The Characteristics of Traditional Software and SaaS.
Chapter 1: "Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors"\n
Chapter 2: "The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth"\n
Chapter 3: "Dental Anatomical Features and Caries: A Relationship to be Investigated"\n
Chapter 4: "Anatomy Applied to Block Anaesthesia"\n
Chapter 5: "Treatment Considerations for Missing Teeth"\n
Chapter 6: "Anatomical and Functional Restoration of the Compromised Occlusion: From Theory to Materials"\n
Chapter 7: "Evaluation of the Anatomy of the Lower First Premolar"\n
Chapter 8: "A Comparative Study of the Validity and Reproducibility of Mesiodistal Tooth Size and Dental Arch with the iTero Intraoral Scanner and the Traditional Method"\n
Chapter 9: "Identification of Lower Central Incisors"\n
The book is aimed toward dentists and can also be well used in education and research.',isbn:"978-1-78923-511-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-510-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-247-8",doi:"10.5772/65542",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dental-anatomy",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"445cd419d97f339f2b6514c742e6b050",bookSignature:"Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5814.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:13597,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfTotalCitations:14,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",middleName:null,surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178570/images/7646_n.jpg",biography:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç is a dentist, a teacher, a researcher and a scientist in the field of Endodontics. She was born in Zonguldak, Turkey, on February 14, 1974; she is married and has two children. She graduated in 1997 from the Ankara University, Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey. She aquired her PhD in 2004 from the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Endodontics, Ankara, Turkey, and she is still an associate professor at the same department. She has published numerous articles and a book chapter in the areas of Operative Dentistry, Esthetic Dentistry and Endodontics. She is a member of Turkish Endodontic Society and European Endodontic Society.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2637,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}]},{id:"62386",title:"The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth",slug:"the-permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-premolar-teeth",totalDownloads:2761,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",surname:"Helvacıoğlu 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Accounting is a profound profession that has existed since the birth of civilizations, and its marks have been seen ever since BC and today people still use it [1]. Accounting, which is an essential business function and management tool, has always been able to restructure itself in all important transformations in enterprises and its forms in a new transformation today. This transformation includes both technological developments that transform the current form of the accounting and intellectual conversions that transform the purpose and ways in which accounting is used.
\nWith the developments in communication technologies, accessing and investments costs are rapidly increased, and that situation led to the emergence of start-ups which enable small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to benefit from many support systems of decisions that were previously available to large and institutional enterprises. Start-ups are newly established but have a high rate of growth and growth potential, have focused on especially SMEs in corporate services and have transformed accounting functions like operational functions into support-system of decisions for SMEs. In this process, start-ups, which use actively cloud computing, big data analysis and artificial intelligence technologies, have become a major opponent to the traditional business model and have influenced the future role of the accounting.
\nIn this chapter, the predictions of the future of the accounting profession are shared by taking into account the technologies that are being used in today, reflections of these into business and effects on the accounting sector.
\nFrom 16 years now, it was 2001 when MIT Technology Review was announced ‘Natural Language Processing’ technology as one of the ‘10 Breakthrough Technology List’ [2] of the year which is basically about the computers that can understand the daily language of humans and interact with them in a way as close as the natural communication of humans in between. It may seem familiar since we have ‘Hey Siri!’ or ‘Okay Google!’ in use today. It is not actually breakthrough today to interact with a computer in a very close way to the natural human interaction. Today, in the same list, there are immune engineering, reusable rockets, robots that teach each other and autonomous cars [3].
\nAll the technological advancements that we expect to have in future and that we used up already have transformational effects on the way we produce, buy, sell and consume. Technology is the major influencer of business and of its functions since the modern businesses that we establish today are strongly connected with technological advancements in many ways. The most important technological advancements that affect businesses directly can be listed shortly as follows:
\nThe effect of technological advancements to the way of doing business is well known since the development of steam power machines [16]. Today, as a consequence of advancements in technologies mentioned above, new business models for traditional sectors have changed the way of competition [17, 18]. Hui claims that today’s companies should reconsider their business models in order to stay in the competition [19].
\nWith the wide spread use of cloud technology, many traditional software companies have changed their business model as subscribing the customers to the software service instead of selling the software. This new model is called as Software as a Service (SaaS). SaaS model creates an efficient and productive system for the customers and the software companies by decreasing the infrastructure investments, operating costs and making the data entry and monitoring activities seamlessly from anytime and anywhere with an internet-connected device [20, 21]. According to report of Gartner, SaaS cloud application services market growth 20.3% with $37.7 billion [22].
\nJanssen and Joha compare traditional software and SaaS characteristics as shown in Table 1 [23]:
\nCharacteristics | \nTraditional software | \nSaaS | \n
---|---|---|
Buying of software | \nRenting of software without taking ownership | \n|
Up-front investments and costs for local installation/maintenance including licenses | \nPay-per-use or pay-per-period | \n|
Buys, installs, develops, implements and maintains their own software | \nSubscribe, plug in and use; no need for an IT function and no concern of updates | \n|
In-house software expertise needed for control and maintenance | \nUsage expertise required | \n
The Characteristics of Traditional Software and SaaS.
On the other hand, AI and machine-learning technologies allowed companies to create services like chatbots which can interact with humans and operate as the same as a human operator. Chatbots can be defined as a software for communicating with humans in a natural way in order to complete a task such as shop assistance or appointment schedule. Chatbots are getting more and more attention from businesses since it can reduce operating costs and increase customer satisfaction [24, 25].
\nThe transformation in technology influenced the starting new era with business ideas and entrepreneurship. Many entrepreneurs have begun to build their business on the technologies detailed above. Businesses with cloud-based initiatives, SaaS revenue models, chatbots and other artificial intelligence applications are viewed as an important opportunity by entrepreneurs of the new generation. These small or medium-sized initiatives especially not so much paid attention by big companies, which have chosen the business as their market, have grown rapidly and led to the emergence of the entrepreneurial ecosystem within this market.
\nAccounting is one of the professions that can adapt quickly to the requirements and competencies of the present times. It has a rooted tradition and historical background. The accounting profession, which has undertaken the necessary transformations without breaking away from its basic principles in coordination with all technological transformations since the period of record-keeping was occurring by hand, plays a critical role in the decision-making processes of enterprises as an important information system today [26]. The accounting information system can be defined as the collection, storage and processing of financial and non-financial accounting transactions through information processing technologies in order to support management decisions [27]. The accounting information system is integrated into the enterprise resource planning (ERP) flow. Thus, the stronger information-flow can be provided.
\nThis transformation of accounting has led to the linking of information technology and the accounting profession to each other and strengthening this bond day by day. The relationship between IT and accounting affects the quantity and quality of information that will support decision-making processes [28, 29].
\nEnterprise resource planning systems that incorporate an accounting information system have not been very well suited for use in SMEs, which remain as systems that can be used only by large enterprises over a long period due to high installation and operating costs [30, 31]. With the technological developments, which have also been stated in the previous sections, and the transformation of these technologies into new business and income models by entrepreneurs as well as in many areas of the business, significant effects have also been seen in accounting field.
\nAs mentioned above, today’s small and medium-sized initiatives can benefit from the in-depth reports generated mainly from accounting data that are monopolized by large corporations in the past and interactions with other business units of the accountant. Mobile applications developed for use in smart devices enable the digitalization of bills, invoices and other traditional physical evidence and accelerate transactions. Through the mobile applications, many accounting transactions can be performed instantaneously without errors, and accounting processes are simplified and management is facilitated, especially for small businesses and freelance employees.
\nAccounting is one of the most prepared business units for big data use as a unit in which intensive data flow and analysis have been carried out in the past, and reports have been filtered by these data. Big data, unlike the traditional data recording, processing, and interpretation processes, allow structured or unstructured data to be aggregated from many sources to produce meaningful results. Big data and accounting are two concepts that cannot be considered separately from each other in the near term.
\nIn all areas of accounting, the use of big data in management accounting, financial accounting and financial reporting increases effectiveness and efficiency [32]. The audit processes are carried out in a data-focused manner and the more precise results are achieved through the big data [12]. Information results from big data analysis will reduce the risk of accounting processes, increase the accuracy of management decisions and enrich the meaning of accounting data. Big data allow the accountant to correlate financial measures with non-financial measures and improve their reporting capabilities [33]. Big data analysis can support business managers in predicting and managing the financial risks of the business.
\nThe development of big data access in accordance with data processing, specialized algorithms and enhanced analysis methods enriched the reporting capabilities of businesses as well as the insights of reports for the use of management. Thus, it is enabled to reach more significant conclusions by using financial information and non-financial information together [33].
\nRelated data are needed to measure, manage and create value from intellectual capital, human capital and other intangibles [34]. Value-based integrated reports that have been getting more attention from corporations in recent years are bringing light to value creation and change of businesses in today and in the future [35]. In order to improve the accuracy of integrated reports, big data analysis can be seen as an important opportunity. Businesses can define key performance indicators (KPIs) more accurately via big data analysis and enhance the performance measurements [36].
\nBig data analysis is a valuable asset that can enrich the effects of integrated reporting by providing more accurate forecasting, faster analysis capability and instant access to the critical data [37]. It helps the organizations to create the connectivity of information that supports integrated thinking by determining the relations between financial and non-financial performance of business functions, operational divisions and supply chains of businesses [38]. Along with developing models that can explain or predict what is happening and why, big data give the opportunity of creating value from that information via KPIs [39].
\nKPIs are tools that management use to understand how the organization performs in terms of critical success factors. These tools focus on the factors that are seen as the most important for the success of organization both in today and in the future [40]. Integrating big data analysis with performance monitoring and evaluating processes allows to uncover new motivational measures and to identify the harmful ones as well as producing correlations that can show management performance and value relation more clearly [41].
\nA significant competitive advantage can be gained by analysing all the data obtained from business units, shareholders and other related parties from internal and external environment of the business as big data on corporate reporting processes and on identifying and evaluating the KPIs. However, in order to convert big data to meaningful insights that are crucial for decision-making processes of the management, the organization should have adequate big data-analysis skills. In this sense, both accounting and finance units which are responsible from financial data and other units which are responsible from non-financial data should work in coordination with the focus of big data analysis.
\nCloud computing has become an essential technology that is more meaningful with big data technology and provides significant productivity increase and cost efficiency for businesses. As a result of supporting the relationship between accounting and data with cloud computing, the possibility of accessing desired information, report or analysis has emerged without noticing from time and place. The storage of accounting data in the cloud and the realization of analysis with cloud-assisted software also support accounting with real-time data and accelerate decision-making processes of managers [42, 43].
\nCloud computing reduces operating costs by simplifying the technological infrastructure that businesses must have. The storage of accounting data in the cloud avoids risks that could lead to the loss of data such as accident, theft or loss that would occur in the physical condition of the business. Business models such as SaaS with cloud computing have distorted traditional software pricing strategies, making accounting and finance software much more accessible. This situation facilitated the use of accounting data as a critical management tool for businesses and increased the efficiency of accounting staff.
\nCloud computing enables employees of accounting and finance doing their job simultaneously, as well as enable specialists from different business functions to access a report at the same time, or by supporting a report simultaneously with different data. In addition to all its benefits, data security is one of the most important issues that have slowed down or made a risk in the adaptation of cloud computing to businesses [44]. Contrary to traditional software, servers are owned by other organizations in cloud computing, and the limited number of intervention options in cloud computing users’ to protect these data leads to increased security vulnerabilities.
\nThe widespread use of artificial intelligence and machine-learning technologies has led to the emergence of different collaborations and new effective management tools. The adaptation of artificial intelligence and machine-learning technologies into the areas of accounting and finance, and auditing is one of the areas of particular interest to businesses in the era we are in [45, 46]. A total of 1663 artificial intelligence initiatives, with a total investment of $12.35 billion [47], have been taken in 70 countries.
\nKPMG announced last year that it would collaborate with IBM’s artificial intelligence ‘Watson’ in its audit services to benefit from cognitive power [48]. IBM’s artificial intelligence constantly analyses, learns and supports its users in their processes [49]. Similarly, Deloitte uses the artificial intelligence system developed by Kira systems to make audit processes more effective. Thanks to the system, hundreds of thousands of documents can be analysed within weeks and converted into meaningful results within the framework of defined criteria [50].
\nData generated from accounting department are usually prepared in the framework of standards, policies, procedures and rules that are under control of legitimate authorities. Artificial intelligence technology can fulfil standardized accounting transactions without requiring human intervention, and even in non-standardized or interpretive works, make decisions like the human by learning former characteristics of decisions of the users. Besides comprehensive processes such as audit activities, artificial intelligence technology reduces the burden of businesses and improves productivity by reducing the error rate in basic accounting processes such as invoicing and tax applications.
\nSmacc, a Germany-based start-up, applies artificial intelligence technology to financial management processes and provides them to the sector. With the technology, invoices are automatically detected, their types are determined, tax processes are managed, records are made and the system develops itself by learning from past processes [51]. The use of artificial intelligence systems in accounting applications is one of the topics that the accounting academicians have studied for a long time [46, 52–54]. It is now apparent that these studies have been adopted by start-ups and big enterprises and contributed to the transformation of the profession.
\nCompanies that referred as start-ups with a great growth rate and make actual the business opportunities of the results from digitalization have affected disruptively on all traditional business models of traditional sectors like accounting. New-generation start-ups combine SaaS and similar business models with flexible working styles, focus on speed and simplicity, make these accessible for SMEs to high technology services that be taken apart from big corporate enterprises, thus creating a vital market.
\nAccounting profession has a key position for being both a function that internal structure of firms and external as support units like CPA offices. Accountancy that reflects all the transformations of technology on business for many years forced to a new transforming by technology-focused start-ups.
\nMicro-level accounting processes that SMEs must employ at least one accountant to make them real are detected as primary market for many start-ups that founded as accountancy-oriented and with the help of software that combines cloud, big data and artificial intelligence technologies, SMEs have become more effective and employee efficient.
\nIn the past, enterprise resource planning software which was used mostly by corporate enterprises being served with SaaS model to small scaled enterprises; on the one hand, caused by increasing competition, on the other hand, started to threat traditional accounting processes and accountants which follow that processes. Accounting start-ups that combine complex accounting software with simple interfaces and mobile application supports enable businesses to track bills, invoices and other traditional accounting processes by digitally and destroy the traditional models of the accounting profession, and force to transforming present accounting companies.
\nParasut.com, a start-up based in Turkey, that combines financial management of SMEs with cloud computing, was founded by three partners who do not have any accounting expertise or educational background. Among the 30 employees of Parasute.com that serves more than 3000 enterprises, there is no official accountant. It solves this need by receiving consultancy from public accountant companies in order to improve its products and services [55].
\nToday’s accounting entrepreneurs are able to offer complete and efficient accounting systems for enterprises that can manage all the accounting processes of a company without employing any accountant. This situation also gives an important idea about the future of the accounting profession.
\nThe survey, which was held in the USA, conducted with 400 CPA companies; 90% of participants agree with the digital future is approaching rapidly, while only 8% indicate the accounting profession is ready for the future. About 80% of the participants said they needed more knowledge about the developing technologies [56]. The technological developments mentioned and discussed in previous sections force the accountancy and accounting to an important shift, just as the example of parasut.com mentioned above. During this changing process, CPAs and other members of accounting profession do not have the opportunity to move to what they do today and the way of they doing those to the future.
\nAccording to a report published by Intuit, by 2016, 62% of small and medium-sized companies have completed cloud integration. This rate was 37% 2 years ago. This situation can be shown as a factor that obliges SME-CPA relations to be carried out entirely in the cloud in the near future. On the one hand, cloud computing and big data technologies are improving the efficiency of accounting and the quality of reporting analysis, on the other hand, increasing efficiency on the other side, promoting the need for fewer human resources. When these developments in communication technologies are combined with artificial intelligence and machine-learning technologies, it shows up all the tasks performed by traditional accounting professions can be performed by machines. This results in a shift in the roles of the accounting profession and accountants.
\nFuture accountants have to focus on specialization and cooperation, enhance accounting skills in high value-added fields and adhere to technological innovations that affect the profession such as large data analysis and a focus on consulting. Especially, the rapid transformation of enterprises will bring new legal regulations and standards that must be followed. Professionals specialized in accounting may be responsible for managing the compliance process of an enterprise with the relevant conversions. In this entire transformation process, accounting companies which can follow the technology that affects closely to accounting, and can diversify their services by adapting to these technologies quickly, will continue to maintain their assets and continue to create value for businesses in the past as well.
\nThe rapid increase in the number of start-ups and the expectation that this and discussed will continue in the near future brings an important opportunity for the accounting profession with it. Start-ups are constantly faced with investment and partnership transactions to manage the rapid growth process as micro-entrepreneurs built on specific expertise. The expertise of accountants in these micro-enterprises, with the ability to manage the investment and financing processes of start-ups, will bring CPAs into the position of CFOs for start-ups [57]. Similarly, fast-growing share economy as an ecosystem created by start-ups causes people who do not own any company to operate in different ways in the economic environment and to create financial transactions within the scope of the sharing economy. Accounting professionals may undertake the finance and tax advisor role of those who are getting crowded in the economy day by day without any financial competence.
\nMagnetorheological elastomers (MREs) are a type of soft particle-reinforced magneto-active rubber-like composite material, whose physical or mechanical properties can be altered upon the application of a magnetic field [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. MREs can be usually prepared by mixing micron-sized magnetic particles into nonmagnetic rubber-like matrices. In the presence of a magnetic field, MREs exhibit a magnetorheological effect providing a field-dependent physical or mechanical property, for example, a controllable modulus, due to the sensitive response of the magnetic particles to the field. While the field is removed, MREs will reclaim their original, natural property. It is believed that the embryo of MREs is firstly reported by Rigbi and Jilken [1, 6] in 1983, although the discovery of the basic magnetorheological effect can be historically retrospected to the 1940s for magnetic fluid [7]. MREs can be regarded as a solid-state analog to magnetorheological fluids (MRFs) [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. In general, MREs exhibit a unique field-dependent material property when exposed to a magnetic field, and can overcome major issues faced in MRFs, for example, the deposition of iron particles, sealing problems, and environmental contamination. Such advantages offer MREs great potential for designing intelligent devices to be used in various engineering fields, especially in fields that involve vibration reduction, isolation, and absorption [1, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Recently, the study of the sensing behavior of MREs explosively emerged, for example, for sensing mechanical and magnetic signals [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22].
\nFrom the first report of MREs with soft ferrite particles filling into natural rubber [6], the research of the materials and related preparing methods of MREs develops very quickly. Briefly speaking, MREs consist of three basic components: magnetic particles, nonmagnetic elastic matrices, and additives. For the magnetic particles, higher permeability, higher saturation magnetization, and lower remanent magnetization are highly desirable for obtaining stronger magnetic field-sensitive effect. At present, the micron-sized carbonyl iron powder invented by BASF in 1925 is widely used [23, 24]. For the elastic matrix, there are lots of polymeric rubbers, for example, natural rubber [25, 26], silicone rubber [27, 28, 29, 30, 31], poly dimethylsiloxane (PDMS) [32, 33, 34], etc., for consideration. According to need, high modulus or low modulus can be chosen, but that the magnetic particles can be locked in the matrix in the absence or presence of a magnetic field is a basic requirement. For the additives, they are determined according to the choice of the particles and the matrix, and silicone oil is usually used as an additive in the fabrication of MREs [1]. Depending on the choice of the matrix, the preparing methods of MREs are many and various, and a high-temperature or room-temperature vulcanization curing method is usually used. Attributed to applying a magnetic field in the curing process, MREs can be prepared with anisotropic particle-formed microstructure. This kind of MREs is called anisotropic MREs. When no field is applied during the curing process, prepared MREs have isotropic particle-formed microstructure and this kind of MREs is called isotropic MREs. It is worth mentioning that the properties of isotropic MREs can differ much from those of anisotropic MREs.
\nDue to magnetic field-sensitive response of the magnetic particles, the material properties of MREs can be altered by using a magnetic field. For MREs, the magnetorheological effect is defined as the ratio of the value increment of a property at a measured magnetic field to the initial value of that property at zero magnetic field. In most studies, the distinctive change of the storage or loss modulus of MREs is a common concern. The magnetorheological effect is characterized by the ratio of modulus increment \n
The magnetic field-dependent shear storage modulus of MREs (modified from Refs. [
In this chapter, the materials, the preparing methods, the analytical models, and the applications of MREs will be reviewed. In the following section (Section 2), the materials, i.e., the magnetic particles, the nonmagnetic matrix and the additives, as well as the preparing methods of MREs will be introduced. In Section 3, the microstructures of prepared MREs, the analytical models of MREs, and some typical macroscopic properties of MREs will be presented. The relationship between the microstructures and the macroscopic properties will be qualitatively discussed. Then the applications of MREs will be briefly introduced in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 will give a summary of this chapter.
\nTo the magnetic particles, higher permeability, higher saturation magnetization, and lower remanent magnetization are highly desirable for obtaining stronger magnetic field-sensitive effect. Among a variety of magnetic particle materials, micrometer-sized carbonyl iron (CI) powder is currently widely used as a magnetic particle for preparing MREs. For a quick recognition, Figure 2(a) shows an example of the macroscopic image of CI powder. It shows that the CI powder is a very fine powder material. Figure 2(b) and (c) shows the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of CI powder (Type CN, produced by BASF SE Inc.) with different magnifications. The diameter of this kind of CI powder is several micrometers.
\nImages of carbonyl iron powder. The upper subfigure (a) shows the macroscopic image [
In general, the size of the magnetic particles can range from several micrometers to hundreds of micrometers [47, 48]. Figure 3 gives the size distribution of CI powder from experimental test. The size distribution can be analytically modeled by a lognormal distribution model as the following equation (Eq. (1)) shows.
\nThe size distribution of carbonyl iron powder (Type CIP-CN) [
\n
in which \n
Beside the size distribution of CI powder, the magnetic property of CI powder draws more attention of researchers. Higher permeability, higher saturation magnetization, and less remanent magnetization of magnetic particles are always highly desirable for obtaining stronger magnetic field-sensitive effect. As is shown in Figure 4, CI powder shows very high permeability, saturation magnetization, and very little remanent magnetization. The value of saturation magnetization can reach more than 600 kA/m and there is little remanent magnetization when magnetic field is removed. This mainly results from the fact that the content of Fe element in CI powder is usually more than 97.5% in weight fraction. Attributing to the excellent magnetic property, CI powder is widely used for fabricating materials including but not limited to MREs.
\nThe magnetic hysteresis loop of carbonyl iron powder (Type CIP-CN) at different temperatures [
A basic requirement of elastic matrices for fabricating MREs is that the matrices have soft elastic property, meaning that the matrices can stably hold the magnetic particles under no magnetic field and have a finite deformation under a magnetic field. For the elastic matrices, there are lots of polymeric rubbers that can be considered as candidates, for example, silicone rubber [50], natural rubber [51], butadiene rubber [52], butyl rubber [53], polyurethane [54], polydimethylsiloxane [55], epoxy [56], etc. For instantly having a basic recognition of the matrices, the following Figure 5 gives some examples of image and applications of widely used silicone rubber.
\nThe images of bulk material and related daily applications of silicone rubber [
The modulus of these matrices differs much from each other. For example, under normal conditions, the modulus of silicone rubber can be lower than 1.0 MPa [27]. That of natural rubber often reaches several MPa [25]. The shear modulus of PDMS varies with preparation conditions, but is typically in the range of 0.1–3.0 MPa [55]. The modulus of polyurethane can range from 0.01 MPa to several hundred MPa, attributed to its raw materials from fluid-like to solid-like [54]. Among a large amount of rubbers, silicone rubber compounds have characteristics of both inorganic and organic materials, and offer a number of advantages not found in other organic rubbers. From Figure 5, one can know that silicone rubbers have mechanically low modulus and good chemical stability and are nontoxic, nonpolluting, and human-body-friendly in daily use. As is shown in Figure 6, compared to the modulus of other rubbers, the modulus of silicone rubber is much lower within a large range of temperature. Besides, the thermal conductivity of silicone rubber can vary in a wide range. Based on the above-mentioned properties, silicone rubber can be chosen as an ideal soft elastic matrix for preparing MREs and is widely used in fabricating MREs. The other rubber matrices, with some unique mechanical or physical properties for special usage, can also been used in fabricating MREs according to need.
\nThe thermal conductivity and the modulus of silicone rubber (produced by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd. Japan) [
Besides the magnetic particles and the elastic matrices, additives are also key components for preparing MREs. Silicone oil is usually used as an additive in material fabrication of MREs. When the molecules of the silicone oil enter the matrix, the gaps between the matrix molecules are increased, and the conglutination of the molecules is decreased. Apart from increasing the plasticity and fluidity of the matrix, the additives can average the distribution of the internal stress in the materials, which makes a stable material property for MR elastomer materials [1, 58]. The other additives include but are not limited to carbon black [59, 60, 61], carbon nanotubes [62, 63, 64, 65], silver nanowire [20], Rochelle salt [30], gamma-ferrite additives [66], etc.
\nA simplified illustration of the processing for preparing MREs is shown in Figure 7. Usually, the magnetic particles and the matrix are mechanically mixed with some additives into a mixture. The mixture has a very low yield stress, meaning that the mixture can easily deform and usually creep with itself. Then the mixture vulcanizes at room temperature (called room-temperature vulcanizing, RTV [4]) or high temperature (called high-temperature vulcanizing, HTV [45]) higher than 120°C. During the vulcanizing, in case of applying a magnetic field, the magnetic particles can move in the matrix and gradually aggregate forming chain-like structures along the direction of the field. After the magnetic field-assisted curing, anisotropic MREs, meaning that the magnetic particles form chain-like microstructures in MREs, can be prepared. When curing with no magnetic field, the magnetic particles will disperse uniformly in the matrix after vulcanization and thus isotropic MREs are prepared. Figure 8 shows some images of prepared MRE samples.
\nIllustration of the processing for preparing MREs. The magnetic particles and the matrix are mixed with additives into a mixture. When the mixture is cured with no external magnetic field, the mixture will be cured into isotropic MREs. However, in the case of the mixture curing under a uniform magnetic field, the mixture will be cured into anisotropic MREs.
Prepared cylindrical (a) and block (b) MREs with different thicknesses from 6.35 to 2.54 cm [
As a basic concern in the research of MREs, there are lots of studies focusing on the microstructures of MREs. Almost every report about a newly prepared MRE will show its microstructure. Figure 9 gives some typical SEM images with different times of magnification of the microstructures of carbonyl iron powder-embedded, natural rubber-based MREs samples. The volume fractions of iron particles for all samples are 11%. Figure 9(a) shows the images of a MRE sample cured with no magnetic field. It shows that the carbonyl iron particles randomly and uniformly disperse in the matrix. These two images are typical images showing the microstructures of isotropic MREs. The other images, i.e. Figure 9(b–f), show the microstructures of anisotropic MREs cured with magnetic field. As is shown, the magnetic particles will aggregate forming chain-like microstructures. The stronger the magnetic field intensity is when curing, the longer and thicker the magnetic particle-formed chains, as the magnetic interaction of neighbor particles is stronger. When the magnetic field is not strong enough, for example, 200 mT, the magnetic particles in the matrix can only move within a small width of range, resulting in that the magnetic particles can only form some short chain-like microstructures. The spaces between these chains are small. With the enhancement of the magnetic field during curing, the spaces will get wider and the anisotropy of MREs will get higher, implying that the properties of MREs will get more anisotropic.
\nSEM images with 200 times (left series of subfigures) and 1600 times (right series of subfigures) magnification of MREs prepared under a magnetic flux intensity B of (a) 0 mT, (b) 200 mT, (c) 400 mT, (d) 600 mT, (e) 800 mT, and (f) 1000 mT [
In recent years, the tendency to use quantitative methods instead of a qualitative analysis for structural investigation of the structure of nano- and microstructures has been increasing. Tomographic data open the possibility to achieve detailed quantitative data using techniques of digital image processing [69, 70]. To experimentally study the three-dimensional (3D) microstructures of MREs, Borin’s group [71, 72] firstly used the X-ray micro-computed tomography (X
Balasoiu et al. [70] allowed a detailed structural analysis of both isotropic MREs and anisotropic MREs. Figure 10 shows the exemplary X
Exemplary X
Magnetorheological elastomer: (a) part of the reconstructed image of a MRE sample and (b) extracted columns from the reconstructed tomography image. The directions of magnetic field and gravity are downward.
The study of the microstructure-based analytical model of MREs is always a key work for deeply knowing about MREs. Some pioneering works had been done studying the model of MREs in the late 1990s [74, 75] and a single-chain model was proposed assuming that the MREs are fully filled with single chains (Figure 12(a)). From these studies, it was reported that the optimum particle volume fraction for the largest fractional change in modulus at saturation is predicted to be 27%. Calculations of the zero-field shear modulus perpendicular to the chain axis indicate that it does not exceed the modulus of a filled elastomer with randomly dispersed particles of the same concentration. In 2010, Li and Zhang proposed bimodal particle-based chain-model of MREs (Figure 12(b)) [76]. In their work, theoretical and experimental studies of the mechanical performance and magnetorheological effects of MREs fabricated with mixtures of large and small particles were performed and an effective permeability model was developed to theoretically analyze the MR effect of bimodal particle-based MR elastomers. Six years later, a composite chain model (Figure 12(c)) was proposed [77, 78]. In this work, a particle chain composed of multiple kinds of particles with different sizes of diameter was introduced and a modeling strategy which accounts for elastic constituents and a nonlinear magnetization behavior of the particles is pursued. Most recently, a 3D multimodal chain model [79] has been proposed. In this model, magnetic particles with log-normal size distribution of diameter were introduced as fillers in soft elastic matrix. At the same time, a finite element model was built according to this model (Figure 12(d)). With the finite element model, one can computationally study the macroscopic physical or mechanical properties of MREs. In addition, as a basic issue, the study of the interaction between two magnetic particles still keeps developing [80, 81, 82]. Moreover, besides the microstructure-based analytical model of MREs, the phenomenological continuous medium-based models were also studied [83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93]. These works focus on theoretically and/or experimentally studying the magneto-viscoelastic models for MREs.
\nThe evolution of the model of MREs from (a) single chain model [
The most important characterization of MREs is that their macroscopic physical or mechanical properties can be altered upon the application of a magnetic field. For a long time, most studies have focused on the magnetic field-induced changes of the modulus or damping of MREs [1]. The shear storage/loss modulus or damping property of MREs can be measured by dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA) or rheometer. As examples, Figure 13 shows the magnetic field-dependent shear storage modulus and damping of MRE samples. For some natural rubber-based MRE samples with different weight fraction of carbonyl iron particles, one can find that the magnetic field-induced change of their shear storage modulus can reach near or above two times of their initial magnitude. Moreover, as a characterizing of the damping property of MREs, the relationship between shear stress and shear strain, under various magnetic field strengths of silicone rubber-based MRE, is shown in Figure 13 (right). The results show that such MREs have controllable damping properties. The increase of the stress-strain loop area with magnetic field demonstrates that the damping capacity of MREs is a function of applied magnetic field. These field-dependent mechanical properties make MREs much promising in many engineering fields, especially in vibration reduction.
\nLeft: magnetic field-dependent shear storage modulus of different natural rubber-based MRE samples with 60, 70, 80, and 90% of carbonyl iron powder in weight fraction [
Magnetostriction of MREs is also a key concern when studying MREs [75, 95, 96, 97]. Figure 14 shows the simulated magnetostriction in MRE with different volume fractions of structured particle distributions. It shows that the magnetostriction of MREs is magnetic field-dependent. The intenser the field is and the higher the volume fraction of magnetic particle is, the larger the magnetostriction is. Further, full-field magnetostriction/deformation of a silicone rubber-based MRE under uniform magnetic field has been studied [98]. It shows that both isolated particles and grouped particles result in the concave-convex deformation of the MRE sample. Recently, the magnetic field-dependent electrical conductivity of MREs was emergently studied [99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105]. These field-dependent properties make MREs much promising in actuating and sensing.
\nSimulated magnetostriction in MRE with structured particle distributions: (a) effective magnetostrictive strains in the case of the particle chain being parallel to an applied magnetic field and (b) results for particle chain being perpendicular to an applied magnetic field. [
In 1993, Kordonsky pointed out that magnetorheological effect can be a base of new devices and technologies [106]. Years later, Carlson and Jolly gave an introduction of magnetorheological devices [3]. By possessing variable physical or mechanical properties when subjected to a magnetic field, MREs are natural candidates to be developed in many applications. In 2014, Li et al. [1] presented a state-of-the-art review on MRE-based devices. From this review, one can find that MREs can be used in many devices including but not limited to vibration absorbers, vibration isolators, sensors, controllable valves, and adaptive beam structures.
\nGinder et al. [107] firstly constructed a simple one-degree-of-freedom mass-spring system—an adaptive tuned vibration absorber—that utilizes MREs as variable-spring-rate elements. After that, the research on vibration MRE-based absorbers developed quickly (e.g., Refs. [13, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112]). Figure 15 shows the sketch of a designed MRE-based vibration absorber composed of a semi-active vibration absorption unit and a passive vibration isolation unit. The vibration absorption unit is composed of a magnetic conductor, a shearing sleeve, a bobbin core, an electromagnetic coil winding, and a circular cylindrical MRE vulcanized between the shearing sleeve and the bobbin core. The magnetic conductor, the bobbin core, and the electromagnetic coil are supported on the shearing sleeve through the MRE. The magnetic conductor and the bobbin core are connected by a bolt, and the shearing sleeve is fixed to the lower housing. The outer surface of the shearing sleeve is in clearance fit with the inner surface of the magnetic conductor, and the magnetic conductor can move vertically along the shearing sleeve. The MRE works in pure shear mode, and the magnetic conductor, the bobbin core, and the electromagnetic coil form the dynamic mass of the MRE-based vibration absorber together. The proposed MRE-based vibration absorber can absorb the vibration energy and thus reduce vibration.
\nThe 3D drawing (left) and the schematic representation (right) of a MRE-based dynamic vibration absorber [
Vibration isolators are devices which can isolate an object, such as a piece of equipment, from the source of vibration. Vibration isolators can be categorized into two groups: base isolation and force isolation, and the isolating modes have active and passive vibration isolation [113]. In Ref. [1], Li et al. had given a review on the application of vibration isolators for mechanical engineering and civil engineering. There are many works that focused on the study of MRE-based vibration isolators, for example, Refs. [16, 91, 92, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118]. Figure 16 shows an example of the designed layout and prototype of MRE-based isolator working in squeeze/elongation-shear mode. It shows that the initial vertical stiffness and damping coefficient of the magnetorheological elastomer isolator are 1.14 × 106 N/m and 495.8 N·s/m, respectively. The relative increase in stiffness and damping is 66.57% and 45.55%, respectively. Due to the properties of controllable stiffness and damping of MRE, the isolation transmissibility and root mean square of acceleration response can be reduced by 41.2% and 65.3%, respectively. The proposed MRE isolator can be used as a controllable stiffness device and has great potential in the field of vibration suppression for heavy equipment. [116].
\nMRE-based isolator: cross-sectional view of designed layout (left) and fabricated prototype (right) [
In addition to the field-sensitive elastic property, MREs possess several functions such as magnetoelasticity, magnetoresistance, magnetostriction, piezoresistance, and thermoresistance [1, 119]. The reasons for these functions are the changes in the spacing between the magnetic particles due to external loadings, which produce variations of the physical or mechanical properties of the MRE materials. Based on their field-sensitive properties, MREs have been developed for use as sensors and actuators, for example, force sensor [120], magnetoresistive sensor [18], magneto-sensitive strain sensor [20], flexible tri-axis tactile sensor [21], self-powered tribo-sensor [22], combined magnetic and mechanical sensor [17, 121], soft actuator [122], actuators for valves [123], MEMS magnetometer [124], etc. Moreover, the microwave response [125, 126] and 3D printing properties of MREs [127, 128, 129] have also been recently reported. It is worth being pointed out that the application of MREs is explosively developing.
\nIn this chapter, the materials and applications of MREs are briefly reviewed. Firstly, raw materials, including the magnetic particles, the rubber-like matrices, and the additives, are introduced. As the kind of the raw materials is getting more and more inconstant, there are a variety of raw materials that can be used to prepare MREs. Attributing to the variety of the raw materials, the kinds of prepared MREs are much various and the study on the MRE materials is a long-lasting discovery or inventive subject. Meanwhile, the X
The support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11602242 and 11502256) is acknowledged. The authors are grateful for the helpful suggestions of Prof. Xinglong Gong at the University of Science and Technology of China and the support of the colleagues who provided the original figures for the article.
\nThere is no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\\n\\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\\n\\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Ebirim, Omiepirisa Yvonne Buowari and Subhamay Ghosh",authors:[{id:"49582",title:"Mr.",name:"Subhamay",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"subhamay-ghosh",fullName:"Subhamay Ghosh"},{id:"151696",title:"Dr.",name:"Dabota Yvonne",middleName:"Yvonne",surname:"Buowari",slug:"dabota-yvonne-buowari",fullName:"Dabota Yvonne Buowari"}]},{id:"46303",doi:"10.5772/57401",title:"Multimodal Analgesia for the Management of Postoperative Pain",slug:"multimodal-analgesia-for-the-management-of-postoperative-pain",totalDownloads:3435,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3850",slug:"pain-and-treatment",title:"Pain and Treatment",fullTitle:"Pain and Treatment"},signatures:"Borja Mugabure Bujedo, Silvia González Santos, Amaia Uría\nAzpiazu, Anxo Rubín Noriega, David García Salazar and Manuel\nAzkona Andueza",authors:[{id:"169676",title:"Dr.",name:"Borja Mugabure",middleName:null,surname:"Bujedo",slug:"borja-mugabure-bujedo",fullName:"Borja Mugabure Bujedo"},{id:"170333",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Santos",slug:"silvia-gonzalez-santos",fullName:"Silvia Gonzalez Santos"},{id:"170334",title:"Dr.",name:"Amaia",middleName:"Uria",surname:"Azpiazu",slug:"amaia-azpiazu",fullName:"Amaia Azpiazu"},{id:"170335",title:"Dr.",name:"Anxo",middleName:null,surname:"Rubin Noriega",slug:"anxo-rubin-noriega",fullName:"Anxo Rubin Noriega"},{id:"170336",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Salazar",slug:"david-garcia-salazar",fullName:"David Garcia Salazar"},{id:"170337",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"AZCONA ANDUEZA",slug:"manuel-azcona-andueza",fullName:"Manuel AZCONA ANDUEZA"}]},{id:"62969",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79689",title:"Non-Pharmacological Pain Management",slug:"non-pharmacological-pain-management",totalDownloads:2930,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Non-pharmacological pain therapy refers to interventions that do not involve the use of medications to treat pain. The goals of non-pharmacological interventions are to decrease fear, distress and anxiety, and to reduce pain and provide patients with a sense of control. When deciding the most effective non-pharmacological technique, take into consideration the patient’s age, developmental level, medical history and prior experiences, current degree of pain and/or anticipated pain. The advantage of non-pharmacological treatments is that they are relatively inexpensive and safe.",book:{id:"7289",slug:"pain-management-in-special-circumstances",title:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances",fullTitle:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances"},signatures:"Ahmed El Geziry, Yasser Toble, Fathi Al Kadhi, Muhammad Pervaiz\nand Mohammad Al Nobani",authors:null},{id:"40388",doi:"10.5772/51086",title:"Autonomic Regulation in Musculoskeletal Pain",slug:"autonomic-regulation-in-musculoskeletal-pain",totalDownloads:4231,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2238",slug:"pain-in-perspective",title:"Pain in Perspective",fullTitle:"Pain in Perspective"},signatures:"David M. Hallman and Eugene Lyskov",authors:[{id:"142718",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"David",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Hallman",slug:"david-hallman",fullName:"David Hallman"},{id:"148936",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Lyskov",slug:"eugene-lyskov",fullName:"Eugene Lyskov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62969",title:"Non-Pharmacological Pain Management",slug:"non-pharmacological-pain-management",totalDownloads:2922,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Non-pharmacological pain therapy refers to interventions that do not involve the use of medications to treat pain. The goals of non-pharmacological interventions are to decrease fear, distress and anxiety, and to reduce pain and provide patients with a sense of control. When deciding the most effective non-pharmacological technique, take into consideration the patient’s age, developmental level, medical history and prior experiences, current degree of pain and/or anticipated pain. The advantage of non-pharmacological treatments is that they are relatively inexpensive and safe.",book:{id:"7289",slug:"pain-management-in-special-circumstances",title:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances",fullTitle:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances"},signatures:"Ahmed El Geziry, Yasser Toble, Fathi Al Kadhi, Muhammad Pervaiz\nand Mohammad Al Nobani",authors:null},{id:"73348",title:"The Role of Cupping Therapy in Pain Management: A Literature Review",slug:"the-role-of-cupping-therapy-in-pain-management-a-literature-review",totalDownloads:1023,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Cupping therapy is an ancient method which has been used for centuries for various painful conditions. It is performed by applying cups to selected skin points most commonly in the back aiming to create areas of sub-atmospheric pressure. It has been classified as either dry or wet type of therapy. Its mechanism of action is not well understood but several proposed mechanisms are described in the literature. It is relatively safe with a few reported side effects which include scar formation and skin infection. In this paper, a review of the literature will be presented to determine its potential benefits in pain management particularly in musculo-skeletal conditions such as low back and neck pain.",book:{id:"9483",slug:"pain-management-practices-novel-therapies-and-bioactives",title:"Pain Management",fullTitle:"Pain Management - Practices, Novel Therapies and Bioactives"},signatures:"Asma Al-Shidhani and Abdulaziz Al-Mahrezi",authors:[{id:"248467",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulaziz",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Mahrezi",slug:"abdulaziz-al-mahrezi",fullName:"Abdulaziz Al-Mahrezi"},{id:"322652",title:"Dr.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shidhani",slug:"asma-al-shidhani",fullName:"Asma Al-Shidhani"}]},{id:"63560",title:"Pain Management for the Sickle Cell Patient",slug:"pain-management-for-the-sickle-cell-patient",totalDownloads:1160,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a condition very common in the United States of America and its most common presenting symptom is pain related to vaso-occlusive events (VOE). The cost associated with healthcare for the sickle cell population exceeds 1 billion $USD yearly, and the majority of this cost is associated with admission related to vaso-occlusive events. With the increase longevity of patients with SCD, due to new therapies and vaccination against common infection related to SCD, the prevalence of older individuals experiencing VOE will likely increase. The psychological impact inflicted on patients with SCD can further complicate adequate care of patients experiencing acute or chronic pain and the latter must be taken into consideration when planning an optimal treatment regimen. This chapter reviews the short- and long-term management options of pain related to VOE, their limitations as well proposed regimen that could pave the way for the future of pain management of SCD.",book:{id:"7289",slug:"pain-management-in-special-circumstances",title:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances",fullTitle:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances"},signatures:"Thomas Zouki, Armen Haroutunian and Tennison Malcolm",authors:null},{id:"62009",title:"Acute Pain Management in Intensive Care Patients: Facts and Figures",slug:"acute-pain-management-in-intensive-care-patients-facts-and-figures",totalDownloads:1737,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Pain is an unpleasant experience for all patients including intensive care patients; if it is not treated properly, it has deleterious effects on patients’ acute and chronic well-beings. In ICU patients, it causes sympathetic stimulation leading to adverse hemodynamic effects and after discharge, these patients are at the higher risk for developing chronic pain and post-traumatic stress disorders. Apart from racial and regional factors, sleep deprivation, anxiety, and delirium increase the pain perceptions. Pain assessment is a prerequisite for adequate pain management. The ICU patients are sedated and ventilated, and assessment scales differ depending on whether the patient is able to communicate. There are different pain assessment scales for both groups of patients. The preferred mode of delivery of analgesic medication is intravenous route as intramuscular and subcutaneous route are not reliable for drug delivery in these patients. Patient and nurse controlled analgesia gives better sense of pain control. In the treatment of pain, opioids are the commonly used medications, but paracetamol, dexmedetomidine, and gabapentin are increasingly used. Newer trends are multimodal analgesia, where the combinations of analgesic medications with different mechanism of action are used. Another trend is increasing use of analgosedation; they not only control the pain but also relieve anxiety.",book:{id:"7289",slug:"pain-management-in-special-circumstances",title:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances",fullTitle:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances"},signatures:"Nissar Shaikh, Saher Tahseen, Qazi Zeesan Ul Haq, Gamal Al-Ameri,\nAdel Ganaw, Arshed Chanda, Muhammed Zubair Labathkhan and\nTariq Kazi",authors:[{id:"107703",title:"Dr.",name:"Nissar",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"nissar-shaikh",fullName:"Nissar Shaikh"}]},{id:"66349",title:"Food-Derived Opioids: Production and the Effects of Opioids on Human Health",slug:"food-derived-opioids-production-and-the-effects-of-opioids-on-human-health",totalDownloads:1393,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Traditional opioids have been used for the people who suffer from cancer, burns, surgery, HIV/AIDS, and other serious illness pains for years. However, numerous side effects like dizziness, apnea, physical dependence, tolerance, addiction, nausea, and vomiting push the researchers to look forward to the new opioid options. The opioid peptides which derived from foods provide significant advantages as the safe and natural alternative. The researchers reported that it is also promising a new functional food and nutraceutical. In this chapter, the type of food-derived opioids, their origins, possible receptors, their amino acid sequences, opioid effects, production techniques, and health benefits are reviewed.",book:{id:"7897",slug:"from-conventional-to-innovative-approaches-for-pain-treatment",title:"From Conventional to Innovative Approaches for Pain Treatment",fullTitle:"From Conventional to Innovative Approaches for Pain Treatment"},signatures:"Sevda Arısoy, Işık Çoban and Özlem Üstün-Aytekin",authors:[{id:"280072",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem",middleName:null,surname:"Aytekin",slug:"ozlem-aytekin",fullName:"Özlem Aytekin"},{id:"280074",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sevda",middleName:null,surname:"Arısoy",slug:"sevda-arisoy",fullName:"Sevda Arısoy"},{id:"299161",title:"Dr.",name:"Işık",middleName:null,surname:"Çoban",slug:"isik-coban",fullName:"Işık Çoban"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1116",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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