Cooling down time and temperature for Case 1 and Case 2 operating scenarios.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6384",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition",title:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book focuses on the animal husbandry and nutrition based on significant evaluations by the authors of the chapters. Many chapters contain general overviews on animal husbandry and nutrition from different countries. Also, the sections created shed light on futuristic overlook with improvements for animal husbandry and feeding sector. Details about rearing and feeding different animal races are also covered herein. It is hoped that this book will serve as a source of knowledge and information on animal husbandry and nutrition sector.",isbn:"978-1-78923-421-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-420-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-445-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69938",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"animal-husbandry-and-nutrition",numberOfPages:200,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"45e3ab6f834a3efc7836eb8b3c8e3427",bookSignature:"Banu Yücel and Turgay Taşkin",publishedDate:"July 18th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6384.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20692,numberOfWosCitations:44,numberOfCrossrefCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:84,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:180,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 27th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 18th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 14th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 12th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 13th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"191429",title:"Prof.",name:"Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Yucel",slug:"banu-yucel",fullName:"Banu Yucel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191429/images/system/191429.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Yucel graduated from the Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science and immediately after, started working as a Research Assistant for the same department. She finished her MSci in 1994 and Ph.D. in 1999 at Ege University, Turkey. Dr. Yucel has got 26 years academic experience and she received the 'National Science Encouragement Reward” from 'The Scientific and Technological Research Center of Turkey” four times and 'Science and Technology Transfer Center of Ege University” three times during her academic life. Dr. Yucel was awarded the 'Golden Bee Reward” from 'Honey and Bee Products Promotion and Research Center” for her scientific contribution to the beekeeping sector in 2015. She wrote many scientific articles, research papers, book chapters and presentations on beekeeping. She held many beekeeping courses on the national and international platform.",institutionString:"Ege University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ege University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"212357",title:"Dr.",name:"Turgay",middleName:null,surname:"Taskin",slug:"turgay-taskin",fullName:"Turgay Taskin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212357/images/5682_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Taskin graduated from the Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science in 1986 and completed military service between 1987-1988. He completed his MSc in 1990 and was assigned the 'Research Assistant” to the same department in 1992. He finished his PhD in 1995 at the Ege University. He was assigned as the Associate Professor in 2000 and the Full Professor in 2006. \nHe has authored many scientific articles, researches and presentations on sheep-goat production/managements. He gave many sheep-goat breeders courses/applications on national platform.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Ege University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"297",title:"Animal Science",slug:"animal-science"}],chapters:[{id:"58095",title:"The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72501",slug:"the-innovative-techniques-in-animal-husbandry",totalDownloads:3826,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Technology is developing rapidly. In this development, the transfer of computer systems and software to the application has made an important contribution. Technologic instruments made farmers can work more comfortable and increased animal production efficiency and profitability. Therefore, technologic developments are the main research area for animal productivity and sustainability. Many technologic equipment and tools made animal husbandry easier and comfortable. Especially management decisions and applications are effected highly ratio with this rapid development. In animal husbandry management decisions that need to be done daily are configured according to the correctness of the decisions to be made. At this point, smart systems give many opportunities to farmers. Milking, feeding, environmental control, reproductive performance constitute everyday jobs most affected by correct management decisions. Human errors in this works and decisions made big effect on last product quality and profitability are not able to be risked. This chapter deal with valuable information on the latest challenges and key innovations affecting the animal husbandry. Also, innovative approaches and applications for animal husbandry are tried to be summarized with detail latest research results.",signatures:"Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58095",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58095",authors:[{id:"215579",title:"Prof.",name:"Serap",surname:"Goncu",slug:"serap-goncu",fullName:"Serap Goncu"},{id:"218971",title:"Dr.",name:"Cahit",surname:"Güngör",slug:"cahit-gungor",fullName:"Cahit Güngör"}],corrections:null},{id:"58495",title:"Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72821",slug:"effective-temperature-for-poultry-and-pigs-in-hot-climate",totalDownloads:1457,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Existing knowledge on the relative significance of air temperature, humidity, and velocity in a hot environment for housed pigs and poultry is reviewed and synthesized in an effective temperature (ET) equation. The suggested unit has an easily perceivable scale where ET is equal to air temperature if the relative humidity is 50% and the air velocity is 0.2 ms−1. The included method to determine the relative significance of air temperature and humidity is similar to the way it is done in the Temperature Humidity Index. Several authors have suggested different Thermal Humidity Indices for different categories of animals, but this chapter found no evidence that the relative importance of temperature and humidity is different for pigs than for poultry or for large than small ones. The suggested ET equation includes a separate velocity term, which assumes that the chill effect is proportional to the air velocity or to the square root of the air velocity and that the chill effect declines linearly with increased air temperature until it becomes insignificant as the air temperature approaches the animal body temperature.",signatures:"Bjarne Bjerg, Guoqiang Zhang, Poul Pedersen and Svend Morsing",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58495",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58495",authors:[{id:"215694",title:"Prof.",name:"Bjarne",surname:"Bjerg",slug:"bjarne-bjerg",fullName:"Bjarne Bjerg"}],corrections:null},{id:"59706",title:"Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in Chicken Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74966",slug:"nitrogen-emissions-and-mitigation-strategies-in-chicken-production",totalDownloads:1441,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Air emissions from feeding operations and manure management in chicken production are among the major sources of environmental concerns globally. Nitrogen emissions in chicken production occur in several forms but mainly ammonia can contribute directly or indirectly to several environmental and public health hazards. Chicken production also contributes to some extent to climate change through the emissions of nitrous oxide, fine particulate matters, and methane. Emissions and nutrient losses take place in different systems and at every stage of chicken production operations. To effectively reduce the environmental impact of chicken production, appropriate measures should be taken across the chicken supply and manure management chain. Nutritional and manure management strategies for mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production are discussed. Challenges associated with the adoption of some of the mitigation strategies are identified and measures to address them are suggested. Co-benefits of mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production to the planet, the people and the producers are numerous.",signatures:"Gabriel Adebayo Malomo, Stephen Abiodun Bolu, Aliyu Shuaibu\nMadugu and Zainab Suleiman Usman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59706",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59706",authors:[{id:"92457",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Bolu",slug:"stephen-bolu",fullName:"Stephen Bolu"},{id:"217809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Malomo",slug:"gabriel-malomo",fullName:"Gabriel Malomo"},{id:"239081",title:"Dr.",name:"Aliyu",surname:"Madugu",slug:"aliyu-madugu",fullName:"Aliyu Madugu"},{id:"239083",title:"Mrs.",name:"Zainab",surname:"Usman",slug:"zainab-usman",fullName:"Zainab Usman"}],corrections:null},{id:"58486",title:"Quality of Chicken Meat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72865",slug:"quality-of-chicken-meat",totalDownloads:3354,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chicken meat is considered as an easily available source of high-quality protein and other nutrients that are necessary for proper body functioning. In order to meet the consumers’ growing demands for high-quality protein, the poultry industry focused on selection of fast-growing broilers, which reach a body mass of about 2.5 kg within 6-week-intensive fattening. Relatively low sales prices of chicken meat, in comparison to other types of meat, speak in favor of the increased chicken meat consumption. In addition, chicken meat is known by its nutritional quality, as it contains significant amount of high-quality and easily digestible protein and a low portion of saturated fat. Therefore, chicken meat is recommended for consumption by all age groups. The technological parameters of chicken meat quality are related to various factors (keeping conditions, feeding treatment, feed composition, transport, stress before slaughter, etc.). Composition of chicken meat can be influenced through modification of chicken feed composition (addition of different types of oils, vitamins, microelements and amino acids), to produce meat enriched with functional ingredients (n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium and vitamin E). By this way, chicken meat becomes a foodstuff with added value, which, in addition to high-quality nutritional composition, also contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health.",signatures:"Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Manuela Grčević and Danica Hanžek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58486",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58486",authors:[{id:"207236",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Kralik",slug:"gordana-kralik",fullName:"Gordana Kralik"},{id:"227281",title:"Prof.",name:"Zlata",surname:"Kralik",slug:"zlata-kralik",fullName:"Zlata Kralik"},{id:"227283",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela",surname:"Grčević",slug:"manuela-grcevic",fullName:"Manuela Grčević"},{id:"227284",title:"BSc.",name:"Danica",surname:"Hanžek",slug:"danica-hanzek",fullName:"Danica Hanžek"}],corrections:null},{id:"61960",title:"Feeding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78618",slug:"feeding",totalDownloads:1714,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Animal nutrition and feed science are the main scientific promote for today’s modern breeding and feed industries. Animal nutrition is the most important factor affecting performance, reproduction and products quality. Improving productivity through better nutrition is determined by some interrelated considerations such as the availability of nutrients, type of feeding system and the level of feeding management. Poor nutrition affects growth, reproduction and immune system. Besides, feed has financially the largest share in animal production, irrespective of species and production system. Feed accounts for 65–75% of total cost of livestock production. This chapter provides the fundamental concepts of animal nutrition a general awareness on nutrition and feeding of livestock (swine, poultry, beef and dairy cattle, sheep and goat). Besides, feed is financially the single most important element of animal production in most production system.",signatures:"Figen Kırkpınar and Zümrüt Açıkgöz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61960",authors:[{id:"216995",title:"Prof.",name:"Figen",surname:"Kırkpınar",slug:"figen-kirkpinar",fullName:"Figen Kırkpınar"},{id:"218243",title:"Prof.",name:"Zümrüt",surname:"Açıkgöz",slug:"zumrut-acikgoz",fullName:"Zümrüt Açıkgöz"}],corrections:null},{id:"61373",title:"Managing Dietary Energy Intake by Broiler Chickens to Reduce Production Costs and Improve Product Quality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76972",slug:"managing-dietary-energy-intake-by-broiler-chickens-to-reduce-production-costs-and-improve-product-qu",totalDownloads:3806,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Feeding constitutes the highest variable cost in poultry production, accounting for at least 60% of such costs, especially in an intensive rearing system. Energy intake is an essential factor in broiler production because of its involvement in growth rate, carcass quality as well as its role in the development of certain metabolic diseases. Dietary energy is supplied in broiler nutrition through different feed resources. Dietary energy content strongly regulates feed consumption, and energy is the most expensive item in poultry diets. At the same time, excess energy intake may result in an increased fat deposition, which affects meat quality and consumer health. This chapter explores the implication of imbalance in energy intake, possible nutritional strategies to restrict energy intake without reducing performance and hence improving meat quality.",signatures:"Emmanuel U. Ahiwe, Apeh A. Omede, Medani B. Abdallh and Paul\nA. Iji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61373",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61373",authors:[{id:"25080",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Iji",slug:"paul-iji",fullName:"Paul Iji"},{id:"211672",title:"Dr.",name:"Apeh",surname:"Omede",slug:"apeh-omede",fullName:"Apeh Omede"},{id:"211673",title:"MSc.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Ahiwe",slug:"emmanuel-ahiwe",fullName:"Emmanuel Ahiwe"},{id:"213452",title:"Mr.",name:"Medani",surname:"Abdallh",slug:"medani-abdallh",fullName:"Medani Abdallh"}],corrections:null},{id:"58928",title:"Current and Future Improvements in Livestock Nutrition and Feed Resources",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73088",slug:"current-and-future-improvements-in-livestock-nutrition-and-feed-resources",totalDownloads:3685,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study reviews the current and future trends in the improvements being made in livestock nutrition and feed resources. There had been continuous improvements in global livestock production for past decades. Most of the improvements have been in response to increasing human populations, urbanization, income growth, production system efficiency, and environmental sustainability. To meet up with the increasing global demand for livestock products was the role earmarked to be played by animal nutritionists in a manner that there would be optimization of feed efficiency to achieve more livestock products from less feed. There has been the development and adoption of biotechnological applications such as the feeding of genetically modified plants and the use of in-feed additives such as antibiotics. In the past decades, the livestock feed industry had been centered on the use of antibiotics as livestock growth promoters. However, there has also been the negative development of microbial antibiotic resistance with various countries promulgating laws and regulations to ban and discourage in-feed antibiotic applications in the livestock feed industry. Thus, present and future improvements in livestock nutrition and feed resources are now being directed at the use of approved probiotics and the application of nanotechnology in livestock nutrition and feeding.",signatures:"Grace Opadoyin Tona",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58928",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58928",authors:[{id:"217751",title:"Dr.",name:"Grace",surname:"Opadoyin Tona",slug:"grace-opadoyin-tona",fullName:"Grace Opadoyin Tona"}],corrections:null},{id:"58725",title:"Respirometry and Ruminant Nutrition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73009",slug:"respirometry-and-ruminant-nutrition",totalDownloads:1412,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The gaseous exchange between an organism and the environment is measured by respirometry or indirect calorimetry. Once the oxygen consumption (O2) and the production of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are known, the energy losses by gas and heat can be calculated. Energy metabolism and methane production have been studied in the Calorimetry and Metabolism Laboratory of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, located in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Animals used are mainly Zebu cattle and their crossbreeds that represent most beef and dairy cattle breed grazed on tropical pastures. System calibration and routine work are addressed in this text. The results obtained on respirometric chambers are expressed in net energy (NE), which can be net energy for maintenance (NEm), lactation (NEL), weight gain (NEg), and pregnancy (NEp). NE is, in fact, what is used by the animal for maintenance and each productive function. The values of k (conversion efficiency of ME into NE) for maintenance (km), milk (kL), weight gain or growth (kg), and pregnancy (kp) are determined. Thanks to the peculiarity of the respirometric technique, the same animal can be evaluated several times, in different physiological states and planes of nutrition.",signatures:"Ricardo Reis e Silva, Ana Luiza Costa Cruz Borges, Pedro Henrique\nde Araujo Carvalho, André Santos Souza, Paolo Antonio Dutra\nVivenza, Juliana Sávia da Silva, Helena Ferrreira Lage, Alexandre\nLima Ferreira, Lúcio Carlos Gonçalves, Eloisa Oliveira Simões Saliba,\nIran Borges, Warley Efrem Campos and Norberto Mario Rodriguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58725",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58725",authors:[{id:"220899",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Luiza",surname:"Borges",slug:"ana-luiza-borges",fullName:"Ana Luiza Borges"},{id:"229130",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Silva",slug:"ricardo-silva",fullName:"Ricardo Silva"},{id:"229131",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"pedro-carvalho",fullName:"Pedro Carvalho"},{id:"229133",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Lage",slug:"helena-lage",fullName:"Helena Lage"},{id:"229134",title:"Prof.",name:"André",surname:"Souza",slug:"andre-souza",fullName:"André Souza"},{id:"229135",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Vivenza",slug:"paolo-vivenza",fullName:"Paolo Vivenza"},{id:"229726",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Silva",slug:"juliana-silva",fullName:"Juliana Silva"},{id:"229727",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"alexandre-ferreira",fullName:"Alexandre Ferreira"},{id:"229728",title:"Prof.",name:"Lúcio",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"lucio-goncalves",fullName:"Lúcio Gonçalves"},{id:"229729",title:"Prof.",name:"Eloísa",surname:"Saliba",slug:"eloisa-saliba",fullName:"Eloísa Saliba"},{id:"229731",title:"Prof.",name:"Iran",surname:"Borges",slug:"iran-borges",fullName:"Iran Borges"},{id:"229732",title:"Dr.",name:"Warley",surname:"Campos",slug:"warley-campos",fullName:"Warley Campos"},{id:"229733",title:"Prof.",name:"Norberto",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"norberto-rodriguez",fullName:"Norberto Rodriguez"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9356",title:"European Local Pig Breeds - Diversity and Performance",subtitle:"A study of project TREASURE",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"182fe65256f9a0bbc25b0b7576412b0e",slug:"european-local-pig-breeds-diversity-and-performance-a-study-of-project-treasure",bookSignature:"Marjeta Candek-Potokar and Rosa M. 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The major flow assurance challenges in the design and operation of a subsea hydrocarbon production system arise mainly due to the reservoir fluid properties, multiphase fluid flow, and solid formation such as paraffin/wax, hydrate, asphaltene, scale, corrosion, emulsion and foam. In particular, the formations of paraffin/wax and hydrate at low temperature and high pressure conditions in a deep water production system are critical to manage when transporting fluids from the reservoirs to the host facilities. The wax present in hydrocarbon fluids is mainly comprised of high molecular weight paraffinic compounds that are crystalline in nature. The wax can drop out of the crude oil at the wax appearance temperature (WAT) and deposit in the subsea systems during the production operations when the fluid temperature is lower than WAT. Below the pour point, the wax can gel and solidify resulting in restricting the flow and plugging the subsea system. Likewise, the hydrates can form and deposit in the subsea systems when the produced hydrocarbon gas and water mix at low temperature and high pressure (for example, see for review [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]).
The cooling down of a subsea production system in a shut-in process is another complex transient heat transfer problem. In this process, the fluid flow stops and heat transfer occurs between the subsea production system and the surrounding environment through the pipe wall, and the system eventually reaches to low ambient seawater temperatures. The rate at which the temperature drops with time becomes important to manage paraffin/wax deposition, hydrate formation and their solidifications in such subsea production systems.
When the operating temperatures are low, the cold spots can appear at inadequately insulated or uninsulated sections of the subsea structures and equipment including jumpers, flowlines, risers, manifolds, field joints, water stops, bulkheads and valves, among other components. Therefore, the subsea production systems should be sufficiently insulated for the wax and hydrate controls during both the normal operation and the shut-in operation. The shut-in operation normally requires a minimum cooldown time. Generally, the cooldown time is the period when the fluid temperature reaches the wax deposition temperature or hydrate formation temperature at the operating pressures during the shut-in operation. During this period the operator has to decide the remedial actions such as to commence chemical inhibition, depressurization and hot oil circulation to prevent plugging of the subsea production systems [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Note that in this study, the cooldown time is the time when the fluid temperature reaches the pour point in the shut-in operation to prevent wax gelling/solidification in any part of the production system.
In this chapter, a subsea production system is considered typical to the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). The production system consists of a pipe-in-pipe (PIP) flowline, a flexible riser, insulated jumpers, subsea structures and equipment. The flowline, riser and jumpers of this system are adequately insulated so that they can operate above the pour point and WAT during normal operations and provide a minimum cooldown time of 12 h to prevent any cold spots (low temperature conditions) and wax gelling/solidification during the shut-in operations.
The objective of this chapter is to investigate the cooldown time and cold spots (low temperature conditions) of the above assumed production system. The cold spots can arise due to uninsulated or inadequately insulated parts of the subsea structures and equipment, such as water stops and valves, during the shut-in operations.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the subsea field layout typical to the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). Section 3 describes the properties of the PIP flowline, dry and wet insulations for retaining heat in the subsea production system. This section also describes the design basis and the operating constraints. Section 4 presents the method and procedure employed to perform the cold spot analysis at different locations of the subsea production system. Section 5 presents simulation results for the cooldown time and cold spots of the subsea production system including subsea structures and equipment. Section 6 presents the conclusion of this study.
Figure 1 shows the sketch of a subsea production system typical to the GoM. The system consists of a well with corresponding wellbore and wellhead (WH), four manifolds (MF1, MF2, MF3 and MF4), and eight jumpers (J1–J8). The manifolds are connected to a flowline and a riser leading to a floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) facility. RBGL indicates the location of a riser base gas lift. Practically, the manifold MF1 has production from two wells, while each of MF2, MF3 and MF4 has production from a single well.
A Schematic of the subsea production system.
The total length of the flowline is approximately 17 km. The wellheads are located in water depth of about 1450 meter. The ambient seabed temperature is approximately 3.5°C. The flowline system consists of (2628.9 mm (8.625-inch) × 3886.2 mm (12.75-inch)) PIP flowline. The riser is a 2133.6 mm (7-inch) flexible riser starting from the riser base. The jumpers have 2628.9 mm (8.625-inch) stainless steel outside diameter (OD) with the glass syntactic polyurethane (GSPU) wet insulation. The subsea hardware such as the water stops is placed at the spacings of 700 meter, and equipment valves are added at the manifolds and RBGL.
The PIP insulation is a passive non-chemical solution for flow assurance problems and does not need input of work and heat. Heat retention is achieved by surrounding the pipeline with materials that offer a high resistance to heat transfer with low thermal conductivity.
In a PIP system, a pipe is inserted inside another pipe. A dry insulation material, such as aerogel, is placed in the created intermediate annulus and is protected by the outer pipe from hydrostatic pressure and water penetration. Having a low thermal conductivity, aerogel allows the design of pipelines with the overall heat transfer coefficient (UID-value) significantly low without compromising the overall external dimensions of the PIP system. For the case of a rigid outer pipe, an air gap exists between the outside diameter surface of the insulation and inside diameter of the outer pipe adding to the heat resistance of the system. In the recent past, PIP flowline systems have been used for a number of deep water projects [1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Figure 2 shows a typical PIP flowline section with the various layers of dry insulation [1].
Pipe-in-pipe insulation section of a pipe.
In this study, the PIP insulation material is considered to be aerogel. The centralizer spacing at every stalk length is set about 2.2 m specified for aerogel thickness requirement for the reeled pipeline. The function of centralizer is to support the inner pipe centralized within the outer pipe to prevent possible damage to the PIP thermal insulation and transfer loads between the inner and outer pipes.
Wet insulation does not require any input of energy such as work and heat. For example, glass syntactic polyurethane (GSPU) is the typical subsea wet insulation material. It can be used to retain heat in the jumpers and hardware providing UID-values greater than 1.0 W/m2.K [1, 12]. The wet insulation is directly coated to steel pipes and placed on the seabed exposed to seawater.
In this study, the GSPU wet insulation is used along with fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) and three-layer polyethylene (3LPE) coatings for jumpers and equipment. Thermal conductivities of GSPU, FBE and 3LPE are 0.16, 0.3 and 0.4 W/m.K, respectively. Figure 3 shows the schematic of a typical wet insulated pipe section [2].
A wet insulated pipe section.
Here, the PIP flowline insulation consists of 18.3 mm steel, 15 mm aerogel, 18.3 mm air, 19.1 mm steel and 3 mm 3LPE. The riser has the coating of 2133.6 mm flexible pipe. Jumpers are insulated with 1066.8 GSPU.
For the above flowline configuration and insulation, the UID-values of PIP flowline, flexible riser and wet insulated jumpers are 1.0, 3.5 and 2.9 W/m2.K, respectively. These UID-values yield the required cooldown time of 12 h based on pour point of the waxy crude oil, that is, when the fluid temperature is equivalent to the wax pour point temperature during the shut-in operation.
The UID-values of water stops and valves are determined using their typical configurations and GSPU insulation as discussed below.
The crude oil comprises of waxy oil, gas and produced water with 33° API gravity. The wax appearance temperature and pour point/wax deposition temperature of the fluid are 29 and 18°C, respectively. The total liquid production is approximately 19,300 STBPD (stock tank barrel per day) with associated gas of 13 MMSCFD (million standard cubic feet per day), equally distributed to five wells. The watercut is approximately 10% by volume and gas to oil ratio (GOR) is 750 SCF/STB (standard cubic feet/standard barrel). The hydrate curve is determined from the fluid composition without any inhibitor. Note that the crude oil was characterized up to C80+ components and the PVT properties were determined using a multiphase software, PVTsim Nova 3. The composition of C18+ components was found to be greater than 11 mole%, indicating the presence of wax with wax content of 3–6 wt%.
For the assumed design and operation constraints of the jumpers, flowline and riser and their insulations, the required cooldown time should be 12 h for maintaining the fluid temperature above the wax gelling/solidification temperature, i.e., above the wax pour point temperature of 18°C. The normal arrival pressure and the ambient temperature at FPSO are set to be 19 bar and 19°C, respectively. Since the hydrate temperature of the fluid is always lower than the pour point, 12 h cooldown time is sufficient to manage the hydrate deposition during the shut-in operations.
The cold spot and cooldown analyses were performed using the multiphase flow simulator OLGA 2016.2.1. The software uses a finite difference numerical scheme to solve mass, energy and momentum balances for multiphase fluid flow in a pipeline. The model accounts for the energy transfer between adjacent pipe segments, and inner pipe and surrounding. The fluid properties, hydrate dissociation curve and WAT were obtained from PVTsim Nova 3, which is a versatile equation of state modeling software.
The PIP flowline system was shut down via a linear ramp-down of the topsides valve on the facility and flow sources in the flowline closing simultaneously in 45 s. Steady state initial conditions were applied prior to the ramp-down. The cold spots were investigated at water stops and subsea equipment valves locations of the assumed subsea production system for several cases. However, the results for only two selected operating cases are presented below.
Case 1 forms the base case providing sufficient insulations to PIP flowline, flexible riser and insulated jumper system without the water stops and equipment valves. In this case, the fluid temperature is always maintained above the wax appearance temperature (WAT) during the normal operations. In this case, the fluid temperature can be maintained above the pour point for up to 12 h (cooldown time) in the shut-in operations. Since the wax deposition issue dominates over the hydrate formation issue in this subsea production operation (that is the hydrate temperatures are always lower than 18°C pour point), only the pour point was utilized in determining the cooldown time.
In this case, a typical equipment such as the water stop was added to the flowline to isolate a section of flooded annulus by preventing water passage to the adjacent PIP sections during installation and normal operations. The actual configuration of a water stop is shown in Figure 4 [13]. A simplified water stop assembly used in this analysis is shown in Figure 5.
Water stop configuration (TEKSEAL® Mechanical Clamp).
A simplified water stop configuration.
The two ends of the water stop consist of Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (HNBR), which is the expected configuration so long as the middle steel section of the water stop does not touch the carrier pipe during normal operations. The middle part consists of the stainless steel with 3 mm coated 3LPE. This situation may occur if the middle steel section of the water stop touches the carrier pipe during normal operations. The HNBR material has good stability from thermal aging and is suitable for a water stop seal [9].
The water stops were placed at 700 meter intervals of PIP flowline assuming concentric layers surrounding the flowline with three segments of equal length 220 mm and thickness 33.3 mm (annular gap between inner and outer pipes). The water stops were placed in the annulus of inner pipe and carrier pipe without any air gap. The thermal conductivity, specific heat and density of HNBR are 0.24 W/m.K, 0.25 J/kg.K and 1000 kg/m3, respectively. In this study, a conservative case of the water stop configuration has been assumed.
In addition to the water stop, the typical subsea equipment valves were added at the manifolds and RBGL to assess the impact of cold spots on temperature. Such structures are commonly encountered in a subsea field development. The valves were insulated up to the bonnet but uninsulated on the actuator and pressure transmitters. The uninsulated valve section was accounted for by inserting a section of pipe with equivalent length of the valve bonnet diameter into the subsea hardware piping. The uninsulated subsea valve accumulators and pressure transmitters are modeled as cylindrical pipe segments. Figure 6 shows the schematic of a valve insulation at the RBGL manifold. The similar configuration of equipment valves was assumed at other manifolds. All equipment valves were placed on the main flowline. The insulated sections of the valves used 1066.8 mm (3.5 inch) GSPU.
A schematic of a valve insulation at RBGL manifold.
This section summarizes results for the above two different operating scenarios.
Figure 7 shows the fluid temperature variation with length of the flowline production system without any water stops and equipment valves. Also shown in the figure are WAT and pour point. The calculated UID-values of PIP flowline, flexible riser and wet insulated jumper are 1.0, 3.5 and 2.9 W/m2.K, respectively. For each shut-in scenario, the lowest fluid temperature lies close to the riser base because of the higher UID-value (less heat retention) of the flexible riser. Here, 0 h indicates results at steady state, while 4, 8, 12 and 24 h indicate the results for different shutdown times (hour).
Temperature vs. distance of flowline/riser/jumper system during shutdown.
Figure 8 shows pressure and temperature conditions for the normal and shut-in operations along with WAT, pour point and hydrate formation conditions. The results for the normal operation (0 h) show that the fluid temperature in the production system remains above WAT (29°C), pour point (18°C) and hydrate temperature. During shut-in operation, the fluid temperature remains above 18°C until 12 h shutdown time. However, the fluid cools below the wax pour point quickly after 12 h shutdown, and the fluid temperature lies in the wax gel region for 24 h shutdown.
Pressure vs. temperature of flowline/riser/jumper system during shutdown.
The above results suggest that the combination of PIP flowline, flexible riser and wet insulated jumpers yields the cooldown time of 12 h, which can be sufficient to efficiently prevent cold spot (low temperature) problems arising from the wax gelling/solidification in the subsea production system.
In this case, the PIP flowline, flexible riser and wet insulated jumper system of Case 1 was assumed to include water stop seal assembly (HNBR with steel) and subsea equipment valves at manifolds and RBGL.
In order to check the overall performance of this system, it is first important to assess the impact of the assumed insulations on UID-values of water stop and equipment. Figure 9 shows UID-values at water stops and equipment valves locations. For water stops the UID-value is greater than 50 W/m2.K, and that for valves the UID-value is greater than 300 W/m2.K. For such extremely large UID-values compared to those of Case 1 system, the cold spots can be expected at the water stops and equipment valves locations.
UID-values for flowline/riser/jumper with water stops and valves.
Figure 10 shows the temperature variation as a function of length of the production system with water stops and equipment valves for the normal and shut-in operation scenarios. The sections of the pipe near and at the location of water stops and equipment valves are seen to cool much faster than those of the flowline/riser/jumper system. Due to the large UID-values of the stainless steel, the cooldown temperature at the water stops locations has lowered substantially (large downward spikes in temperature).
Temperature vs. distance of flowline/riser/jumper system with water stops and equipment valves during shutdown.
Figure 11 shows the variation of pressure with temperature during the shut-in operation. It shows the cooling temperature of the sections of flowline near and at locations of uninsulated and inadequately insulated equipment valves. The cold spots are not seen during normal operations because of the fact that only a small portion of the equipment is uninsulated, still maintaing the sufficient retention of heat. Because of the inadequate insulation of subsea water stops and equipment valves, however, the cold spots appear to yield only 8 h cooldown time, which is much less than the required 12 h cooldown time for shut-in operations. In this case, 8 h cooldown is not sufficient to take remedial actions, especially for unplanned shutdowns. However, if feasible to insulate the entire equipment valve system with 1066.8 mm (3.5 inch) GSPU (without causing any installation and operation issue), it could provide the required cooldown time of 12 h.
Pressure vs. temperature of flowline/riser/jumper system with water stops and equipment valves during shutdown.
Table 1 shows the summary of cooldown time achieved for Case 1 and Case 2 operating scenarios. As the table shows, Case 2 system cools down to 15°C after 12 h cooling time and cannot meet the cooldown time requirement of 12 h for the shut-in operations.
Shut-in operation | Cooldown temperature (°C) | |
---|---|---|
Time (h) | Case 1: flowline, riser and jumpers | Case 2: flowline, riser and jumpers with water stops/equipment valves |
0 | 43 | 42 |
4 | 37 | 23 |
8 | 32 | 19 |
12 | 27 | 15 |
24 | 18 | 11 |
Cooling down time and temperature for Case 1 and Case 2 operating scenarios.
The assumed PIP flowline/flexible riser/wet insulated jumper system of the base case provides sufficient insulation for maintaining the fluid temperature above the wax pour point and hydrate deposition temperatures. This system could achieve the required cooldown time of 12 h, which is sufficient to keep the production system out of the wax gel formation region and avoid any cold spot (low temperature) in the shut-in operations.
When the water stops (HNBR + Steel) and partly insulated equipment valves were added to the PIP flowline/flexible riser/wet insulated jumper system, there appears no major issue of the cold spots during the normal operations. However, for the shut-in operations, the system shows cold spots (low temperature conditions) at the hardware (water stop and equipment valves) locations and can barely yield the cooldown time of 8 h. These results suggest that the uninsulated section of the equipment valves at manifolds should be adequately insulated in order to prevent any cold spots in the production system during the shut-in operations, even though the flowline, riser and jumpers are sufficiently insulated.
It is recommended to insulate the subsea hardware as much as possible. If the subsea structures and equipment cannot be sufficiently insulated due to installation and/or any other manufacturing reasons, it is recommended to manage the shut-in operations in 8 h and take preventive measures for wax gel formation/solidification. Typical actions to control wax deposition/solidification can be to maintain high operating temperature, inject chemical inhibitors, circulate hot oil and prepare for the pigging of the subsea production system. Such actions along with the recent subsea processing technologies can help reduce both capital and operating costs significantly, especially during the shut-in operations.
In the future study, the sensitivity analysis will be performed using different types of the crude oils with varying ratios of paraffinic hydrocarbons relevant to the deep water production systems.
Keshawa Shukla would like to thank the Subsea Engineering Program under EASA for investing his time and effort and Petroleum Engineering Department for giving access to the multiphase flow simulators at College of Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station to contribute this chapter to the book which are gratefully acknowledged. Mayank Labh is a graduate student in Subsea Engineering (EASA) and has partly contributed to this work during his Directed Study. The open access publishing fees for this article have been covered by the Texas A&M University Open Access to Knowledge Fund (OAKFund), supported by the University Libraries and the Office of the Vice President for Research.
No potential conflict of interest.
Water is the most basic human need that is required to sustain life on earth. Water is central to plant, animal, and human life. Providing safe water and adequate sanitation is used as a standard indicator to achieve economic development and good health [1]. Therefore, good management of its resources is crucial to the development of every nation. Apart from its vital functions in human life, water is indispensable for the crop, animal, and fish production [2]. However, natural (climate change, rainfall deficit, and drought) and human factors (rapid population growth, urbanization of major cities, agriculture, and tourism) contribute to its scarcity [1, 3, 4]. Water scarcity, defined as lack of sufficient water, or lack of access to safe water supplies, is a global issue [3]. Globally, more than 2.7 billion people face water shortages, and 663 million people in the world lack access to safe water [3]. Unfortunately, half of the people who drink water from unsafe sources live in Africa with 319 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [5]. The causes of water shortages may differ in various regions of the world with respect to variations in climatic conditions and socio-cultural realities. Generally, Water shortage can be a limiting factor in poverty alleviation and is associated with negative impacts on the health of the population. It is therefore imperative to understand the driving factors that contribute to water scarcity in SSA and to evaluate its real impacts on the socio-economic development and health of the African sub-continent. Understanding the aforementioned parameters will help to devise appropriate strategies and policies to address the water shortage in SSA. Moreover, a good understanding of how waterborne diseases are affecting the population in both rural and urban areas is necessary to attain the African agenda 2063.
Water scarcity is when water demand exceeds water availability and refers to lack of sufficient water, or lack of access to safe water supplies [3]. There are four dimensions of water scarcity: (i) the first-order water scarcity describes limited available water resources for both current and future needs; (ii) the second-order scarcity highlights lack of financial resources needed to make improved water resources available to the people; (iii) the third-order water scarcity results from the failure of institutional setup or inadequate infrastructure; and (iv) the fourth-order water scarcity is induced by social disparity with the less privileged people experiencing difficulty to have access to safe and sufficient water [6]. These four forms of water scarcity exist in different areas of SSA.
The water crisis is a global issue worldwide. Even though 80% of the Earth\'s surface is covered by water, fresh water supply has increasingly become a crucial global problem [3]. This global problem received the attention of the United Nations to adopt the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 6 in 2015 [7]. Despite the relative success of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) water target in different parts of the world, half of the people who drink water from unsafe sources live in Africa. Specifically, in SSA, 319 million people still live without improved drinking water sources and only 27% of SSA’s population has access to basic sanitation [5]. Apparently, Africa seems to be endowed with abundant water resources. The relationship between the abundance of water sources in Africa in general and in sub-Sahara in particular and water scarcity is contrasting. This is why water shortages are experienced even in countries where freshwater is in abundance. Therefore, water scarcity does not mean the absence of water in the natural environment. Actual Africa’s hydro potential is irrefutably huge; the continent disposes of 17 major rivers, close to a hundred lakes, coupled with sizeable groundwaters [8]. In addition, Africa has abundant rainfall and relatively low levels of withdrawals of water especially for use in community water supply and agriculture [8]. Inspite of this potential, water sources are unevenly distributed between different zones of the continent [8] with SSA having the greatest part of the water blessing. While the Central Region is endowed with 48% of the continent\'s water, the Gulf of Guinea claims 24% of the water potential of the continent. At the country level, the Democratic Republic of Congo alone holds 23% of African water [8]. Additionally, natural factors such as rainfall deficit and drought cause significant reductions in the overall availability of water due to the geographical location of several African countries [9]; the present threat on the disappearance of Lake Chad is symptomatic of the growing scarcity of water in SSA. The Lake Chad basin has drastically been reduced by 90% in its surface area [9].
One of the factors that limit access of the community to safe water in Africa in general and in SSA, in particular, is poverty. The level of poverty is such that half of the extremely poor people live in SSA [10]. It is the main driving force behind the rural migration of the population into the big cities. Due to poverty, many youths back out of school earlier to embrace any money-earning activities in towns. Except, mismanagement and lack of policy prioritization, insufficient infrastructure limiting water supply in SSA has a direct link with the prevailing poverty [11]. Unfortunately 96% of the poorest countries in the world are located in SSA and poverty is projected to increase in this part of the world even in the next 10−12 years [12, 13]. On the other hand, anthropogenic factors including increasing water requirements resulting from irrigation, population growth, and increased urbanization have deepened the gap between the demand for water and available water supply in SSA [4, 14, 15]. The insufficient coverage of potable water in urban areas is particularly attributed to the population growth that has almost doubled over the past 10 years. Consequently, the demand for water supply equally increases. Therefore, the rapid demographic growth together with climate change constitutes a serious challenge for water authorities in SSA. Efforts put in place by the African government often do not yield appreciable outcomes to cope with the ever-growing population. Localities that experience water seizure for over many years rely on alternative sources for water supply. Common alternative water sources used by the population in SSA include wells, boreholes, streams and the rivers. While boreholes can be private or public, streams and rivers are open water sources and are thus owned by local authorities. The correlation between the rapid population growth and the demand for water supply will not be better in the near future as the population is expected to triple by the year 2050 and likely to reach 1.2 billion in SSA [4, 16]. As such, most countries in SSA will be in a state of water stress or scarcity [17]. Moreover, increased demand for water supply can also be induced by the growth of a middle class of citizens in large agglomerations with high water needs. However, the Africa Water Vision 2025 will be based on the principle of service differentiation. The growth of a middle class of citizens with greater water needs will be addressed following this aforementioned principle. Therefore, different socio-economic groups in different parts of an urban area or of a country in Africa will be able to obtain the types and levels of water services that they want and are willing to pay for [18]. Last but not the least, another contributing factor to water shortage in SSA is inadequate water-resources development. Despite a growing demand for water in response to population growth, water scarcity is partly due to low levels of exploitation of water resources. Presently, the entire sub-continent uses less than 2% of its renewable groundwater and irrigates less than 2 MHa (or about 1% of its cultivable land) of groundwater [19]. The current SSA land irrigation capacity is far less than that of the States of Texas in the US. SSA must use modern technologies as other regions such as India do to steer up its agricultural development based on sustainable groundwater development.
Some African towns such as Bamako (Mali), Kampala (Uganda), Lagos (Nigeria), Niamey (Niger), and Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) will be the most affected by water stress due to their geographical locations coupled with their unprecedented urban growth [7, 20]. Another arising issue that complicates the water crisis in SSA is that the concentration and distribution of formal water outlets is a constant in relation to the consumer demand and the quality of supply that are variables. This phenomenon is most obvious in small towns and peri-urban areas [21].
The stress in the water supply-demand relationship is aggravated by insecurity or socio-political crisis that may cause a shift of a significant influx of the population from crisis areas to other localities. In this case, refugees and internally displaced people constitute the most vulnerable group experiencing water shortages. For example in Cameroon, since 2014 we have witnessed a significant influx of the population from the Far North and, a massive exodus of the population since 2016 from the northwest and southwest to other cities such as Yaoundé, Douala, Bafoussam, etc., because of the insecurity perpetrated by the Islamic sect Boko Haram and the Anglophone crisis. These phenomena have caused the swelling and concentration of populations in certain areas of Yaoundé such as Akok-Ndoe, located in the sub-division of Yaoundé 7. With a population of around 6000 people, this locality does not record any drilling or water supply provided by the public service. Similarly, Mayo-Tsanaga division, located 80 km away from Maroua has been experiencing a significant population growth resulting from the relocation of refugees and displaced persons from Boko Haram attacks. As direct consequences, the population of Mayo-Tsanaga must gather around a single water point to fetch water as seen in Figure 1.
Women and children struggling to fetch water in the Mayo-Tsanaga Division (Cameroon).
On the other hand, the overpopulated area of Akok-Ndoe either dig wells on rocky soil or obtain water from the private water vendors at an exorbitant price ($10 per m3). Sometimes, the quality of such water is doubtful and is unsafe for the consumers’ health. Unfortunately, this situation may depict the reality of many other consumers throughout the sub-continent. The services of the private water providers may compromise the affordability and quality of water, two key criteria for water safety [22].
There are several dimensions of access to safe water. These comprise proximity, accessibility, reliability, quality, quantity, and affordability [23]. Each of these aspects is almost violated in many countries in SSA. For example, if by standard a water point should preferably be within 200 m, many million across SSA travel for several miles to find a water source. Sometimes at the water site, people wait in a line and carry dirty water into containers to bring home for drinking and cooking. About three-quarters of the households in SSA collect water from a distance far beyond the WHO recommendation [24]. Unfortunately, the burden of water collection and storage usually falls on women and girls [4, 25]. Water fetching is a woman or child-dominated activity in Africa. The impact of distance between the water source and the point of its use goes beyond the physical burden. A study carried out in rural Kenya indicated a relationship between water fetching times and a risk factor for moderate-to-severe diarrhea [26]. In the middle of the year 2020, two children from Tokombere, a sub-divisional headquarter in the Far-North region of Cameroon were found dead on their way to fetch water, due thirst and trekking. Other dangers such as snake and scorpion bites are permanent threats to those that venture to fetch water during hot and cold weather. According to the United Nations estimates, women and young girls spend about 40 billion hours per year transporting water [27]. This corresponds to a complete year’s worth of labor by France’s entire workforce [28]. This comprises the time for traveling to the water collection point, waiting at the water source, transporting the water, and storing it.
Even in big cities where water facilities are available, the reliability dimension of water is not always ensured. The high water demand in contrast with the limited water supply reduces the pressure of water flow in the water pipeline (water not flowing in some taps) leading to a lack of water, especially in the morning hours. This may cause water shortage for days or weeks in some countries like Cameroon. Sometimes, a rupture of water tank can lead to a lack of water supply to hundreds of people. Unfortunately, it takes many days for water authorities to be aware and to address the situation.
In addition to their public health impact, waterborne diseases can have a significant impact on the economy of endemic countries [29]. Water appears to have an economic value and should be recognized as an economic good. Providing clean water and a healthy environment is used as a standard indicator of achieved development as highlighted in the SDG water target. Otherwise, water shortage constitutes a serious setback to sustainable development. Water shortage can be a limiting factor in poverty alleviation resulting in low productivity, food insecurity, and constrained economic development [18]. This is because inadequate water resources can restrain improved agricultural development given that agriculture is the largest user of water in Africa. Water stress is particularly a serious threat to irrigated agriculture leading to food insecurity.
The water crisis is at the heart of many social tensions in SSA. Water shortages have plunged several countries in SSA into major social crises. For instance, the crisis in Darfur (Sudan) and recently the tribal conflicts between the Musgum and the Chua Arabs in Logone and Chari (Northern Cameroon) stem in part from water disputes [30] as seen in Figure 2. In Darfur, the conflict resulted from competition over water and grazing land between two groups of nomadic farmers, in the same light, in the Logone and Chari division of the Far-North of Cameroon, the Musgum (mainly farmers and fishermen) are competing with the Shua Arabs (herders) over increasing scarcity of water and land resources resulting from the reduction of water bodies in the Lake Chad Basin. Other water-based conflicts in SSA include violent conflict between Senegalese and Mauritanians over the introduction of the irrigation systems, conflicts in the Niger Delta resulting from the struggle over access to limited wetlands due to the decrease of the level of the Niger River, etc. [30].
A: Displaced Musgum in Kousseri. B: Darfur conflicts in South Sudan.
Apart from its negative socio-economic impacts, inadequate access to safe water remains a high risk for communicable diseases that in return reduce vitality and economic productivity. The serious water shortages in SSA has forced communities to rely on unsafe water sources. Unfortunately, the water of these sources is often used without any form of treatment [31]. Almost half of the people drinking water from unprotected sources live in SSA [32]. This explains why more than 70−80% of diseases on the African continent are related to poor water quality [32].
Even in the presence of water availability, water management practices at the level of households have also a great responsibility in spreading water-borne diseases [33]. For instance, lack of awareness, knowledge, and hygiene practices could therefore be barriers to safe water use. Poorly managed sanitation facilities expose water resources to contamination [4]. For example in Cameroon, recurrent ruptures of septic tanks dumping their content on the main roads connecting working-class neighborhoods in cities like Yaoundé are recorded daily [34]. Such human wastes are carried by rainfall and sometimes end their course in a river or any other water source thereby exposing the community to serious waterborne diseases. Other wastes that contribute to polluting water sources in our major cities in SSA include plastic bags and plastic bottles. As they accumulate in the rivers, they can divert the direction of the water flow into the community. This may explain why the quality of the water sources often correlates well with the prevalence of water-related diseases in the community [35]. Additionally, lack of waste treatments in urban areas, insufficient water treatment facilities, as well as mismanagement of the existing water facilities are among the factors that contribute to the deterioration of Africa\'s water quality [34, 36, 37]. In addition, the use of chemical contaminants in the cultivable areas of our cities represents a source of risk of contamination of water from wells, boreholes, etc. The presence of these products might result to heavy metals in various water sources across SSA and poses as much a public health problem as microorganisms [31, 38, 39]. In addition to the questionable quality of water due to water shortages, urbanization and population growth also contribute to the disposal of more wastes into water bodies in many countries in SSA [38].
Worldwide, the annual loss of human life associated with the consumption of unsafe water is estimated at 30 million people. It thus appears that, for lack of proper access to the resource, water has become directly or indirectly the first cause of death in Africa [8]. Water-related diseases constitute a significant proportion of the burden of disease in SSA.
Diseases resulting from the use of unsafe water or water stress can be grouped into (i) waterborne diseases (e.g. cholera, typhoid, etc.); (ii) water-related diseases (e.g. malaria, yellow fever, river blindness, sleeping sickness, etc.), (iii) water-based diseases (e.g. guinea worm and bilharzia etc.), (iv) water-scarce diseases (trachoma and scabies, etc.).
Diarrheal diseases be of viral, bacterial, or parasitic origin are the leading cause of human mortality in Africa. Our continent alone contributes to 53% of the diarrheal cases reported globally, with contaminated drinking water being the main source of transmission [40]. In 2016, more than half a billion deaths in SSA were attributed to diarrheal diseases with contamination of drinking water identified as one of the leading risk factors. Mortality due to water stress coupled with poor sanitation and hygiene is projected to substantially increase by 1.5 deaths per 1000 annually by the year 2050 [41]. This is true for countries with high mortality rate such as Angola, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, DRC, Ethiopia, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Sierra Leone, and Somalia [41] (Figure 3). The most devastating waterborne diarrheal disease on the African continent is cholera, which is caused by Vibrio cholera. Cholera is a deadly diarrheal disease that decimates tens of thousands of people annually. Approximately, more than one million cholera cases are reported in Africa [42]. This may explain why 83% of the total deaths due to cholera were from the SSA region [43]. Additionally, a curated database of cholera incidence in SSA from 2010 to 2020 identified 999 suspected cholera outbreaks across 25 SSA countries [44]. Most of the major outbreaks of this disease occurred in countries such as Nigeria, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Sudan [42, 43, 44]. Notably, the collective outbreaks in four countries alone (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Cameroon, and South Sudan) represented 65% of total outbreaks that occurred in the entire SSA [44]. Besides poor sanitation and hygiene, floods have been recognized as one of the major contributing factors of cholera outbreaks in SSA [45]. This occurs when floods hinder supply of or access to safe water sources, thereby introducing
Projections of WASH mortality rates for SSA countries and South Asia [
The most frequently reported parasitic waterborne diseases in SSA are malaria (95%), schistosomiasis (44.8%), giardiasis (23.4%), soil-transmitted helminths (23.4%), and amoebiasis (21.3%) [27, 47]. Recently in 2020, Malaria infected more than 200 million people in SSA indicating its exponential increase attributed to the interruption of malaria-control services during the awake of Covid-19 pandemics [47, 48]. Parasitic infections via water can be acquired while bathing, washing, drinking water, eating food exposed to contaminated water, or being bitten by an infected vector. Interestingly, the prevalence of important parasitic diseases in several regions of SSA is still high in recent years given that most of these diseases circulate in poor water supply areas [29].
Among bacterial waterborne diseases, typhoid fever features as an important cause of morbidity and mortality with an estimated 12−33 million cases leading to 216,000−600,000 deaths annually [49]. Apart from Benin, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Namibia and Somalia, which did not provide any report on typhoid fever, this bacterial disease is highly prevalent over the whole SSA as highlighted in Figure 4 [50]. The highest incidence of this disease occurs in areas of high water contamination with human feces, limited water supply due to increased population, urbanization, and weak health systems [51]. An updated data on the burden of typhoid fevers from 2010 to 2013 show that this waterborne disease continues to be high in SSA (Table 1), and illustrate the need for control measures such as vaccination, and improvements in water quality, sanitation, and hygiene [52]. Gastroenteritis caused by non-typhoidal
Prevalence of typhoid fever in sub-Saharan Africa [
Published disease burden | Updated disease burden | ||
---|---|---|---|
Adjusted* | Adjusted* | Unadjusted | |
SSA | 3056589 | 3243643 | 4328528 |
LMICs | 1188304 | 12070102 | 20811469 |
Typhoid fever burden in SSA estimated from 2010 population data.
SSA, sub-Saharan Africa; LMICs, low-income and middle-income countries [52].
*Adjusted for water-related risk.
Many studies across Africa suggest that coliforms,
In the light of its devastating impacts on health and socio-economic developments in Africa in general and in SSA in particular, water crises come immediately after weapons of mass destruction [16]. Consumption of unsafe water thus poses a major challenge to population health in many countries of SSA.
Addressing water shortage in SSA needs a multidisciplinary approach integrating environmental policy, innovative technologies, and socio-economic dimensions. Preserving and restoring water ecosystems such as wetlands and forests to collect, filter, store, and release water appears vital to reducing water scarcity. Additionally, the reuse of wastewater is another strategy to improve both water availability and quality [3] Implementing a tax on heavy water users such as the industries and agriculture would help avoid wasteful water consumption. Moreover, policies like organic farming practices should be encouraged to reduce water pollution. Improving water storage capacity via the construction of more dams, the storage of water in shallow wells, rainwater collection and storage, drip irrigation for crops is of paramount importance to fight against water shortage. To attain the African agenda 2063 based on inclusive growth and sustainable development, it appears crucial to have a good understanding of how waterborne diseases are affecting the population both in urban and rural communities. Therefore, governments in SSA should supervise informal settlements of the population in urban and peri-urban areas in view to reducing the disease burden resulting from waterborne diseases via improving access to safe water. In this case, future research should be redirected towards environmental determinants of waterborne disease outbreaks, and the relationship between waterborne diseases and water resources development in the context of climate change in SSA.
There is a need for in-depth research with a focus on cross-context and cross-cultural comparisons that can generate important lessons and insights for effective water policies and that take into account different conventional and alternative water uses at different scales. There is also a need for optimal use of groundwater since SSA is currently underusing its renewable groundwater and irrigable cultivable land. National governments should provide adequate investments in water facilities.
We register our thanks to AGAPAO, non-governmental organization that gave information about the internally displaced people of Kok-Ndoe in Yaounde 7. We are grateful to the Norwegian Church Aid for the pictures of water crisis in Mayo-Tsanaga and those from conflicts in the Logone and Chari (Far-North Cameroon) and Darfur (South Sudan).
We are equally thankful to the Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies for granting me time for this research.
The corresponding author is also grateful to his darling Irene Assiam for her tremendous encouragement while putting together this chapter.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Internationale Zusammenarbeit low-income and middle-income countries Millennium Development Goals Pan Africa Chemistry Network Sustainable Development Goal sub-Sahara Africa United Nations United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Development Program United Nations Environment Program UN High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund Water, sanitation and hygiene World Health Organization United Nations
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The limited raw materials and the negative impact of synthetic adhesives on both human health and environment impose that further research is conducted with regard to renewable materials, in order to obtain environmentally safe bioadhesives that best fit their applicability domains.",book:{id:"6256",slug:"applied-adhesive-bonding-in-science-and-technology",title:"Applied Adhesive Bonding in Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Applied Adhesive Bonding in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Elena Dinte and Bianca Sylvester",authors:[{id:"202938",title:"BSc.",name:"Bianca",middleName:null,surname:"Sylvester",slug:"bianca-sylvester",fullName:"Bianca Sylvester"},{id:"218165",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Dinte",slug:"elena-dinte",fullName:"Elena Dinte"}]},{id:"39767",doi:"10.5772/50038",title:"Finite Element Analysis in Dental Medicine",slug:"finite-element-analysis-in-dental-medicine",totalDownloads:3565,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"3050",slug:"finite-element-analysis-new-trends-and-developments",title:"Finite Element Analysis",fullTitle:"Finite Element Analysis - New Trends and Developments"},signatures:"Josipa Borcic and Alen Braut",authors:[{id:"146157",title:"PhD.",name:"Josipa",middleName:null,surname:"Borcic",slug:"josipa-borcic",fullName:"Josipa Borcic"},{id:"150367",title:"Dr.",name:"Alen",middleName:null,surname:"Braut",slug:"alen-braut",fullName:"Alen Braut"}]},{id:"39753",doi:"10.5772/50374",title:"Finite Element Analysis of Machining Thin-Wall Parts: Error Prediction and Stability Analysis",slug:"finite-element-analysis-of-machining-thin-wall-parts-error-prediction-and-stability-analysis",totalDownloads:3430,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2915",slug:"finite-element-analysis-applications-in-mechanical-engineering",title:"Finite Element Analysis",fullTitle:"Finite Element Analysis - Applications in Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"YongAn Huang, Xiaoming Zhang and Youlun Xiong",authors:[{id:"126210",title:"Prof.",name:"Youlun",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"youlun-xiong",fullName:"Youlun Xiong"},{id:"147553",title:"Prof.",name:"YongAn",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"yongan-huang",fullName:"YongAn Huang"},{id:"149622",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"xiaoming-zhang",fullName:"Xiaoming Zhang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"39751",title:"Nonlinear Large Deflection Analysis of Stiffened Plates",slug:"nonlinear-large-deflection-analysis-of-stiffened-plates",totalDownloads:7391,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"2915",slug:"finite-element-analysis-applications-in-mechanical-engineering",title:"Finite Element Analysis",fullTitle:"Finite Element Analysis - Applications in Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Khosrow Ghavami and Mohammad Reza Khedmati",authors:[{id:"142986",title:"Prof.",name:"Khosrow",middleName:null,surname:"Ghavami",slug:"khosrow-ghavami",fullName:"Khosrow Ghavami"},{id:"143767",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Khedmati",slug:"mohammad-reza-khedmati",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Khedmati"}]},{id:"39743",title:"Optimization and Improvement of Throwing Performance in Baseball Pitching Machine Using Finite Element Analysis",slug:"optimization-and-improvement-of-throwing-performance-in-baseball-pitching-machine-using-finite-eleme",totalDownloads:4920,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"2915",slug:"finite-element-analysis-applications-in-mechanical-engineering",title:"Finite Element Analysis",fullTitle:"Finite Element Analysis - Applications in Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Shinobu Sakai and Hitoshi Nakayama",authors:[{id:"141256",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinobu",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"shinobu-sakai",fullName:"Shinobu Sakai"},{id:"143643",title:"Mr.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Nakayama",slug:"hitoshi-nakayama",fullName:"Hitoshi Nakayama"}]},{id:"57763",title:"Adhesives: Applications and Recent Advances",slug:"adhesives-applications-and-recent-advances",totalDownloads:2392,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Adhesives can be defined as social substances capable to join permanently to surfaces, by an adhesive process. This process involves two dissimilar bodies being held in intimate contact such that mechanical force or work can be transferred across the interface. Since their early discovery by the Egyptians—3300 years ago—intensive research efforts have been made with the purpose of obtaining high-quality, biocompatible adhesives. Bitumen, tree pitches and beeswax—used in ancient and mediaeval times—were replaced by rubber cements and natural and synthetic components; nowadays, the focus is being mostly on eco-friendly adhesives. Starting with a brief history of adhesive use, this chapter then proceeds to cover the main industrial, biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of adhesives. Additionally, we focus on the new generation of adhesives, based on modern technologies such as nanotechnology, derivatised polymers, and biomimetic adhesives. The limited raw materials and the negative impact of synthetic adhesives on both human health and environment impose that further research is conducted with regard to renewable materials, in order to obtain environmentally safe bioadhesives that best fit their applicability domains.",book:{id:"6256",slug:"applied-adhesive-bonding-in-science-and-technology",title:"Applied Adhesive Bonding in Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Applied Adhesive Bonding in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Elena Dinte and Bianca Sylvester",authors:[{id:"202938",title:"BSc.",name:"Bianca",middleName:null,surname:"Sylvester",slug:"bianca-sylvester",fullName:"Bianca Sylvester"},{id:"218165",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Dinte",slug:"elena-dinte",fullName:"Elena Dinte"}]},{id:"71845",title:"Strengthening of High-Alloy Steel through Innovative Heat Treatment Routes",slug:"strengthening-of-high-alloy-steel-through-innovative-heat-treatment-routes",totalDownloads:790,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Heat treatment route is an important route for the development of high-strength alloy steel. Many heat treatment processes are applied depending on alloy compositions and desired mechanical properties. There are various high-strength alloy steels, namely, austenitic stainless steel (16–26 wt%Cr, 0.07–0.15 wt%C, 8–10 wt%Ni, rest Fe), where the heat treatment adopted is the low-temperature plasma nitriding so as to achieve a strength in a range of 800–1000 MPa. In twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel (>20 wt%Mn, <1 wt%C, <3 wt%Si, <3 wt%Al, rest Fe), high-temperature thermomechanical heat treatment provides a strength greater than 1000 MPa. High-speed steel (18 wt%W, 4 wt%Cr, 1 wt%V, 0.7 wt%C, 5–8 wt%Co, rest Fe) suits best for high-speed machining purpose, owing to secondary hardening. Besides, high-temperature annealing is performed with majorly ferritic structure to achieve a maximum bending strength of 4700 MPa. Furthermore, in Hadfield steel (11–14 wt%Mn, 1–1.4 wt%C), a fully austenitic phase is obtained with a strength level of 1000 MPa. High-alloy tool steel (5 wt%Mo, 6 wt%W, 4 wt%Cr, 0.3 wt%Si, 1 wt%V, rest Fe) is provided with austenitizing, quenching, and tempering treatment to achieve a maximum hardness of 1200–1400 HV.",book:{id:"9208",slug:"welding-modern-topics",title:"Welding",fullTitle:"Welding - Modern Topics"},signatures:"Nicky Kisku",authors:[{id:"315275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nicky",middleName:null,surname:"Kisku",slug:"nicky-kisku",fullName:"Nicky Kisku"}]},{id:"39774",title:"Finite Element Analysis of Stationary Magnetic Field",slug:"finite-element-analysis-of-stationary-magnetic-field",totalDownloads:11408,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"3050",slug:"finite-element-analysis-new-trends-and-developments",title:"Finite Element Analysis",fullTitle:"Finite Element Analysis - New Trends and Developments"},signatures:"Elena Otilia Virjoghe, Diana Enescu, Mihail-Florin Stan and Marcel Ionel",authors:[{id:"143217",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Enescu",slug:"diana-enescu",fullName:"Diana Enescu"},{id:"146305",title:"PhD.",name:"Elena Otilia",middleName:null,surname:"Virjoghe",slug:"elena-otilia-virjoghe",fullName:"Elena Otilia Virjoghe"},{id:"155183",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Ionel",slug:"marcel-ionel",fullName:"Marcel Ionel"},{id:"155184",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihail-Florin",middleName:null,surname:"Stan",slug:"mihail-florin-stan",fullName:"Mihail-Florin Stan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"818",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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