered to obtain HAP and was in turn converted to βTCP and BCP. This process was done to improve and increase the bioactivity of the ceramics when placed
A newly evolved technique was prepared by using BCP with different HAP/βTCP ratios and was analyzed for its bioactivity with SBF solution and osteoconductivity in rabbits. The study found that BCP with a HAP/TCP ratio of 60:40 was found to be best in showing the bioactivity and osteoconductivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. A newly developed implant was created using a coating material for orthopedic metal implants. In this study, a new bioglass was prepared and coated on Ti-based and Co-Cr alloys. This was done to enhance the cell adhesion when placed
Another novel implant was prepared by using composite material consisting of poly-L-lactide (PLLA) and bioactive glass by solvent evaporation technique. The composite was bathed and soaked in SBF for 3 days for allowing the HAP deposition on the composite. The dried composite was subjected to various characterization techniques. The study found that the bioactivity of the composite was highly increased and it, in turn, supported the composite to promote bone integration when placed
Another group of researchers synthesized a composite containing chitosan, HAP, and bioglass. Chitosan-HAP composite was prepared using calcium nitrate and orthophosphoric acid in SBF. The novel prepared composite bioactive glass was added to this preparation.
Cassia occidentalis.
Another implant was prepared with a bioglass composite film consisting of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) and vitamin E. The incorporation of vitamin E was done to increase the protein adsorption and hydrophilicity on the surface of the film. This composite film was subjected to various characterized studies and the results reported that they can be applied [45] in tissue engineering as a better matrix material for cell adhesion [46]. Chin et al. worked on preparing a novel multi-component skin substitute by using collagen as a matrix material which typically depicts the normal architecture of the skin. This implanting material has a main advantage in producing a cost-effective bone substitute. A novel prepared magnetic fibrin incorporated with nanoparticles and characterized those nanoparticles by various physicochemical techniques using Saos 2 cells, the cell viability, adhesion, and alkaline phosphatase assay. The study revealed that the [47] material exhibited good osteogenic property and hence it can be used in bone tissue engineering .
Auxenfans et al. [48], a researcher investigated a scaffold that contains collagen and glycosaminoglycans (GAG). The matrix was seeded with fibroblast and the study found that it forms a typical reconstructed skin or hemicornea once epithelialization completes. Another study analyzed the rate of degradation of pure collagen and collagen–HAP beads using collagenase enzyme. This enzyme was able to digest pure collagen quickly compared to collagen-HAP gel beads. The HAP provides resistance for quick degradation and the matrix structure could be maintained for a greater period and it supports the cell to adhere, proliferate, and then differentiate [49].
Another research study reported the collagen type II scaffolds by cross-linking with glutaraldehyde and scaffold without cross-linking with glutaraldehyde. The study explained that the scaffolds were seeded with chondrocytes and observed the interaction of cells with the scaffold. The cell adherence on the surface of the scaffold was high which was confirmed by SEM analysis [50]. Another implant using used barium sulfate and zirconia as additives to implant as a bone cement was created to enhance the visualization through X-ray imaging. The incorporation of these additives in bone cement helps to locate the material placed in the bone defect areas [51]. Brown et al. [52, 53] formulated a bone cement consisting of tetra calcium phosphate (TTCP) and dicalcium phosphate (DCPA or DCPD) with a P/L ratio of 4:1 and mixed with water. The mixture was allowed to set for 30 min which formed calcium-deficient HAP. The formed material was hardened and molded and has wide applications in craniofacial surgery. Yamaguchi et al. [54] suggested the inclusion of zinc along with bone cement which induces osteoblast formation at the localized area and eventually new bone formation happens. Another material was developed where Co-Cr alloy was coated with bioactive glass by a process of enameling. The coated alloy was immersed in SBF for 30 days to observe the deposition of HAP on its surface which eventually increases the bioactivity of the material. This has also had wide applications in the tissue engineering field [55].
Another new fabrication was created using a porous scaffold containing foam-like bioglass and poly (lactide-co-glycolide) PLGA. The scaffold showed high microporosity and also the material was favorable for cell adhesion and hence this scaffold was widely applied in tissue engineering [56]. Another researcher [57] also developed a scaffold containing BCP and agarose gel. He analyzed the compression behavior of the scaffold and found that agarose improved the property of BCP by imparting elasticity, ductility, and toughness to the material. Hence, this scaffold could be used in the tissue engineering process. Another researcher [58] too prepared a scaffold comprising of two proteins namely bovine serum albumin and alpha casein by a cold gelation process. The developed scaffold can perform better in its porosity, cytotoxicity, and swelling ratio and the pH changes unalters the scaffold performance. An Indian researcher [59] also prepared bone grafts containing fibrin functionalized graphene oxide (FGO) and graphene oxide (GO) on to which HAP was grown by wet precipitation method. An
Another Indian scientist team [60] prepared a bone substitute with the incorporation of the extracts of
The widely used dental implants are known for their unique characteristics. Recently, novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites were evaluated by research scientists and revealed abundant evidence on such materials. These implants developed enhanced bone healing and strengthens the bone, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. These novel implants allow good biocompatibility, viability and shorten the rehabilitation time for the patients. The application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implant and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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Their work provided the base for the development of semiconductor photocatalysis for the environmental remediation and energy applications. Photoactivity of some semiconductors was found to be low due to larger band gap energy and higher electron-hole pair recombination rate. To avoid these problems, the development of visible light responsive photocatalytic materials by different approaches, such as metal and/or non-metal doping, co-doping, coupling of semiconductors, composites and heterojunctions materials synthesis has been widely investigated and explored in systematic manner. This chapter emphasizes on the different type of tailored photocatalyst materials having the enhanced visible light absorption properties, lower band gap energy and recombination rate of electron-hole pairs and production of reactive radical species. Visible light active semiconductors for the environmental remediation purposes, particularly for water treatment and disinfection are also discussed in detail. Studies on the photocatalytic degradation of emerging organic compounds like cyanotoxins, VOCs, phenols, pharmaceuticals, etc., by employing variety of modified semiconductors, are summarized, and a mechanistic aspects of the photocatalysis has been discussed.",book:{id:"7671",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis"},signatures:"Fatima Imtiaz, Jamshaid Rashid and Ming Xu",authors:[{id:"292882",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamshaid",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"jamshaid-rashid",fullName:"Jamshaid Rashid"},{id:"302498",title:"Ms.",name:"Fatima",middleName:null,surname:"Imtiaz",slug:"fatima-imtiaz",fullName:"Fatima Imtiaz"},{id:"308434",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ming-xu",fullName:"Ming Xu"}]},{id:"17728",title:"Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review",slug:"defect-related-luminescence-in-silicon-dioxide-network-a-review",totalDownloads:9436,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:95,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Roushdey Salh",authors:[{id:"48391",title:"Dr.",name:"Roushdey",middleName:null,surname:"Salh",slug:"roushdey-salh",fullName:"Roushdey Salh"}]},{id:"58469",title:"The Electrochemical Performance of Deposited Manganese Oxide-Based Film as Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitor Application",slug:"the-electrochemical-performance-of-deposited-manganese-oxide-based-film-as-electrode-material-for-el",totalDownloads:1718,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The transition metal oxide has been recognized as one of the promising electrode materials for electrochemical capacitor application. Due to the participation of charge transfer reactions, the capacitance offered by transition metal oxide can be higher compared to double layer capacitance. The investigation on hydrous ruthenium oxide has revealed the surface redox reactions that contributed to the wide potential window shown on cyclic voltammetry curve. Although the performance of ruthenium oxide is impressive, its toxicity has limited itself from commercial application. Manganese oxide is a pseudocapacitive material behaves similar to ruthenium oxide. It consists of various oxidation states which allow the occurrence of redox reactions. It is also environmental friendly, low cost, and natural abundant. The charge storage of manganese oxide film takes into account of the redox reactions between Mn3+ and Mn4+ and can be accounted to two mechanisms. The first one involves the intercalation/deintercalation of electrolyte ions and/or protons upon reduction/oxidation processes. The second contributor for the charge storage is due to the surface adsorption of electrolyte ions on the electrode surface.",book:{id:"6083",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",title:"Semiconductors",fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization"},signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}]},{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2091,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. However, most TCAD tools were originally developed for silicon and their performance and accuracy for wide bandgap semiconductors is contentious. This chapter will deal with TCAD device modelling of wide bandgap power semiconductors. In particular, modelling and simulating 3C- and 4H-Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Diamond devices are examined. The challenges associated with modelling the material and device physics are analyzed in detail. It also includes convergence issues and accuracy of predicted performance. 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Dr. Khalid\\'s research interests include leadership and negotiations, digital transformations, gamification, eLearning, blockchain, Big Data, and management of information technology. Dr. Bilal Khalid also serves as an academic editor at Education Research International and a reviewer for international journals.",institutionString:"KMITL Business School",institution:{name:"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. 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