Summary of indirect response of selection for energy efficiency on related traits in different species
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6671",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Paint and Coatings Industry",title:"Paint and Coatings Industry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Some of the futuristic applications are nanotubes for electrically conductive coatings and to increase the rate of reaction of thermoset resins; organosilane dendrimer coatings; buckyball coatings for machine parts; and metals for conductive coatings in inks. The technology is limited to substantially specialized applications due to the high cost per unit volume needed to reduce the size of the particles and the need to add surface modifiers to prevent the particles from agglomerating. Recent research efforts focus primarily on the functionalization of the particle surface of the nanoparticles to make them more compatible with the coating resin systems, so that easy dispersion, low viscosity, and covalent bonding are provided between the particles and the resins.",isbn:"978-1-78985-162-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-161-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-635-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71971",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"paint-and-coatings-industry",numberOfPages:136,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1dc37c2c972a253d544da9849049222f",bookSignature:"Faris Yilmaz",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6671.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8506,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:24,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 2nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 1st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 20th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 18th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36900",title:"Dr.",name:"Faris",middleName:"Sad",surname:"Yılmaz",slug:"faris-yilmaz",fullName:"Faris Yılmaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36900/images/3513_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Faris Yılmaz was born in Palestine on October 07th, 1969. After pre-college education in Jinin-West Bank, he was accepted to Chemical Engineering Department of Middle East Technical University (METU) in Ankara, Turkey. There he obtained his BSc degree in Chemical Engineering, Ms and PhD degree in Polymer Science and Technology. His research has mainly concentrated on the conducting polymers, their solution properties, composites and nanocoposites. He has publications in different polymer journals. He is married and has two children.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Middle East Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"160",title:"Surface Science",slug:"surface-science"}],chapters:[{id:"62241",title:"Metrology Organic Solvents in the Shoes Industry to Sfax City (Tunisia)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78316",slug:"metrology-organic-solvents-in-the-shoes-industry-to-sfax-city-tunisia-",totalDownloads:842,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In spite of the importance to the use of organic solvents in the shoes industry, exposure data of the employees at these solvents in this sector are absent in Tunisia. The objective of this study is to establish a biotoxicological supervision of exposure in shoes manufacturing companies. After the inventory of the most dominant solvents (acetone, cyclohexane, hexane and methylethylketone, toluene) in the preparations used in shoes manufacturing, 18 voluntary companies benefited from 55 dynamic atmospheric samplings realized on a duration of 4 hours. The exposure index some mixture ranged between 0.1 and 8.8 and presented an average value superior to 1, mainly in the partly industrialized process. These values reached, respectively, 1.7, 2.5 and 4.5 for the posts of finishing, shoes collector and glues dispatcher. The atmospheric average concentrations of certain solvents exceeded the limit value of professional exposure mainly for the hexane with a value of 214 mg/m3 in certain posts. The chronic exposure to organic solvents in a shoes industry and to establish a first report on the profiles of exposure to these solvents in this sector. Hence, an approach of evaluation of the professional risk by the biotoxicological supervision of exposure is established in Sfax city.",signatures:"Imed Gargouri and Moncef Khadhraoui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62241",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62241",authors:[{id:"186371",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Imed",surname:"Gargouri",slug:"imed-gargouri",fullName:"Imed Gargouri"},{id:"230836",title:"Dr.",name:"Khadhraoui",surname:"Moncef",slug:"khadhraoui-moncef",fullName:"Khadhraoui Moncef"}],corrections:[{id:"65666",title:"Erratum - Metrology Organic Solvents in the Shoes Industry to Sfax City (Tunisia)",doi:null,slug:"erratum-metrology-organic-solvents-in-the-shoes-industry-to-sfax-city-tunisia",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"62133",title:"Thermal Volumetric Analysis (TVA): A New Test Method of the Kinetics of Gas Emissions from Moulding Sands and Protective Coatings Heated by Liquid Alloy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78369",slug:"thermal-volumetric-analysis-tva-a-new-test-method-of-the-kinetics-of-gas-emissions-from-moulding-san",totalDownloads:974,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Production of medium-sized and large castings is carried out in the sand moulds. The sand moulds, which components are made of moulding sand, the binder are different kinds of materials, the most common: moulding resins (furan, alkyd, phenolic, etc.). Internal surfaces of moulds, for increased thermal resistance, are usually covered by protective coatings. Liquid foundry alloys filling sand moulds produce intense heat, especially in layers adjacent to the cast. Under such conditions, the organic binders are burned or gasified. The resulting gases can penetrate the liquid causing the formation of defects such as blow-holes, pinholes, pitted skin, etc. The greater the intensity of the secretion of gases and the greater their volume (number), the more likely defects are created in castings. An important quality criterion of foundry resins is their tendency to emit gas. The authors developed the new test method, which allows to monitor the kinetics of gas emissions from the moulding sand and foundry coatings as a function of time and temperature (thermal volumetric analysis (TVA)). A number of studies were made for moulding sand with organic binders. Description of the research methodology and the presentation of results are the subject of the article.",signatures:"Jerzy Stanisław Zych and Jan Mocek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62133",authors:[{id:"233265",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",surname:"Zych",slug:"jerzy-zych",fullName:"Jerzy Zych"},{id:"234305",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",surname:"Mocek",slug:"jan-mocek",fullName:"Jan Mocek"}],corrections:null},{id:"63896",title:"Diels-Alder Chemistry to Develop Self-Healing Epoxy Resins and Composites Thereof",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81360",slug:"diels-alder-chemistry-to-develop-self-healing-epoxy-resins-and-composites-thereof",totalDownloads:1490,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Self-healing polymers are a class of smart materials able to recover after sustaining damage. A family of thermosetting epoxy resins, containing Diels-Alder (DA) adducts in the epoxy precursor backbone, has been prepared and characterized. The DA adducts can be reversibly cleaved and reformed under the appropriate thermal conditions, and this feature has been exploited to produce intrinsically self-repairing materials. This chapter focuses on the effects of different structural features, such as average number of cross-linking functionality and molecular mobility of epoxy precursors, on the efficiency of healing process. High cross-linking density and molecular stiffness improve mechanical performances, such as elastic modulus and glass transition temperature, and allow fabrication of self-healing fiber-reinforced composites by conventional manufacturing technologies. Within this chapter, the molecular design, the preparation, and the evaluation of properties of self-healing epoxy and its composites have been discussed.",signatures:"Stefania Dello Iacono, Alfonso Martone and Eugenio Amendola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63896",authors:[{id:"234302",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",surname:"Martone",slug:"alfonso-martone",fullName:"Alfonso Martone"},{id:"235224",title:"Mrs.",name:"Stefania",surname:"Dello Iacono",slug:"stefania-dello-iacono",fullName:"Stefania Dello Iacono"},{id:"235225",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenio",surname:"Amendola",slug:"eugenio-amendola",fullName:"Eugenio Amendola"}],corrections:null},{id:"60477",title:"Design and Synthesis of Bio-Based Benzoxazines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76104",slug:"design-and-synthesis-of-bio-based-benzoxazines",totalDownloads:1162,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polybenzoxazine (PBz) resins are a new type of high-performance synthetic resins that are attractive alternatives to traditional resins. Their properties include near-zero shrinkage upon polymerization, fast evolution of mechanical properties with the conversion, glass transition temperatures much higher than curing temperatures, low water absorption, and excellent dielectrical and mechanical properties. The development of polybenzoxazines has always been linked to petro-based feedstocks, but for the last 5 years, the number of studies related to bio-based benzoxazines is exploding as a consequence of the versatility of the design of the chemical structure of their monomers. Benzoxazine (Bz) monomers are subjected to cationic ring-opening polymerization (ROP), activated by a thermal treatment in the range of 160–250°C. In addition, Bz synthesis promotes the use of naturally occurring phenolic compounds instead of petroleum-based ones to develop high-performance materials from renewable resources and to fit to REACH restrictions. For this purpose, vanillin, eugenol, and cardanol are examples of bio-phenols bridged with several kinds of aromatic and aliphatic diamines. In this chapter, the synthesis and the properties of di-functional benzoxazine monomers prepared from naturally occurring phenolic compounds are reviewed. Symmetric and asymmetric monomers will be detailed. The last part of the chapter is dedicated to the use of bio-phenols to functionalize polymers and to provide benzoxazine functional groups.",signatures:"Acerina Trejo-Machin, Laura Puchot and Pierre Verge",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60477",authors:[{id:"238543",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",surname:"Verge",slug:"pierre-verge",fullName:"Pierre Verge"},{id:"239444",title:"MSc.",name:"Acerina",surname:"Trejo-Machin",slug:"acerina-trejo-machin",fullName:"Acerina Trejo-Machin"},{id:"239446",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Puchot",slug:"laura-puchot",fullName:"Laura Puchot"}],corrections:null},{id:"64416",title:"UV and Thermal Cure Epoxy Adhesives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82168",slug:"uv-and-thermal-cure-epoxy-adhesives",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Typical commercial UV and thermal cure epoxy adhesives have been reviewed and compared. UV cure cationic epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of cycloaliphatic epoxy resin and cationic photoinitiator. UV cationic epoxy adhesives have no surface cure issue and possess low cure shrinkage and good adhesion performance but need post-thermal cure to achieve full adhesion performance in use. Hybrid UV acrylate and thermal cure epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of acrylate monomer, free radical photoinitiator, epoxy resin and curing agent. The hybrid epoxy adhesives combine fast UV curability of acrylate composition and high adhesion performance of thermal cure epoxy composition. A new type initiator free hybrid one-component UV and thermal cure adhesive has been also introduced. It is mainly composed of maleimide compound, acrylic monomer, partially acrylated epoxy resin, epoxy resin and latent curing agent. Its UV cure and thermal cure behaviour have been studied by FT-IR spectroscopy measurement.",signatures:"Chunfu Chen, Bin Li, Chao Wang, Shuichi Iwasaki, Masao Kanari\nand Daoqiang Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64416",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64416",authors:[{id:"234454",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunfu",surname:"Chen",slug:"chunfu-chen",fullName:"Chunfu Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"64171",title:"Transport of Electrolyte in Organic Coatings on Metal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81422",slug:"transport-of-electrolyte-in-organic-coatings-on-metal",totalDownloads:1400,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic coatings form an effective barrier between metals and their environment, providing them protection against corrosion. Corrosion on coated metals depends mainly on the diffusion of water through the coating, the loss of adhesion at the interface between the coating and the metal (delamination), the rate of the chemical and electrochemical reactions under the coating and the treatment of the metal surface before the coating application. Many aggressive ions are transported toward and inside the coating through water. In organic coatings, typically, the water absorbed by the coating affects the polymer matrix structure, and it causes swelling and stresses, which may result in cracks. Swelling and cracks enhance the transport of water into the solid polymer, and concurrently the diffusion of ions. Over time also, the chemical structure of the polymer may change, adversely affecting its barrier properties and overall performance. In this chapter, we focus on methods to quantify the transport of electrolyte in organic coatings. We mark out the main characteristics, advantages and limitations of each one of them.",signatures:"Zoi Manoli, Darja Pecko, Guy Van Assche, Johan Stiens, Ali\nPourkazemi and Herman Terryn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64171",authors:[{id:"236340",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Zoi",surname:"Manoli",slug:"zoi-manoli",fullName:"Zoi Manoli"},{id:"236371",title:"Dr.",name:"Darja",surname:"Pecko",slug:"darja-pecko",fullName:"Darja Pecko"},{id:"236375",title:"Prof.",name:"Guy",surname:"Van Assche",slug:"guy-van-assche",fullName:"Guy Van Assche"},{id:"236377",title:"Prof.",name:"Herman",surname:"Terryn",slug:"herman-terryn",fullName:"Herman Terryn"},{id:"262581",title:"Prof.",name:"Johan",surname:"Stiens",slug:"johan-stiens",fullName:"Johan Stiens"},{id:"262582",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Pourkazemi",slug:"ali-pourkazemi",fullName:"Ali Pourkazemi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63831",title:"In Situ Renewable Coating of Boron Carbide (B4C) for Plasma Materials for Plasma-Technological and Fusion Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81361",slug:"in-situ-renewable-coating-of-boron-carbide-b4c-for-plasma-materials-for-plasma-technological-and-fus",totalDownloads:1056,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The application of the in situ renewable protecting boron carbide (B4C) coating can prevent plasma-facing materials of plasma technology and thermonuclear devices from plasma irradiation and by this means prevents their destruction and plasma contamination by materials of their erosion. At the same time, the regimes and conditions of high adhesive deposition of B4C on tungsten and the B4C coating ability to withstand the thermal cycling and high-power density irradiation by plasma ions have not been investigated yet. The chapter considers the results of ion irradiation and thermal cycling of boron carbide coating on tungsten sample in Stand for Coating Deposition and Material Testing—CODMATT (NRNU MEPhI) and plasma irradiation during a plasma disruption in fusion device—T-10 tokamak (NRC “Kurchatov Institute”). Boron carbide coating withstands the thermal cycling and high-power density irradiation by plasma ions. It retains uniformity and adhesion to tungsten and protects it from direct plasma interaction for temperatures up to melting point of tungsten. 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The breeding goal of most livestock operations is maximizing profitability, which is a function of input and output (Veerkamp & Emmans, 1995; Archer et al., 1999; Crews, 2005). In most livestock populations, selection programs have primarily focused on progressively improving means for output traits such as live weight gain, fertility, meat and milk yield (Archer et al., 1999; Sainz & Paulino, 2004; Crews, 2005). However, there has recently been a renewed interest in another component of profitability, namely the reduction of inputs or the increase in efficiency (Crews, 2005). Feed is one of the most important input components, and it represents more than one-half of the total costs in most livestock operations (Kennedy et al., 1993). In the dairy industry, feed cost represents about 40 to 50% of the total milk production cost and has increased substantially over the last few years (Garcia, 2009). Gibb & Macallister (1999) reported that the economic effect of a 5% improvement in feed efficiency is four times greater than a 5% improvement in average daily gain. Therefore, reducing production costs or increasing feed efficiency are the two most important ways to improve production efficiency and profitability. They also decrease environmental pollution and the carbon footprint (Capper et al., 2010). In order to gain the maximum benefits of genetic selection for energy efficiency, factors that influence energy efficiency and its indirect effects on other traits should be known. The most common measures of energy efficiency and their properties are reviewed in this chapter. It also deals with factors that practically affect energy efficiency. Furthermore, as there are very few reports on direct selection for energy efficiency in dairy cattle (Linn, 2006), the authors reviewed the indirect effect of selection for energy efficiency on other traits in beef cattle as well as in other species in addition to dairy cattle.
Researchers have proposed many measures of energy efficiency such as feed conversion ratio (FCR), gross energy efficiency (GEE), residual feed intake (RFI) (Koch et al., 1963; Archer et al., 1999; Crews, 2005) and life time efficiency (LTE) (Vandehaar, 1998; Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006). Their definition, applications and benefits are different.
FCR and GEE are the most common measures of efficiency in the literature. FCR is the ratio of input (e.g. feed) to output (e.g. weight gain or milk production) (Crews, 2005). In the dairy cow, the GEE is defined as the energy in the milk divided by the total energy intake (Veerkamp & Emmans, 1995). These approaches lead to only limited insight into efficiency of the entire production system (Crews, 2005). The problems of GEE and FCR have been discussed in numerous studies (Korver et al., 1991; Veerkamp & Emmans, 1995; Crews, 2005) and are mainly categorized in three groups. First, the energy intake has different partial efficiencies for maintenance, lactation, pregnancy and body tissue gain or loss, but the GEE and FCR do not distinguish between them (Veerkamp & Emmans, 1995). Secondly, FCR and GEE are well known to be phenotypically and genetically correlated with measures of growth, production and mature size. Therefore, selection of animals based on these measures may increase the maintenance requirements. Finally, changes in GEE and FCR can be the result of changes in either intake (numerator), yield (denominator) or both (Gunsett, 1984; Veerkamp & Emmans, 1995) and selection direction cannot be predicted very well. Then, selection for improvement of FCR (i.e. decreased FCR) and GEE would result in increased growth rate, mature size, and consequently mature maintenance requirements (Korver et al., 1991). It can be concluded that improving FCR and GEE by selection for increased growth rate do not necessarily improve net feed efficiency, because of drawbacks associated with increased maintenance requirements ( Van der Werf, 2004; Crews, 2005).
Lifetime efficiency (LTE), another measure of energy efficiency, is defined as “the capture of feed energy in milk, conceptus, and body tissue divided by gross energy intake during the life of cow, starting at birth” (Vandehaar, 1998; Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006). This index attempts to summarize an animal’s entire life efficiency and is a good criterion to set up a long term vision. In order to compare the LTE in dairy cows, total milk production should be standardized for all factors such as housing, feeding, age at first calving and calving interval. The LTE mostly depends on the precalving interval and intercalving intervals. The Precalving Interval is defined as the period from birth to first parturition and Intercalving Intervals are the intervals between successive calvings (King, 2006). The main concerns related to LTE are: lots of information is required to calculate the LTE, it is applicable for the entire life, and it is influenced more by precalving and intercalving intervals.
To overcome the problems associated with FCR, GEE, LTE and other measures of energy efficiency, an alternative measure can be expressed as residual feed intake (RFI). RFI is a measure of feed utilization corrected for live weight and production, and it is often referred to as net feed or energy efficiency ( Koch et al., 1963; Korver et al., 1991; Luiting et al.,1992). The concept of RFI can be described as “the difference between the actual feed intake and that predicted on the basis of mean requirements for body weight maintenance and levels of production” (Koch et al., 1963); it is explained schematically in figure 1. RFI relies simply on partitioning feed energy intake into portions required for body maintenance, stage and levels of production, and a residual portion. This residual portion is related to the true metabolic efficiency of an animal and would be comparable across individuals (Crews, 2005). Variation in RFI probably reflects underlying biological efficiency after adjustment for energy deposition (Crews, 2005; Herd & Arthur, 2009 ). In a population, the mean RFI index over all individuals is zero and approximately half of all individuals have RFI values below or above the mean. The efficient animals have low RFI values; it implies they consume less feed without compromising their production (Crews, 2005). Indeed, RFI is a net feed efficiency measurement and it can be calculated at any time of an animal’s life.
Schematic concept of residual feed intake (RFI). Two animals which have the same BW and ADG, are expected to consume the same amount of feed but in reality cow A consumes more than expected while cow B consumes less, so cow B is more efficient than A.
Several factors influence energy efficacy in dairy cattle. It is practically influenced by dry matter intake (DMI), production level, body tissue changes, age at first calving (AFC), and environmental factors (Vandehaar, 1998; Linn, 2006). Their approaches to affect the energy efficiency are different.
Dry matter intake (DMI) and production are the direct components of most energy efficiency traits. Dry matter intake (DMI) affects energy efficiency through energy transformation mechanisms from gross to net energy. The basic rule of most common efficiency measures, FCR and GEE, is increased production means increased efficiency, but the relationship between the marginal benefit of increased production and efficiency is not always linear.
DMI establishes the amount of nutrients available to an animal for maintenance and production. Inadequate intake of nutrients negatively affects production, efficient nutrient utilization and health status of the animal. Supplying nutrients in excess also increases feed costs and can result in excretion of nutrients into the environment ( NRC, 2001; Collier et al., 2006). In dairy cows, the average DMI is 22.7 kg/d, and it ranges between 19.8 to 26 kg/d (Ordway et al., 2009; Vallimont et al., 2010). Heritability of DMI was reported from 0.16 to 0.48, and its genetic correlation with energy intake ranged from 0.8 to 0.9 (Veerkamp, 1998; Vallimont et al., 2010). Therefore, DMI and energy intake are genetically almost the same trait. However, the energy transformation mechanisms of DMI, which affect energy efficiency, involve digestion, fermentation and metabolic processes. Gross energy (GE) is the amount of released energy in heat combustion. Net energy (NE) is the energy which is directly used to support maintenance functions, including conversion to milk, conceptus growth and body tissue gain (NRC, 2001). Feedstuffs have energy in the gross form and it is converted to net energy in several steps (figure 2). Some amounts of the GE are indigestible and ultimately appear in feces; the remaining part is called digestible energy (DE). Some part of DE is lost due to gas production (mainly methane) and urinary energy (mainly urea) during the fermentation process. The remaining DE after deduction for gas and urinary production is called metabolizable energy (ME). Finally, converting the ME to net energy (NE) requires metabolic reactions, which produce heat that is termed the heat increment (NRC, 2001; Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006). Therefore, the accessible amount of NE from GE depends on the amount of losses in digestion, fermentation and metabolic processes. Practically, it depends on many factors, such as DMI levels, passage rate, and dietary fibre (especially, effective neutral detergent fiber, eNDF) level (NRC, 2001). Some studies have been conducted to determine the relationship between these factors and amount of nutrient losses in the different steps of the transformation mechanisms (Moe, 1981; Van Soest et al., 1992); they concluded there is an optimum point between them. For example, Vandehaar (1998) reviewed the literature and showed that the relationship between level of DMI and DE is not linear. When a dairy cow consumes DMI for its maintenance requirements, almost 80% of GE captured is in the form of DE. Furthermore, there is a reduction in digestibility as DMI increases (Vandehaar, 1998). Overall, NRC (2001) suggested that digestibility is depressed linearly at 4% per multiple of maintenance intake. It assumes that most of the cows consume 3 times their maintenance requirement, which is an optimum point of GEE. In addition, it has been shown that there is an optimum point of NDF level in terms of converting GE to DE, and it is reported to be between 25 to 30%. Amounts of NDF in the diet beyond this range will decrease energy intake. Higher levels of NDF fill the rumen, whereas lower levels may cause some health problems (Eastridge, 2006; Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006). Finally, the portion of losses in the different steps of energy transformation shifts and it is dependent on DMI levels. At higher levels of DMI the losses into feces increase while the amounts of losses as heat increment are greater at lower levels of intake (Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006).
Although production is a fundamental component that determines efficiency, the relationship between marginal benefit of increased production and efficiency is not linear for all the time. During the past 18 years, the average milk production of Canadian Holstein cows has increased about 115 kg/cow/year and currently the average milk yield of a primarily Holstein herd is 9793 kg/cow/yr. The average rate of increase was 1.35% between 1991 and 2009 (DHI, 2009), and it likely will continue to increase. In addition, milk yield heritability is reported as 0.3 (Lee et al., 1992; VanRaden et al., 2009) and ranges between 0.16 to 0.5 (Veerkamp, 1998). This means that still there is still room to increase milk production by exploiting genetic selection. The genetic correlation between GEE and milk production in dairy cattle ranged from 0.88 to 0.95 (Pitchford, 2004). It confirms that selecting dairy cows for milk yield automatically improved GEE (Veerkamp & Emmans, 1995). Consequently, FCR (4% FCM/DM) has increased from 0.91 in 1991 to 1.2 in 2006, and a common goal is 1.5 (Eastridge, 2006). Korver (1991) concluded that the improved GEE and FCR mostly reflects the dilution of maintenance. Dilution of maintenance means that as cows consume more, a relatively small fraction of energy is used for maintenance and a larger portion is captured in milk. Although there is no evidence to suggest that the maintenance requirements depend on milk production and breed, cows with similar body weight and breed may vary for maintenance requirements by about 8 to 10% (NRC, 2001). These assumptions need further investigation. To set a vision for the future, Vandehaar (1998) modelled the optimum point of milk yield. He proposed that above 15000 kg/yr, the marginal increase in efficiency approaches zero. Therefore, the positive correlation between milk production and efficiency that has existed in the past may change in the future, when average milk production surpasses 15000 kg/yr/cow (Vandehaar, 1998).
DMI and milk yield are tightly linked as their genetic correlation is reported to be 0.5 (Vallimont et al., 2010) ranging from 0.46 to 0.84 (Veerkamp, 1998). Consequently, selection decisions which change milk yield and body weight (BW) also change DMI (Veerkamp & Emmans, 1995). Genetic selection mostly focuses on milk yield and it indirectly affects DMI. However, with increased milk production per animal, there is a limit to the increase in DMI because of rumen fill; therefore, the density of NE in dairy rations has been elevated as milk production increased in the last 30 years. For instance, the dietary NE density of dairy cattle rations has increased from 1.23 in 1980 to more than 1.6 Mcal/kg in 2006 (Eastridge, 2006). Thus, it can be inferred that some of the improved efficiency due to increased milk production is withdrawn by increasing the dietary energy concentration in terms of expenses. Furthermore, the linear relationship between milk production and efficiency may change in the future. Therefore, these concerns drive researchers to define net energy efficiency using concepts such as RFI, which is independent from production and maintenance in dairy cattle.
Energy transformation processes from gross energy (GE) to net energy (NE). The portion of lost energy in different steps is dependent on DMI level.
Body weight influences energy efficiency through its relationship with milk production and digestive capacity. Heritability of body weight (BW) is reported to be in a range of 0.26 to 0.88 (Verrkamp, 1998). BW is genetically correlated with milk production. Although some researchers (Veerkamp, 1998; Vallimont et al., 2010) reported a negative correlation (range of -0.01 to -0.42), some other researchers reported positive correlations between BW and milk production (range of 0.05 to 0.45) (Veerkamp, 1998). This inconsistency in results could be due to mean differences of BW and milk production between populations under estimation. It can also be suggested that there is an optimum point of relationship between BW and milk production, and consequently energy efficiency. In order to illustrate this optimum relationship, Vandehaar (1998) modelled the relationship between body size, milk production and energy efficiency. He considered two possible relationships in which there were function of BW and digestive capacity (figure 3). In the first, he assumed that the digestive capacity of animals is not a function of BW and it is constant, the solid curve and dashed curve in figure 3. Therefore, increased BW increases the maintenance requirements and consequently decreases energy efficiency. In the second model, the digestive capacity was assumed to be a function of BW, so with increased BW digestive capacity will increase, and consequently a large cow would be efficient, dot-dashed curve and dashed curve in figure 3. In this case if a cow had a 200 kg greater BW (825 kg VS 625 kg), she should produce 60 kg/day more milk to become efficient. He concluded that the relationship between body size and efficiency depends on the relation between digestive capacities with body size (Vandehaar, 1998), and that there is an optimum point of relationship between BW and energy efficiency.
Body tissue changes increase energy efficiency by supporting milk production and tissue mobilization is a crucial factor in determining energy efficiency of dairy cattle. Although the conversion ratio of lost body reserves to milk production is less than that of regaining the reserves from feedstuffs, reasonable levels of losses still increase the energy efficiency. From an evolutionary point of view, mammals use their stored energy reserves to produce milk and support their young when their requirements exceed DMI consumed. In nature as the calf grows older, it gradually relies less on mothers’ milk and the mother has an opportunity to regain energy resources for the next lactation (Bewley et al., 2008). Similarly, in the dairy industry, as the feed intake peak occurs later than the milk yield peak, dairy animals have a mechanism to use their body reserves to support milk production in early lactation and regain the body reserves in late lactation (Coffey et al., 2001; Bewley et al., 2008). In early lactation when energy intake is less than that used for milk, maintenance and activity, the cows are in a negative energy balance (NEB). Therefore, they sacrifice their body resources in this period to meet the requirements. Up to one-third of the total milk solids that are produced in early lactation, comes from body tissue reserves (Bewley et al., 2008). Practical measures of changes in energy resources include changes in BW and body condition score (BCS). BCS is a management technique used to appraise the body fat reserves in cattle (Coffey et al., 2001) and it is measured with either a 5 or a 9 point scale. The BCS represents 65, 55 and 66 percent of fat, protein and energy variation in dairy cattle, respectively (NRC, 2001). The ability to manage body reserves varies between animals, and they have a different pattern of BW and BCS changes during lactation and across lactations (Bewley et al., 2008). Heritability of changes in BW reportedly range from 0.1 to 0.27 (Verrkamp, 1998). Heritability estimates for BCS change depend on stage of lactation and range from 0.08 to 0.6 (Bewley et al., 2008). Negative and positive correlations have been reported between milk yield and BW changes (-0.41 to 0.45) (Verrkamp, 1998) and BCS changes (Bewley et al., 2008). One BCS unit (5 point scale) is equivalent to ~400 Mcal of ME and its conversion ratio to milk is estimated at 0.82. It is enough to produce an additional 8 kg milk/day in the first 60 days in milk (Vandehaar, 1998; Bewley et al., 2008). Therefore, losing one unit of BCS supports around 2000 kg of increased milk production over 305 days and it is expected to increase GEE from 25 to 26.5% in cows with a production of 8000 kg milk (Vandehaar, 1998). The lost energy reserves are replaced by cows in late lactation, and its replenishment conversion ratio is less (0.7) than that for loss (0.8) (Moe, 1981), but loss of BCS still increases efficiency (Vandehaar, 1998). Besides the increased efficiency, some researchers point out that side effects of losing energy reserves on other traits like reproduction and health should be considered (Vandehaar, 1998; Bewley et al., 2008). For example, cows restart reproduction activity after they pass the NEB period (Goff, 2006). Some of the metabolic diseases such as ketosis/fatty liver complex are highly correlated with NEB (Collier et al., 2006). Researchers proposed that there is a curvilinear relationship between BCS at calving and milk production; furthermore, maximum milk production is associated with 3.25 to 3.5 BCS at calving (Roche et al., 2007; Bewley et al., 2008). Indeed, during early lactation, a controlled loss of body condition of 0.5 to 1.0 units is associated with optimal milk production, health, and reproductive performance. Moreover, excessive BCS losses at calving predispose the animal to metabolic disorders such as ketosis and fatty liver (Spain, 1996; Bewley et al., 2008).
Adapted from Vandehaar (1998). He discussed the two possible relationships between digestive capacity and BW. In the first one, digestive capacity was not a function of BW while in the second, the digestive capacity was a function of BW.
Age at first calving (AFC) is the period between birth and first calving. It represents a period when animals cost the farmer due to yardage expenses. Yardage expenses include costs related to housing, feeding and veterinary care, which represent 15 to 20% of animal expenditures toward the cost of milk production (Mayer et al., 2004). Breeding programs aim to have AFC at 22 to 24 months of age, and reducing the AFC can increase animal life time efficiency (LTE) (Mayer et al., 2004, Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006). Reduced AFC should not compromise weight at calving. The data suggest that the optimum weight for Holstein cows right after calving, is 570 kg. The results also showed that milk yield will be reduced about 70 kg for every 10 kg body weight below the optimum (Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006). Therefore, AFC can be reduced by a combination of increasing average daily gain and decreasing age at breeding (Mayer et al., 2004). Decreased AFC, and consequently yard cost, is associated with increased feed cost to support a rapid growth rate. Furthermore, if the optimum breeding weight is not achieved, there will be a negative effect on subsequent milk production (Vandehaar & St-Pierre, 2006). Indeed, the economic benefit of a decreased AFC is not well understood and there is a need for further investigation.
Changes in environmental conditions (temperature and humidity) and photoperiod are called seasonal changes. Seasonal changes affect energy efficiency by altering hormone signals and the target cell’s responsiveness to hormonal stimulation (Collier et al., 2006). The thermoneutral zone is a range in which animals do not spend energy to maintain their normal body temperature. The upper critical range for dairy cattle is 25 to 26 0C and lower critical range depends on DIM and production level. The lower critical range is 2, -4 and -10 0C for an animal at maintenance or producing 10 kg or 20 kg of milk, respectively. Dairy cows in cold stress do not need to change their energy requirements due to high heat production but it has an effect on feed digestibility. Research has shown that there is a 2% reduction in digestibility for every 10 degree reduction in ambient temperature; this can possibly be attributed to the increase in passage rate of digesta (NRC, 2001). Therefore, cold stress does not affect energy efficiency significantly in dairy cattle; while, mild to severe heat stress increases the maintenance requirements from 0.7 to 2.4 %, respectively, and decreases DMI. Heat stress affects animal behaviour, metabolism and efficiency (NRC, 2001).
Photoperiod, another environmental factor, affects lactation, reproduction, production, growth and immune function. Most studies are done using short or long day photoperiod concept. Results demonstrated that the physiological basis of attainment of puberty is controlled by photoperiod rather than ambient temperature. Long photoperiod causes early puberty that is associated with rapid growth in calves, and greater mammary parenchyma (Collier et al., 2006). Long day photoperiod can affect energy efficiency by lowering AFC, and increases milk production, but it does not affect feeding behaviour. In addition, other temporary environmental factors such as milking frequency can also affect milk production and energy efficiency. Wall & McFadden (2007) concluded that milking 2 times more frequently than usual (4 vs 2 times/day) for a 3 week interval during early lactation significantly increases milk production.
To this point, factors that practically and directly affect energy efficiency in dairy cattle have been discussed; to maximize gain due to genetic selection for energy efficiency, its genetic base and indirect effects on other traits should also be known. Although reports on direct/indirect selection for efficiency in dairy cattle are scarce (Linn, 2006), many studies have been conducted to study its heritability and the direct/indirect effect that selecting animals based on efficiency traits has on other related traits in different species. The reviewed results showed that the weighted mean of 28 and 9 estimates of heritability in beef for FCR and GEE were reported as 0.32 ± 0.02 and 0.37 ± 0.05, respectively (Koots et al., 1994). The weighted mean of 35 estimates of heritability for RFI in 7 species was reported 0.25 ± 0.02 (Pitchford, 2004). In order to point out the potential effect of selection for efficiency on other related traits, authors discussed this effect on reproduction, activities, organs, body composition, metabolites and health in beef cattle as well as other species in addition to dairy cattle (table 1).
Species | Reproduction | Activities | Organs | Chemical composition | Metabolites | Health |
Dairy | Decrease daughter fertility | Data not available. | Data not available. | Data not available. | Data not available. | Increases the incidence of metabolic diseases (Wassmuth et al., 2000) |
Beef | Decreases age at puberty, does not affect pregnancy rate (Shaffer et al., 2010). Did not affect bull performance (Wang et al., 2012). | Less feeding duration and less head-down time, (Durunna et al., 2010; Nkrumah et al., 2006; Kelly et al., 2010). | Did not affect tissues of gastro intestinal organs and internal organs (Richardson et al., 2001). | Less body fat (Richardson et al., 2001) more empty body water (Basarb et al., 2003). | Low plasma protein, blood concentration of urea and aspartate amino transfer (Herd & Arthur, 2009) high insulin, glucose and NEFA (Kelly et al., 2010). | Data not available. |
Pig | Decreased litter size (Estany et al., 2002) | Less feeding time, less visits per day, less total time in feeder (Von Felde et al., 1996) | ||||
Mice | Decreased litter size, ovulation rate (Nielsen et al., 1997) | Less activities (Hastings et al., 1997; Rau et al., 2000) | Larger livers, caeca, stomachs but smaller hearts (Hughes & Pitchford, 2004) | Fatter (Hughes & Pitchford, 2004) | Data not available. | |
Chicken | Increased fertility, hatchability, decreased mortality (Morrisson et al., 1997). No losses in egg production (Bordas et al.,1992) | Less activities (Luiting &Urff., 1991) | Controversial results, increase or decrease fat traits (Liting & Urff, 1991) |
Summary of indirect response of selection for energy efficiency on related traits in different species
Reproductive performance and milk production are two main entities in the profitability of dairy cattle industry (LeBlanc, 2010). Although milk production and energy efficiency have increased, the genetic trend of average daughter fertility in Canadian Holsteins has shown a 2% reduction over 14 years. It decreased from 101.9 in 1995 to 99.9 in 2009 (Van Doormaal, 2010). As a result, a selection objective to increase milk production seems to favour cows that genetically produce more milk, but consequently are prone to experience more negative energy balance (NEB). It has been reported that the time of first estrus is closely related to NEB during the first 2 - 3 weeks after calving (Coffey et al., 2006) and “cows appear to resume reproductive activity only after the nadir of NEB has passed” (Veerkamp, 1998).
Some researchers studied the indirect effect of selection for energy efficiency on reproduction traits in beef, and other species. For example, Shaffer et al. (2010) allocated beef heifers into three groups based on their efficiency (low, medium and high RFI) and studied the indirect effects of selection for efficiency on reproduction performance. They reported a negative relationship between RFI and age at puberty. The efficient animals reached puberty later than inefficient animals but it did not affect pregnancy or conception rates. They also quantified this relationship and reported that each unit increase in RFI corresponds to a decrease of 7.5 days in age at puberty. Wang et al. (2011) studied the effect of RFI on bull’s reproductive performance and fertility. They had 20 high RFI (inefficient) and 22 low RFI (efficient) beef bulls in a multi-sire breeding system on pasture and examined the association between RFI and semen quality traits (density, progressive motility and morphology), progeny per sire and some other related traits. They concluded that selection for RFI does not have a negative effect on reproductive performance and fertility in bulls bred in multi-sire groups on pasture.
In other species, Nielsen et al. (1997) divergently selected mice for energy efficiency, based on heat loss, over 15 generations. They had high efficient, low efficient and control groups, and each group had three replicates. Indirect effects of selection for energy efficiency on reproduction performance (litter size, ovulation rate, number of foetuses at 7 days of gestation and ovulation success) were measured. The results showed that the high efficient line (low heat loss) had 20% smaller litters at first parity in the 15th generation. The efficient line also had a 23% lower ovulation rate when measured at the second parity. However, the high efficiency line had a higher ovulation success rate (86%) than the low efficiency line (84%), but the differences were not significant (Nielsen et al., 1997). A report on pigs demonstrated that pigs with high litter size had a poorer efficiency compared to the control group (Estany et al., 2002). However, Morisson et al (1997) divergently selected hens for RFI over 18 generations and studied the effect of energy efficiency selection on reproduction and sperm characteristics. Contrary to mice and pigs, they found that a high efficient line of hens had only 6% unfertilised eggs compared with 30% in a low efficiency line. The early mortality rate in the inefficient line was twice that of the efficient line. Overall, the efficient line had a better hatchability performance (Morrisson et al., 1997). The better reproductive performance of efficient hens is supported by other researchers who selected hens for low RFI without losses in egg production (Bordas et al., 1992). It could be inferred that some species sacrifice litter size and maintain energy to better take care of the fetus. There is a need to study the associated effects of selection for energy efficiency and reproductive performance in dairy cattle.
Energy expenditure of feeding depends on feeding behaviour. In addition, results of studies in different species have shown that selection for efficiency had effects on animal’s feeding behaviour. Durunna et al (2010) conducted a 3 year study on 402 and 419 steers on two different diets (grower and finisher). They measured feed intake, feeding duration, head-down time and bunk visits using the Growsafe system. Their results showed that the efficient steers (Low RFI) exhibited less feeding duration, head down time, and bunk visits. In another study, efficient beef cattle (low RFI) had less feeding duration, but a higher feeding frequency (Nkrumah et al., 2006). These results are also supported by other researchers studying finishing heifers (Kelly et al., 2010) that showed efficient heifers had less feeding duration.
Some studies have been done on mice to determine the effect of selection for RFI on activity. Hastings et al (1997) found that high efficiency (low RFI) mice were 67% less active than the low efficiency mice. Furthermore, Rauw et al (2000) selected mice for high litter size at birth (S line) and showed that the S line had higher RFI (low efficiency). They reported that low efficiency mice, when compared with control group, had more locomotion activity, and they ran faster in two types of runaway tests. In hens, Luiting &Urff (1991) reported that high efficient layer hens were less active than the control group. However, efficient boars had a lower feeding rate, less feed intake per visit, fewer visits per day, and less total time in the feeder per day (Von Felde et al., 1996). Herd & Arthur (2009) concluded that the positive and high genetic correlation of feeding time per day and eating sessions per day with RFI indicates that there are some common genes controlling feeding behaviour and RFI.
Liver, the largest visceral organ, accounts for 17 to 31% of total body energy expenditures (Eisemann & Nienaber, 1990; Ortigues and Visseiche 1995). All of the visceral organs account for up to 40 to 50% of body energy expenditures in sheep and cattle (Perry et al., 1997). It was concluded that selection for efficiency may result in lower proportions of liver and visceral tissues (Pitchford, 2004). In female mice, the results contradicted this conclusion and the efficient mice (low RFI) had larger livers, caeca, intestines, and stomachs but smaller hearts (Hughes & Pitchford, 2004). In cattle divergently selected for RFI, the weight of highly activate tissues of gastrointestinal organs and internal organs were not significantly different. It was concluded that variation in ME intake and energy efficiency was due to metabolic processes rather than changes in body composition (Richardson et al., 2001).
Results of divergently selecting steers for RFI showed that there is a correlation between chemical composition and variation in RFI. Animals with low RFI had more whole-body chemical protein and less whole-body chemical fat (Richardson at al., 2001). Basarab et al (2003) also found that efficient steers had more empty body water but less empty body fat than low efficient steers. The divergently selected steers had almost the same amount of empty body protein. In another study, Shaffer et al (2010) grouped beef heifers of British breeds into low, medium and high RFI groups and found that efficient heifers (low RFI) had less lean meat area (cm2) per 100 kg of BW than inefficient (high RFI) heifers. In mice, the results have shown that the high efficiency lines had slightly lower post-weaning weight (0-12%), little differences in mature weight (0-30%) and were fatter (5-60% depending on the age at measurement) than low efficiency lines. Luiting & Urff (1991) summarized reports of phenotypic and genetic correlations between RFI and body fat traits in chickens and found that they ranged from -0.4 to 0.45. Herd & Arthur (2009) concluded that the amount and direction of association between body composition and variation in energy efficiency in cattle depends on age and stage of maturity.
There are some reports on associations between efficiency and some metabolites, which are indicators of production, and health. For example, high concentrations of total plasma protein, blood concentrations of urea and aspartate amino transfer were reported in high RFI cattle (inefficient) compared to low RFI (efficient). These metabolites are an index of protein turnover and inefficient cattle had higher protein turnover rates compared to low efficient cattle (Herd & Arthur, 2009). In other research, Kelly et al (2010) divergently selected heifers based on RFI and found that inefficient animals had higher plasma urea, B-hydroxybutyrate, and leptin concentration and lower NEFA, plasma glucose and insulin than efficient animals. Higher levels of cortisol and red and white blood cells were reported in high RFI steers, which indicates that these animals (inefficient) may be more susceptible to stress (Richardson et al., 2004). In another report, a positive correlation between IGF-I, a growth metabolite, and RFI was reported in beef cattle (Moore et al., 2005). However, separation of RFI into post weaning and feedlot periods determined that there is a positive correlation of IGF-I with RFI during post weaning time while there is a negative correlation during the feedlot period (Herd & Arthur., 2009). Kelly et al (2010) concluded that some plasma analytes such as B-hydroxybutyrate may be potential indicators of net efficiency in beef cattle.
Overall, animals are efficient and profitable, if they are healthy. Rauw et al (1998) reviewed undesirable effects of selection for high efficiency in farm animals and concluded that selection had a negative correlation with health traits. Wassmuth et al (2000) used feed intake data of 7752 young dairy bulls (2203 Danish Red, 4527 Danish Friesian and 1022 Danish Jersey), and combined the feed intake data with recorded incidence of mastitis, retained placenta, metritis, sole of ulcer and ketosis data of 473,613 dairy cows in their early lactation to investigate the relationship between efficiency and diseases in dairy cattle. They defined efficiency as “the feed energy intake per kilogram live weight gain” in bulls. The size and direction of relationship depended on breed, but the overall energy efficiency was positively correlated with incidence of diseases. Currently, selection indices in dairy cattle favour animals with high milk production and consequently negative energy balance (NEB). NEB is generally related to poorer health status and fertility and it can have an indirect economic effect (Goff, 2006; Veerkamp, 1998).
Overall, the physiological basis of energy efficiency (RFI) has been reviewed by Herd & Arthur (2009). The results of Angus steers divergently selected for net feed efficiency (RFI) revealed that feeding pattern, metabolism including turn over and stress, body composition, digestibility, heat increment of fermentation, and activity accounted for 2, 37, 5, 10, 9 and 10 % of the variation in RFI, respectively, and the remaining variation was attributed to other unknown processes (Herd & Arthur, 2009).
It can be concluded that there is an optimum point for the factors (DMI, milk production, body weight, AFC and environment factors) that influence the energy efficiency, and their relationship with energy efficiency is not linear. Hence, increasing output traits does not necessarily increase net energy efficiency. Therefore, the measures of energy efficiency that represent net efficiency, like RFI, which is independent from maintenance and production, need to be considered to improve efficiency in dairy cattle. It is proven that RFI is a robust measure of the animals’ energy efficiency because it is independent from animals’ maintenance requirements and level of production. Genetic improvement on energy efficiency can be achieved through selection for RFI in the dairy industry since the heritability estimates for RFI are moderate for most species (h2 = 0.25). Also, the traits are correlated and there are inconsistent results between species for indirect response of selection for energy efficiency on other related traits especially reproduction and health traits. Care should be taken when animals are selected for energy efficiency. Further research is required to define RFI in dairy cattle and to determine the indirect effects that selecting for efficiency may exert on other related traits, especially those related to reproduction and health.
Business eco-system is fast changing due to increased competition, rapidly changing advanced technology, global diversity and a multipolar economic order contributing to rapidly changing market circumstances. To maintain a competitive edge, businesses must be more versatile to respond rapidly to the effects of these developments. As a result, the venture leadership role and responsibilities are becoming less structured and require leaders with multi-skills, flexible, receptive, sensitive, and open to managing rapid changes [1]. Also, venture leaders play a critical role in the creation of new enterprises that propel growth in the global community. In many aspects of life, venture leaders employ a combination of technological inventions to create a new and productive way of doing things. A major challenge of leaders when the enterprise experience massive growth, is the ability to transition seamlessly from a sole entrepreneur to a leader of an expanding business. Many venture leaders are usually not equipped or prepared to take on this new responsibility.
Several start-ups’ leaders lack traditional management or leadership experience, while others are most productive when working alone on difficult technical challenges. However, they are capable of learning and mastering effective leadership skills. Also becoming a successful leader of a business venture does not necessitate an advanced formal education but the instinct of identifying opportunities, taking risk and transforming uncertainty into opportunities [2]. Although, many emerging entrepreneurs rely on learning on the job, this may be dangerous. Expanding ventures typically have limited tolerance for error and must function efficiently from the start to prosper [3]. If the leader is a novice and just acquiring management and leadership skills for the while on the job, the business will suffer and it may also make the stakeholders and investors feel frustrated with the process. Although, venture leaders must have basic experience in the craft and skill of leading and managing, a few insights from literature and experts may also be beneficial. Currently, the demand for venture leaders in organizations is rising daily, and studies should explore the topic of venture leadership [4]. This study elucidates more about the importance of venture leadership and the characteristics of venture leaders. While there have been papers exploring the venture leadership question, this study expands the scope by offering perspectives from an ASEAN emerging country such as Thailand.
It attempts to answer the question of how venture leadership thrives within the Thai business environment. Within this context, the concept of leadership is briefly discussed as well as the skills required to be an effective and successful leader. It covers some basic concepts for leading and managing a venture. The fundamental principles and leadership approaches presented here are meant to give a foundation for comprehending the wide range of challenges that always occur in new enterprises [5]. These concepts should not only be applied to leadership also the outcomes must be tracked and evaluated. Every one of the abilities, roles, and strategies presented here should be altered and adjusted as specific cases emerge. The discussion begins with the concept of leadership then it reviewed numerous sought-after skills that venture leaders require to control and organize the business work environment. Leadership guidelines, as a subcategory of organizational principles, can play a vital role in influencing employee perceptions, morals, and attitudes, and the relationship between leadership and followership. They can be used to help establish a common leadership culture.
Leading in a fast-changing, usually hostile corporate environment is what venture leadership entails. This leadership method is extremely important when you are, launching a global high-growth business, or leading a significant shift or an innovation venture. Therefore, leadership is becoming increasingly crucial. Businesses must focus on leadership to actualize their goals and maintain their sustainability. Leadership is commonly described as the practice of influencing businesses’ personnel to attain organizational objectives [6]. It refers to the capacity to influence people so that certain objectives and goals can be achieved. Leadership is also the capacity to inspire others to support and believe in the firm’s aims. Leadership involves the act of influencing and directing team members on the right path. To attain business goals, the leader influences group members by displaying leadership skills. Persuading others to do something needs a variety of persuasive abilities. Leadership requires having the power to influences others. Several studies have established that the professional skills and competence that made venture leaders effective in the beginning stage of the business can inhibit them as the business expands needing more leading and managing [7, 8]. Scholars have also identified that several leaders are successful in starting and creating a business alone. Although, when the business expands and demands more workers, they more not have the essential skills to inspire and motivate their team members [9].
Ventures leaders with business acumen and entrepreneurial abilities are like captains in a soccer game who plays along with the team member to achieve a goal. Leaders do not make decisions, provide orders, and monitor their employees, they must also choose to be leaders who direct the team and point to the way. Leaders who take risks and grasp chances are critical for the future success of the firm [10]. They identified six attributes that characterized effective venture leadership. The first characteristic is the support of entrepreneurial skills. Successful venture leaders recognize the source of entrepreneurial skills to be the human element and give their full support to the acquisition of this skill. They recognize the human factor as the basis of entrepreneurial activity and work to foster its growth. The second characteristics are how they interpret and perceive business opportunities. Venture leaders can detect opportunities from afar and inculcate their value as part of the goals of the business. They defend the breakthroughs that pose a challenge to the present business model. Disruptive technology is considered an organizational and personal danger by individuals [11]. However, an effective venture leadership can successfully communicate to others about the prospective advantages of disruptive innovations. To find a new valuable opportunity and ensure that the company is positioned successfully, venture leadership is continually questioning the assumptions underpinning the prevalent logic. Venture leaders also continuously evaluate the questions regarding identifying opportunities and employing the resources required to maintain the existence of the organization, business, developing a strong relationship with partners, and defining the business achievements and goals. In addition, effective leaders think that to produce more value, a business should strategically employ entrepreneurship skills.
Additionally Young Entrepreneur Council [12] also identified 12 significant traits that are required for an effective venture leader. The first feature is that a leader should be flexible and willing to adjust plans as work progresses. The second important feature is humility. An effective venture leader must have a modest demeanor. They should examine their role if the business fails and not point accusing fingers at others. Also, if the company succeeds, this should not be viewed only as their accomplishment. Rather it should be considered a collective effort. Another important trait of venture leaders is their ability to focus on important issues. They concentrate their energy and time on the success of the business. They are also keen on making decisions that will add maximum benefit to the business. Another trait is their die-hard attitude. Leaders are not in haste rather they are determined and resolute in their willingness to succeed. Apart from this, they are vision carriers, they are like the eagle that can see what is afar [13]. They also make sure that their team members understand this vision and are ready to run with it. Successful leaders can strike a good balance between anxiety and trust. They never abandon both their pragmatic and imaginative beliefs. Venture leaders own their achievements. They exert control over external forces. This is one of the requirements they must embrace. Venture leaders see daily occurrences favorably. And they encourage their staff to remain upbeat. Venture leaders can successfully communicate and promote their business. They can persuade customers to buy items from their businesses. Lastly, venture leaders understand their strengths and weaknesses [14].
Moreover, Jaiswal and Dhar [15] in their study identified personality traits of a successful venture leader and suggested nine aspects of venture leadership. These are decisiveness, teamwork, risk-taking, persistency, ability to identify consumers’ needs, visionary, innovation, problem-solving ability, and adaptability to changes. Generally, leadership as a concept applies to a wide range of social situations, including politics, sports, organizations, and business enterprises. It is undoubtedly agreeable that the characteristics and actions that influence the individual to be a successful political leader differ greatly from the ones that influence another individual to be an excellent sports team captain. This is also true for business executives. The qualities and actions required of leaders of huge corporations differ from what is required of leaders of business ventures [16].
The use of influence is at the heart of effective leadership. Influence is the key instrument used by leaders in advancing the venture toward achieving its objectives. To drive a venture ahead, the leader also uses methods such as remuneration, employee assessment and feedback, and organizational structure. For venture leadership positions, seven influence techniques have been identified as essential. The first technique is logical reasoning. This is the use of data and evidence to construct a logically sound argument. The second is friendliness which is the use of encouragement, praise, and fostering of goodwill. The third is a coalition which involves the mobilization of other team members [17]. The fourth technique is bargaining, this involves making deals using favors or rewards. The fifth is assertiveness which is taking a forthright and aggressive stand. The sixth is obtaining the backing of higher authority in the business hierarchy to lend weight to their proposal. The last technique is sanctioning which involves both the use of incentives and punishment.
Venture leaders must master a range of influence techniques. As the company expands, they will be unable to rely exclusively on the confidence that comes with being the founder. According to research, allowing employees to influence how the business operates increases their motivation. Todorovic and Schlosser [18] identified that the biggest challenge for leaders is not if they make wise judgments and take bold action, but it is whether they educate and motivate people to become leaders and develop an enterprise that can maintain success even in their absence. Venture leaders should wield influence without creating hubris or a sense of superiority. This might be challenging for new leaders who are unaccustomed to influence and responsibility. To summarize, tyrants seldom inspire substantial effort among followers [19]. People are more influenced by frontiers that genuinely care about their progress. A business leader is not expected to be preoccupied with personal progress in non-business domains like an individual personal financial ability or romantic life. Generally, individuals are more responsive to leaders that can give them a steady supply of difficult assignments that match their existing capabilities, temperament, and skills [20].
Achievement in a new or expanding venture is not by happenstance. It is made possible by dedicated and skilled leaders who play strategic roles in the venture. As a leader of a developing venture, you impact performance by establishing objectives, detecting and reducing impediments to established objectives’ accomplishment, and successfully organizing, planning, and regulating resources to achieve elevated levels of success. The focus of this section is the leadership skills needed in the daily situations that arise in a start-up venture. For many leaders, leading successfully as the business expands may be a challenging issue. The majority of first-time leaders do not have traditional management training. Their sole reference point might be those who have led and supervised them at one time or the other along with their careers. They might have not been also exposed to professional leadership training. Although, professional leadership training is not required to be a good leader, however, the principles and skills offered by formal training can result in more successful performance. Leaders that do not adjust to a leadership position as they ought to, usually have to relinquish management of their business to more experienced individuals. This is something that can be done, and several venture leaders have done it. However, acquiring personal leadership capabilities and skills will be critical for leaders that desire to be at the front seat of the decision-making for their company for the long term [18].
The value of leadership in ventures is generally acknowledged by seasoned entrepreneurs and most investors [21]. In determining the success of a venture, only real performance counts. Wishes, good intentions, and promises are meaningless to the investors if good implementation and performance are absent. Moreover, the majority of the critical skills and talents required for execution are teachable, and any leader that is open to learning these skills has the highest chance of success [22]. Most leaders learn to lead others through learning and analyzing, as well as on-the-job experience. Irrespective of the type of venture, leaders must have and continue to cultivate several fundamental skills. A skill is an ability or expertise to do a certain activity. Leadership skills should be acquired and honed. Generally, leaders must strive to cultivate skills in these key areas as leaders: Team building, conceptual, self-awareness, communication, analytical, resilience, and decision making.
It is rare to see a leader who can operate like a hermit and yet be successful. Most ventures are too complex for an individual to run without assistance. Successful leaders are those who have mastered the skill of team building. They have the ability to intimate others with their idea, therefore, enabling them to grow into a cohesive team that is entirely centered on one goal. Team building focuses on recognizing the skill and talent gaps needed for the business venture to thrive, and then selecting individuals who possess these qualities. Successful leaders possess the ability to recruit workers, investors, and advisors who fill gaps in the venture’s skill pool and help it meet its objectives. Building an effective team needs all of the skills listed above, as well as a healthy dose of humility. Successful leaders emphasize the necessity of employing and encouraging people who are more skilled than them. Indeed, the most successful leaders are not intimidated by the idea of recruiting workers that are better skilled than them. This remark may appear self-evident, yet it is not unusual for leaders to feel intimidated by individuals that more skilled than them. Before now, leaders have been used to competing with others all through their formal professional training. That competition does not simply vanish, a leader will need to realign their thought to subdue the competitive instinct. Replace sentiments of rivalry among their contemporaries with sentiments of team building which requires sacrificing personal pride and employing competent individuals to assist the venture to achieve its set goals and succeed against competitors. The basis of an effective team is straightforward: clear objectives and responsibilities. Exceptionally brilliant individuals are typically self-motivated. They desire to perform excellently and love working on well-defined, quantifiable goals. Leaders in ventures have discovered that they can anticipate a high level of dedication from bright individuals devoid of administrative interference. That is, brilliant individuals typically perform optimally when leaders set goals for them without interference. Self-organization is common among teams formed around specific tasks and goals [23].
The capacity to envision the fuller picture, the intricacies of the entire business system, and different parts are linked together are all examples of conceptual skills. Leaders utilize conceptual skills to build long-term visions for businesses. Conceptual skills also help the leader to forecast how future activities will impact the business years to come. Leadership, particularly visionary leadership, is one of the most essential cornerstones of success in ventures today. Every venture must create a vision and purpose to drive the various decisions that must be taken now and in the future. Visionary businesses have principles that are founded on an unchanging fundamental concept that spans immediate consumer needs and market realities. People are guided and inspired by the unifying concept of innovative firms. A uniting concept, when combined with a strong “cult-like” ethos, fosters great camaraderie and corporation. Tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity is another important skill that the venture leader must cultivate. In reality, a leader should cultivate the capacity to absorb uncertainty, allowing the other team members to concentrate on the core aim. The ambiguity that all ventures face can be alleviated over time by market investigation and discovery. To facilitate positive growth, the venture leader must select which trials the business will undertake and the interpretation of the findings. The most successful technology ventures have frequently been founded by visionaries. Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple, is arguably the most well-known among the visionaries. Steve’s underlying vision was to develop an “incredibly wonderful product.” For over 20 years, this basic vision aroused great dedication and commitment from staff and has presented the world with a steady stream of new and ground-breaking products.
Self-improvement in any capacity necessitates taking charge of establishing your self-identity through personal analysis. To do this, the individual needs to consider circumstances that they were successful and identify elements that contributed to their success. Was it hard work, sound planning, problem-solving ability, patience? Critical examination of past experiences necessitates self-talk, contemplation, and analysis. Sadly, recollections of memories frequently leave out important facts, information, and occurrences. Keeping a daily notebook is a wonderful way of tracking important aspects of one’s achievement. Maintaining a diary for 5–10 days on daily interactions with others requires discipline [24]. The diary may be easily organized by including a date and summarizing remarks on what you did daily, whom you interacted with, the kind of thoughts you had, and the method you employed in solving problems faced. Concise and simple diary entries will aid in the evaluation and analysis process. At the very least, a daily entry of 10 days gives a picture of your thinking and behavior pattern. Another way to obtain self-awareness data is by completing self-assessment questionnaires. This can be a piece of private information that is only accessible to you. Invariably, feedback is required to develop any skill. Online tests of attitude, personality, talents, and skills can also be a source of eye-opening information, colleagues and friends can also provide feedback. However, some co-workers and acquaintances may be hesitant to offer genuine, revealing thorough and accurate comments. As a result, you can develop a short memo explaining why their feedback is essential to your growth. Following this method can convince them to be willing to help. Comparing other people’s comments with the personal analysis you have conducted on self-awareness is instructive and useful. You will discover directly how people see you, allowing you to compare this knowledge to the way you see yourself. There might be disagreements that must be properly assessed. After completing and analyzing the review, it is time to evaluate the skills that need to be developed. The evaluation system will undoubtedly reveal areas that require improvement. Overall, the self-evaluation should concentrate on three key areas to improve leadership skills: attitudes, values, and personality.
Individual uniqueness is created by a set of psychological and physical variables known as personality. An essential personality factor is a self-concept which is the way you see yourself as a spiritual, social, and physical being. Self-sufficiency and self-esteem are two related parts of self-concept. The belief in one’s worth is referred to as self-esteem. Self-esteemed people believe they are vital, valuable, and important. Self-sufficiency is an individual believes that they can complete an activity, a job, or task, successfully [25].
A person’s values are their preferences for correct options. Values depict a person’s perception of what is right, correct, or fair. Generally, a person’s values are influenced by teachers, friends, parents, role models parents and, mentors. Because everyone’s learning and experiences are different, so are individual values. There are two broad value categories. A person’s preferences for “ends” to be achieved are reflected in terminal values. Instrumental values express a person’s preferences for the methods that will be used to achieve their desired outcomes [26].
Attitudes can be described in a variety of ways. First, attitudes remain the same in individuals unless effort is made to change them. Second, attitudes can be positive or negative. Third, attitudes are usually aimed at a specific object and reflect the beliefs and feelings of the individual. As a result, attitudes are a continuous tendency to feel and act in a certain way toward a specific object. Information, behavior, and emotion are the three components that make up an individual’s attitude.
Considering venture leaders need others to accomplish their goals, their ability to communicate with, collaborate, and appreciate others is critical [27]. Effective oral and written communication is critical for venture success. The ability is essential for success in any enterprise, but it is more important for leaders who must accomplish results via the contributions of others. Communication abilities include the capacity to communicate in an understandable way, as well as the willingness to pursue and use feedback gotten from others to guarantee that you are being understood [28]. Also, a leader’s communication skills will be put to test when interacting with shareholders, investors, and stakeholders. Fundraising is one of the most important continuous responsibilities of a venture leader. To raise funds, the leader must be able to convey a concise story on the venture’s products and market, its business strategy, and value proposition. This brief description of the company is frequently called the elevator pitch. Aside from the elevator pitch, a leader must also have the ability to explain the venture’s goal and direction through a documented business plan. Nicole [29] hints that when engaging with potential lenders, investors, or other important stakeholders, a business plan is essential. You can also reduce the business plan into significant writing skills. Although, there are companies that offer these services, research has shown that the leader should produce these documents themselves [30]. Lastly, a leader must be adept at pitching the plan or executive summary to potential investors and other stakeholders [31]. The linguistic capacity to explain the business’s objective and goals, as outlined in the strategy, necessitates understanding and adapting the style of communication to one’s audience. Several technological venture leaders, for example, need to present their company ideas to individuals that are diverse and not technically savvy like them. In such circumstances, utilizing technical language or sophisticated visuals to explain a business idea is unlikely to generate the intended outcomes. The venture leader must modify communications to meet the other people’s capabilities to participate in the conversation.
Analytical skills are the ability to address organizational issues utilizing repeatable methodologies or procedures. Analytical skills centers on the capacity to recognize important elements influencing venture success, comprehend how they interface, and manage them to meet venture goals. It also includes the capacity to detect and analyze difficulties that arise on a day-to-day basis for the venture. Analytical skills are essential to comprehending challenges and devising a solution with action plans. Analytical abilities include the capacity to identify and comprehend how numerous complicated factors interact, as well as the ability to devise methods that would make these factors interface in a preferred manner [32]. These skills also enable you to assess your potential and the expertise of those involved in the venture. A leader that can assess and embrace their weakness and strength is in the best position to meet performance objectives. Also, leaders who have properly assessed their skills will recruit individuals who fit their strengths and mitigate their deficiencies. Most leaders may already have excellent analytical abilities; however, they are primarily concerned with technological issues instead of business concerns [33]. Managing a venture necessitates changing the focus from studying the main technology to assessing the business. In terms of technology, a venture may offer the best product or services. But from a business standpoint, the leader must analyze and evaluate the market potential, the associated costs of introducing the product or services to the market, the financial capacity that is needed to build and expand the venture, the scalability of the venture over time, and a variety of other factors [34].
Another essential trait of a venture leader is resilience. The physical, financial, and emotional turmoil that most ventures face is frequently difficult to handle. Leaders must be able to maintain the venture’s stability in the face of turmoil. Every human is equipped with the ability to maintain strength amid stress, ambiguity, and uncertainty. A leader must be fully aware of their limitations and try to improve them by engaging in personal development, reflection, and experience. Most leaders will eventually cultivate greater resilience as they fail, struggle, and recover [35]. However, there are things that a venture leader can and should do to improve personal resilience. For instance, peradventure the venture experiences difficulties with their finances, the leader needs to put their feelings concerning the difficulty under control so that it does not affect the venture team’s performance. Walking around as a leader with a sad face or loud complaints concerning the state of finance will likely affect the team morale and subsequently, their performance will suffer too. Whereas at such times, team performance is important more than ever, however, the leader’s lack of self-control has the potential to undermine that performance [36].
Every leader will have to decide at one point or the other and the quality of the decision, it will determine their effectiveness. The ability of a leader to focus and navigate the venture despite conflicting information and conditions has a significant impact on their decision-making ability. The ambiguity of emerging ventures is one of their defining characteristics [37]. They are frequently ambiguous about their value proposition, competition, market, and endurance capacity. When issues and challenges arise, venture leaders must learn to reject the pressures for a temporary fix. They need to learn how to cope with ambiguous situations, as well as to identify the most subtle differences between successful and unsuccessful actions [38]. In almost all cases, decision-making in ventures is made while confronting unresolvable ambiguity. Every leader must come to terms with this. The ambiguity of several of the challenges that a leader faces, however, should not result in paralysis or inaction. A leader must possess a proclivity for action as well as the ability to make decisions based on incomplete data. Finally, a leader needs the ability to act once a decision was taken [39].
In a business textbook, ethics is usually a tricky topic to discuss. A large portion of individuals who succeed in business is unfamiliar with these concepts. Also, because there are several different points of view on the subject matter, many business executives regard it as “muddled” and hard to grasp [40]. Ethics can be easy or difficult. It is easy when people decide to live by a few principles guiding them irrespective of the situation. On the other hand, ethics is difficult for people who believe ethics can be bent and that situations should be assessed separately to determine the best plan of action [41]. Essentially, integrity is defined as acting based on your word and saying only what you intend to mean or intend to do. Integrity is a great starting place when developing ethical standards. It would be tough to claim that integrity is unimportant or that integrity is not critical to success in the venture. The majority of successful leaders will affirm the importance of integrity. The majority of business is conducted within a structure of trust. Leaders believe that those they work with will implement the commitments they have both agreed on. Honesty is another principle that should be closely linked to integrity. The virtue of honesty can also be referred to as “transparency” in business [21]. When a leader practices this ethic, this means that the business will be functioning properly. Humility is a final ethical principle to be discussed and appears to be critical for business success. Humility is frequently described as a personality trait, but it can also be defined as an ethical principle. A person who demonstrates humility recognizes that many of the good and bad things that happen in life and business are often the result of random events. The majority of success is due to a complex combination of personal ability, luck, and happenstance. Leaders who understand this will be successful in maintaining a genuine humility during the success period while also being more stable individually during a time of difficulty. Many authors coined the term “ergonomics” to describe the importance of controlling one’s pride and cultivating humility [42]. Four red flags that show when a person’s ego has taken charge are listed by these authors: Being defensive, being comparative, seeking acceptance, and showcasing brilliance. It is critical to understand the way humility fits into the range of possible character identities, ranging from a vacant ego to self-indulgence. Humility reflects a balanced and perceptive understanding of one’s own distinct skill and talent while avoiding the destructive power of arrogance and egoism.
Thailand is a vital business hub in the Southeast Asia region. It is a collectivist nation where people value and commit to their relationships. It is more important and valued to be accepted than it is to grab attention among the crowd, therefore an assertive and competitive attitude is not supported or considered desirable. The individualism vs. collectivism scale is a cultural dimension developed by Hofstede et al. [43], individualist cultures mostly refer to themselves as “I,” whereas collectivist societies view themselves in the context of “we.” People are more likely to subordinate their personal goals to those of their group in collectivistic societies. The style of communication is implicit and is dependent on the context of what is said. The self-perception of belonging to an in-group implies that people consider their job and the organization for which they work to be a part of their self-identity [44]. The subordinate-superior relationship is based on an exchange of loyalty for protection [43].
Thai society is known for being resistant to change and for being risk-averse, which is why there is control over everything, which is manifested by strict laws, policies, rules, and regulations [45, 46]. Thailand, with its collectivist culture, is an ideal setting for transformational leadership to thrive. Transformational leadership has more chance of success in collectivist cultures than in Western individualistic cultures, Schmidt [47] reiterated that Followers in collectivist societies expect their leaders to look after them while identifying with their leaders’ vision and showing their loyalty. This aligns with several studies that show a positive significant effect of transformational leadership on collectivists’ employee creativity than individualists’ [48]. This leadership style is the secret to venture leadership in Thailand [49]. Good leaders motivate their workers to challenge the system and try new and innovative approaches to their work. They put a lot of effort into intellectually stimulating their workers [50, 51].
For instance, these leaders challenge employees’ imagination and inspirations, while recognizing their innovative values, mindset, and beliefs, as well as developing the capabilities of individual and work teams. They also provide support and resources as well as energize followers to put more effort to meet higher goals. Vora and Kainzbauer [49] while identifying themes in Thai humanistic leadership in culture-specific ways infer those leaders must engage in humanistic leadership practices that are appropriate for the Thai context to be successful. Human resource departments may want to focus on these behaviors when recruiting, selecting, and developing new employees. The success of the Thai economy which recorded a growth rate of almost 7% in the late 80s and early 90s, with an even better GDP performance of double digits making Thailand the fastest growing economy in the world over the same period was tied to the strategic leadership management of business entities [52]. In Thailand, family-run businesses frequently retain senior management for decades, and the predictable result is that they seek consistency rather than greatness. Leaders must shift their focus away from functional issues and toward developing independent thinkers and future successors.
They can stop telling people what to do and start listening to insightful feedback and ideas if they foster creativity [53]. According to studies, employees’ perceptions of empowerment and support are major sources of innovation [48]. All of this contributes to the followers’ development of a creative identity. As a result, the quality of Thailand’s leaders has a significant impact on the country’s venture leadership success. In organizational learning, the transformational leader will act as a facilitator, trainer catalyst, and coach. The Thai leadership nexus has keyed into this paradigm, where the leaders are open to technological reforms in business industries such as agriculture, automobile, bioengineering, biotechnology, electronics, healthcare, and nanotechnology, and increasing the development of new technologies such as aviation, digital innovations, logistics, and robotics. These are indications that the leadership model operated in Thailand emphasizes innovation and creativity [14, 54]. Studies have revealed that creative leaders are more effective at promoting positive change and inspiring their followers than leaders who are not creative [32, 55]. Hofsteede [56] stated that in Thailand, the people are used to an imbalance of power in organizations because they accept easily that power is distributed unevenly based on some of the characteristics outlined below:
Being reliant on a hierarchy.
Unequal rights for power holders and non-power holders.
Inaccessible superiors.
Leaders are commanding.
Management exercises control and delegates authority.
Power is centralized, and managers rely on their team members’ obedience.
Employees expect to be told what to do and when to do it.
Managers are respected for their position.
Communication is indirect, and negative feedback is hidden.
Co-workers would expect the boss or manager to be clearly directed.
What is discernible from the above narrative is that privileges are assigned a rank and are respected accordingly. Employees demonstrate loyalty, respect, and obeisance for protection and security. Each rank is accorded its own set of benefits, and employees are expected to demonstrate loyalty, respect, and deference to the leadership, giving rise to a paternalistic management relationship between leaders and followers [56]. As a result, the attitude toward managers has become more formal. The flow of information is hierarchical and managed with the leaders at the top of the totem pole because of the privileges and functions ascribed to them in society. Somech [17] further affirms that leaders are the main drivers that either support or hinder organizational innovation management. According to Bel [25], various leadership styles tend to have different effects on employee loyalty and participation, influencing the climate for innovation management. Exploring from the work of Deschamps [40], he highlights that the failure of innovation projects is most likely due to ineffective leadership skills.
There are assertions in the growing literature on change leadership that the root cause of many change problems is leadership behavior [48]. Trust and lack of trust, in particular, are regarded as major factors in failed change projects. In general, trust in leadership has been identified as an important role in innovation and change research [13, 32]. Leadership is important in increasing organizational creativity, launching, driving, and implementing innovation projects, and overcoming resistance [24, 41]. These have been all evident in growing the Thai economy as discussed from the studies reviewed. Employee perceptions of how much creativity is encouraged at work and how much organizational resources are devoted to supporting creativity influence their creative performance. The perception of an innovative climate among employees encourages risk-taking and the challenge of using creative approaches at work. For the sustenance of the innovations in the economic and end technology sectors, Thailand must continuously produce the right leaders with a mind-set of enhancing creativity and innovation and setting the right examples for followers.
The concept of venture leadership has been discussed thus far. Discussions have revealed that leadership is built over a lifetime of training, adjustment, and reflection, as discussed throughout this section. There are no absolute facts in leadership; no one can be a leader in all situations. Each leader must identify the practices that fit them given the circumstances. Although, there are no absolutes, there are leadership principles that are highly applicable to the success of a venture and have been passed down across generations. For instance, in line with the basic rules of smart business practice, the ethical codes of humility, integrity, and honesty, apply to every type of venture. Furthermore, the central skills of venture leadership should serve as a foundation for ongoing education. As previously stated, many venture leaders have never received formal management or leadership training. As a result, many people master the skills and craft of management and leadership while on the job. Although, this is admirable and tolerable, however the venture environment in most cases is far too challenging to allow for such an inefficient and slow learning process. Although, formal leadership training is not required for ventures, having a conceptual model to analyze the situations or events that occur during the operation of a business is beneficial. Conceptual frameworks give order to the chaos of leadership. The fundamental skills discussed in this section are only intended to serve as a springboard for further reading and investigation into the principles and concepts that define effective management and leadership.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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It describe the bioactive compounds derived from natural resources, its phytochemical analysis, characterization and pharmacological investigation. It focuses on the success of these resources in the process of finding and discovering new and effective drug compounds that can be useful for human resources. From many years, natural products have been acting as a source of therapeutic agents and have shown beneficial uses. Only natural product drug discovery plays an important role to develop the scientific evidence of these natural resources. Research in drug discovery needs to develop robust and viable lead molecules, which step forward from a screening hit to a drug candidate through structural elucidation and structure identification through GC–MS, NMR, IR, HPLC, and HPTLC. The development of new technologies has revolutionized the screening of natural products in discovering new drugs. Utilizing these technologies gives us an opportunity to perform research in screening new molecules using a software and database to establish natural products as a major source for drug discovery. It finally leads to lead structure discovery. Powerful new technologies are revolutionizing natural herbal drug discovery.",book:{id:"8290",slug:"pharmacognosy-medicinal-plants",title:"Pharmacognosy",fullTitle:"Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Akshada Amit Koparde, Rajendra Chandrashekar Doijad and Chandrakant Shripal Magdum",authors:[{id:"268668",title:"Dr.",name:"Akshada",middleName:"Amit",surname:"Koparde",slug:"akshada-koparde",fullName:"Akshada Koparde"}]},{id:"48805",title:"Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics",slug:"biopharmaceutics-and-pharmacokinetics",totalDownloads:26121,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"4491",slug:"basic-pharmacokinetic-concepts-and-some-clinical-applications",title:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications"},signatures:"S. Lakshmana Prabu, T.N.K. Suriyaprakash, K. Ruckmani and R.\nThirumurugan",authors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",middleName:null,surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"},{id:"128690",title:"Dr.",name:"Suriyaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"Tnk",slug:"suriyaprakash-tnk",fullName:"Suriyaprakash Tnk"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"219",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81238",title:"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: An Overview",slug:"artificial-intelligence-in-healthcare-an-overview",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102768",abstract:"The healthcare industry is advancing ahead swiftly. For many healthcare organizations, being able to forecast which treatment techniques are likely to be successful with patients based on their makeup and treatment framework is a big step forward. Artificial intelligence has the potential to help healthcare providers in a variety of ways, including patient care and administrative tasks. The technology aims to mimic human cognitive functions, as it offers numerous advantages over traditional analytics and other clinical decision-making tools. Data becomes more precise and accurate, allowing the healthcare industry to have more insights into the theranostic processes and patient outcomes. This chapter is an overview of the use of artificial intelligence in radiology, cardiology, ophthalmology, and drug discovery process.",book:{id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg"},signatures:"Syed Shahwar Anwar, Usama Ahmad, Mohd Muazzam Khan, Md. Faheem Haider and Juber Akhtar"},{id:"79411",title:"Phospholipid Based Nano Drug Delivery Systems of Phytoconstituents",slug:"phospholipid-based-nano-drug-delivery-systems-of-phytoconstituents",totalDownloads:121,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101040",abstract:"The development of phytochemistry and phyto-pharmacology has enabled elucidation of composition and biological activities of several medicinal plant constituents. However phytoconstituents are poorly absorbed due to their low aqueous solubility, large molecular size and poor membrane permeability when taken orally. Nanotechnology based drug delivery systems can be used to improve the dissolution rate, permeability and stability of these phytoconstituents. The current chapter aims to present the extraction of phytoconstituents, their identifications, and development/utilization of phospholipid based nano drug delivery systems (PBNDDS). The content of the chapter also provides characteristic features, in-vitro, in-vivo evaluations and stability performance of PBNDDS. The results from the UHPLC and GC-MS showed different phytoconstituents in the extracted samples with quantitative value. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) data showed PBNDDS of different phytoconstituents in the range of 50–250 nm with PDI value of 0.02–0.5, which was also confirmed by the electron microscopic data. Phytoconstituents loading or entrapment for PBNDDS was in the range of 60–95%. PBNDDS exhibited better in-vitro and in-vivo performance with improved Physico-chemical stability.",book:{id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Hossain Shariare and Mohsin Kazi"},{id:"79292",title:"Aliphatic Polyester Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Systems",slug:"aliphatic-polyester-nanoparticles-for-drug-delivery-systems",totalDownloads:109,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100977",abstract:"Drug delivery systems using aliphatic polyester nanoparticles are usually prepared via an emulsion process. These nanoparticles can control drug release and improve pharmacokinetics. Aliphatic polyesters are linear polymers containing ester linkages, showing sensitivity to hydrolytic degradation. The byproducts then promote autocatalytic degradation. These byproducts could enter the Krebs cycle and be eliminated from the body, resulting in the high biocompatibility of these nanoparticles. The properties of these polyesters are linked to the drug release rate due to biodegradation, i.e., polymer crystallinity, glass transition temperature, polymer hydrophobicity, and molecular weight (MW), all of which relatively influence hydrolysis. Mathematical equations have been used to study the factors and mechanisms that affect drug dissolution compared to experimental release data. The equations used as models for predicting the kinetics of drug release include the zero-order, first-order, Higuchi, Hixson-Crowell, and Korsmeyer-Peppas equations. Aliphatic polyester-based controlled drug delivery has surrounded much of the current activity in the estimation parameters of nanoparticles and stimulated additional research. Polymeric nanoparticles have potential in a wide range of applications, such as in biotechnology, vaccine systems, and the pharmaceutical industry. The main goal of this chapter is to discuss aliphatic polyester nanoparticles as drug carrier systems.",book:{id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg"},signatures:"Narumol Kreua-ongarjnukool, Nopparuj Soomherun, Saowapa Thumsing Niyomthai and Sorayouth Chumnanvej"},{id:"78844",title:"Targeted Nano-Drug Delivery System to Colon Cancer",slug:"targeted-nano-drug-delivery-system-to-colon-cancer",totalDownloads:123,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100059",abstract:"Cancer has been considered as the most cause of death in world. Employing of nanocarriers as drug delivery systems provide a platform for delivering drugs with increasing the anti-cancer efficacy, enhancing bioavailability of drugs, reducing side effects, enhancing the circulation half-life of drugs, improving the distribution of drugs and overcoming drug resistance. A number of nanocarriers have been studied as drug delivery systems for improving the treatment of cancer including liposomes, micelle, polymeric nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) and nanostructure lipid carrier (NLC). In order to enhance recognition and internalization of nanocarriers by the target tissues, their surfaces can be modified with targeting ligands such as integrins, transferrin, folic acid, polysaccharides and antibodies. In this chapter, we are going to introduce the targeted nanocarriers for improving the cytotoxic action of drugs with further attempt of decreasing dose to achieve higher anticancer activity. Targeted nanocarriers would provide a promising therapeutic approach for cancer.",book:{id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg"},signatures:"Eskandar Moghimipour and Somayeh Handali"},{id:"78619",title:"Strategies to Develop Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges for Smart Drug Delivery",slug:"strategies-to-develop-cyclodextrin-based-nanosponges-for-smart-drug-delivery",totalDownloads:129,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100182",abstract:"In recent years, the development of various cyclodextrin (CD)-based nanosponges (NSs) has gained great importance in the controlled and-or targeted release of drugs due to their versatility and simple preparation. In this chapter, an introduction of different administration routes is explained. Further, different ways to obtain CD-NSs and their classification are shown with a brief explanation of the characterization of the inclusion complexes. Finally, illustrative examples in diverse processes or diseases will be reviewed and explained to demonstrate the potential of CD-NSs. Therefore, this division will serve to compile information on CD-NSs in recent years and to illustrate to readers how to generate and apply different derivatives of interest.",book:{id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg"},signatures:"Gjylije Hoti, Silvia Lucia Appleton, Alberto Rubin Pedrazzo, Claudio Cecone, Adrián Matencio, Francesco Trotta and Fabrizio Caldera"},{id:"78313",title:"Smart Drug-Delivery Systems in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis: Current, Future Perspectives",slug:"smart-drug-delivery-systems-in-the-treatment-of-rheumatoid-arthritis-current-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:205,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99641",abstract:"Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a progressive autoimmune inflammatory disorder characterized by cellular infiltration in synovium causing joint destruction and bone erosion. The heterogeneous nature of the disease manifests in different clinical forms, hence treatment of RA still remains obscure. Treatments are limited owing to systemic toxicity by dose-escalation and lack of selectivity. To overcome these limitations, Smart drug delivery systems (SDDS) are under investigation to exploit the arthritic microenvironment either by passive targeting or active targeting to the inflamed joints via folate receptor, CD44, angiogenesis, integrins. This review comprehensively deliberates upon understanding the pathophysiology of RA and role of SDDSs, highlighting the emerging trends for RA nanotherapeutics.",book:{id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg"},signatures:"Largee Biswas, Vikas Shukla, Vijay Kumar and Anita Kamra Verma"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/194617",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"194617"},fullPath:"/profiles/194617",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()