Fiber sources, country and annual production of plant fibers.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5520",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Honey Analysis",title:"Honey Analysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book Honey Analysis has 15 chapters divided into two sections: one section that is dedicated to the analysis of bioactive, physicochemical, and microbiological compounds and another that addresses techniques for the detection of residues and heavy metals. We have been able to compile a book with chapters by authors from nine countries (Brazil, Chile, Italy, Malta, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Serbia, and Turkey) and at least three continents (South America, Europe, and Oceania). The topics discussed here are physical-chemical analysis of honey, new methods for amino acid analysis, chemical residues, heavy metals, phenolic content and bioactive components, microbiological analysis, antimicrobial activity, and honey as functional food. Also there are notions of trade and characterization of honey in these countries, presenting the reality of the local market of these countries and their perspectives so that we can know more about the techniques used as well as the importance of this activity for each country. This may facilitate the use of innovative techniques that may enable increased competitiveness and the world honey trade.",isbn:"978-953-51-2880-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2879-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5477-8",doi:"10.5772/63259",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"honey-analysis",numberOfPages:378,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ec56e9c28bf7888777db171ac62fc839",bookSignature:"Vagner de Alencar Arnaut de Toledo",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5520.jpg",numberOfDownloads:41899,numberOfWosCitations:95,numberOfCrossrefCitations:61,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:130,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:286,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 11th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 1st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 5th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 4th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 3rd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"117226",title:"Prof.",name:"Vagner De Alencar",middleName:null,surname:"Arnaut De Toledo",slug:"vagner-de-alencar-arnaut-de-toledo",fullName:"Vagner De Alencar Arnaut De Toledo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/117226/images/system/117226.jpeg",biography:"Vagner de Alencar Arnaut de Toledo completed his master\\'s (1991) and PhD (1997) in Animal Production (with emphasis on Apiculture) and postdoctoral degree in Entomology (2006). He is Titular Professor at the Maringa State University. He teaches Beekeeping and Meliponiculture at the University for Animal Science where he is also head of the Animal Science Department. He previously served as the coordinator of the undergraduate course at the same university from 2010 to 2014. He has been the coordinator of the Bee Research Group (GPBee-UEM) at Maringa State University for 20 years. He has published eighty articles in specialized scientific journals and presented hundreds of works in poster or oral form, abstracts, reports, and conference proceedings at national and international events. He has published two books and 11 chapters. He has received five awards and/or honors.",institutionString:"Maringa State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"State University of Maringa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"346",title:"Melittology",slug:"insectology-melittology"}],chapters:[{id:"53417",title:"Production and Trade of Honey in Selected European Countries: Serbia, Romania and Italy",doi:"10.5772/66590",slug:"production-and-trade-of-honey-in-selected-european-countries-serbia-romania-and-italy",totalDownloads:2180,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The beekeeping sector is very complex, because of not onlythe diversity of bee products obtained but also the environmental services through pollination. Even if its direct impact on domestic economy and trade varies across countries, at micro-level, beekeeping creates well-being for communities, providing health products for population and decent revenues for farmers. It also supports the sustainability of rural livelihoods. In this context, the research subject is the analysis of production and trade of honey in three European Union Countries—Romania, Italy and Serbia—with a goal to consider the dynamic of supply and trade of honey and deduce potential opportunities for producers. The goal of the study is to draw implication from the results obtained, suggesting the concrete measures to improve the existing situation. Trade data are examined to get a picture of honey sector trends. An entire set of trade indicators related to honey were computed over the period 2006–2015 and are presented in the chapter: value, amount, growth rate and geographic structure of export and import in the world and in selected countries for which the level of comparative advantages of exported honey was also measured using the Balassa index.",signatures:"Cristina Bianca Pocol, Svetlana Ignjatijević and Daniele Cavicchioli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53417",authors:[{id:"190657",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Ignjatijević",slug:"svetlana-ignjatijevic",fullName:"Svetlana Ignjatijević"},{id:"192970",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cristina Bianca",surname:"Pocol",slug:"cristina-bianca-pocol",fullName:"Cristina Bianca Pocol"},{id:"192971",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Cavicchioli",slug:"daniele-cavicchioli",fullName:"Daniele Cavicchioli"}],corrections:null},{id:"53203",title:"Romanian Honey: Characterization and Classification",doi:"10.5772/66321",slug:"romanian-honey-characterization-and-classification",totalDownloads:1950,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Making a significant contribution to the European honey trade, Romania has been lately engaged in an exhaustive process of ensuring product conformity. Both official bodies and research groups have taken part in the efforts to establish an efficient framework for characterizing and authenticating unifloral and polyfloral honey samples produced and commercialized. Innovative contributions of different Romanian scientists to the development of simple and/or effective investigation techniques are discussed, as well as the results gained in characterizing and classifying samples according to their botanical and/or geographical origin. Information on the honey production and commercialization in the last 25 years is also provided, as well as a sketch of the Romanian consumer profile.",signatures:"Raluca Daniela Isopescu, Ana Maria Josceanu, Teodora Colta and\nRoxana Spulber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53203",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53203",authors:[{id:"138946",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Josceanu",slug:"ana-maria-josceanu",fullName:"Ana Maria Josceanu"},{id:"142637",title:"Prof.",name:"Raluca Daniela",surname:"Isopescu",slug:"raluca-daniela-isopescu",fullName:"Raluca Daniela Isopescu"},{id:"195363",title:"Ms.",name:"Teodora",surname:"Colta",slug:"teodora-colta",fullName:"Teodora Colta"},{id:"195364",title:"Mrs.",name:"Roxana",surname:"Spulber",slug:"roxana-spulber",fullName:"Roxana Spulber"}],corrections:null},{id:"53894",title:"The Value of Chilean Honey: Floral Origin Related to their Antioxidant and Antibacterial activities",doi:"10.5772/67103",slug:"the-value-of-chilean-honey-floral-origin-related-to-their-antioxidant-and-antibacterial-activities",totalDownloads:1891,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Honey chemical composition is related to the plant species where nectar is collected by honeybees. Chilean beekeeping is characterized by a variety of honey types, some unique, due to a high participation of endemic and native species. In Chile, the most emblematic flower honey, both for its abundance and sensory characteristics, is ulmo honey (Eucriphya cordifolia) and quillay honey (Quillaja saponaria). Melissopalynological analyses are used to establish whether a honey is unifloral, where at least 45% or more pollen grains found in it belong to the same species. The antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Chilean honey have been studied in the last years with excellent results. Quillaja saponaria, Eucriphya cordifolia, Azara petiolaris, and Retanilla trinervia are within the Chilean endemic species that produce unifloral honeys that show antioxidant potential and antibacterial activity against pathogenic gram positive and gram -negative bacteria and also multiresistant strains. These activities are mainly attributed to the phenolic compounds such as flavonoids. Among these attractive characteristics of honey, it is important to note that this product has low toxicity and the medicinal properties of honey will help to protect honeybees by adding value not only to the significantly important process of pollinating crops and native plants, but also for the medicinal importance of their products.",signatures:"Raquel Bridi and Gloria Montenegro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53894",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53894",authors:[{id:"191981",title:"Dr.",name:"Raquel",surname:"Bridi",slug:"raquel-bridi",fullName:"Raquel Bridi"},{id:"192259",title:"Prof.",name:"Gloria",surname:"Montenegro",slug:"gloria-montenegro",fullName:"Gloria Montenegro"}],corrections:null},{id:"53964",title:"Analysis of Amino Acid and Phenolic Content in Honey by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS",doi:"10.5772/67317",slug:"analysis-of-amino-acid-and-phenolic-content-in-honey-by-uplc-esi-ms-ms",totalDownloads:2906,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Honey is the very valuable natural animal product. It offers more than hundred nutritional substances to its consumers, human being and animals. Though major constituent of honey is sugar and water, honey also possesses amino acids, phenolic compounds, vitamins, minerals and enzymes. Amino acids are one of the important components of food. They provide the required building blocks and protein synthesis. Moreover, phenolic compounds in honey constitute the important quality parameter and account for its colour, sensory properties and antioxidant activity. Analysis of phenolic compound and amino acid is very important. They are generally used to identify the origin of honey. Amino acids in honey come from animals and vegetables. In the literature, there are several techniques concerning amino acid and phenolic compound identifications. In this chapter, usage of ultra-performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) techniques and methods for the determination of amino acids and phenolic compounds of honey is explained.",signatures:"Şeyda Kıvrak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53964",authors:[{id:"191585",title:"Dr.",name:"İbrahim",surname:"Kıvrak",slug:"ibrahim-kivrak",fullName:"İbrahim Kıvrak"},{id:"192692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Şeyda",surname:"Kıvrak",slug:"seyda-kivrak",fullName:"Şeyda Kıvrak"}],corrections:null},{id:"53209",title:"Fluorescence: A Novel Method for Determining Manuka Honey Floral Purity",doi:"10.5772/66313",slug:"fluorescence-a-novel-method-for-determining-manuka-honey-floral-purity",totalDownloads:2111,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Manuka honey, harvested from Leptospermum scoparium, is New Zealand's most recognised honey type and commands a premium due to health‐related benefits. However, the plant's distribution, relative to other species flowering simultaneously, allows honeybees to incorporate alternative nectars into the honey. Melissopalynological analysis in New Zealand is often unrepresentative due to the presence of many pollen‐bearing sources; consequently, alternative means of categorising manuka honey were examined. RP‐HPLC revealed that manuka honey contains distinct compounds, of which were relatively enriched and not present in the other New Zealand monofloral honeys. These main candidate compounds were isolated and have been described by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance, synthesised to confirm structure, and as standards. These compounds, Leptosperin and Lepteridine, are a methyl syringate glycoside and pteridine derivative, respectively. Examination of these compounds revealed unique fluorescence signatures, this fluorescence could be detected in manuka honey samples the signal used to confirm that a honey was solely or predominantly consisted of L. scoparium nectar. Commercial manuka honeys were assessed by traditional analytical techniques, and comparisons were made with fluorescence signature; the fluorescence technique determined the authenticity of the honeys accurately.",signatures:"Jonathan M. Stephens, Kerry M. Loomes, Terry J. Braggins, Jessie\nBong, Bin Lin and Gordana Prijic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53209",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53209",authors:[{id:"192716",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Stephens",slug:"jonathan-stephens",fullName:"Jonathan Stephens"},{id:"192784",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerry",surname:"Loomes",slug:"kerry-loomes",fullName:"Kerry Loomes"},{id:"192785",title:"Ms.",name:"Jessie",surname:"Bong",slug:"jessie-bong",fullName:"Jessie Bong"},{id:"192786",title:"Mr.",name:"Bin",surname:"Lin",slug:"bin-lin",fullName:"Bin Lin"},{id:"192787",title:"Mrs.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Prijic",slug:"gordana-prijic",fullName:"Gordana Prijic"},{id:"195311",title:"Dr.",name:"Terry J.",surname:"Braggins",slug:"terry-j.-braggins",fullName:"Terry J. Braggins"}],corrections:null},{id:"53895",title:"Rheological Properties of Honey in a Liquid and Crystallized State",doi:"10.5772/67035",slug:"rheological-properties-of-honey-in-a-liquid-and-crystallized-state",totalDownloads:2358,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The rheological properties of honey are discussed separately for liquid and crystallized honey. The research methods used in both cases are characterized. The basic mathematical models are shown, which describe the viscosity of honey in its liquid form depending on temperature and water content. In the case of crystallized honey, the rheological properties were linked to morphological features and crystalline phase content. Results of characteristic experiments are presented, obtained during the shearing of crystallized suspension, that is, crystallized honey. Among other items, the dependency of equilibrium stress on shear rate, apparent viscosity on crystalline phase content, hysteresis loops as evidence that honey in its crystallized form is a rheologically unstable fluid. Results of measurements under forced oscillation conditions are included and compared with results of rotational measurements. It was shown that the research method influences the obtained results of rheological studies.",signatures:"Sławomir Bakier",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53895",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53895",authors:[{id:"192064",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sławomir",surname:"Bakier",slug:"slawomir-bakier",fullName:"Sławomir Bakier"}],corrections:null},{id:"54239",title:"Fundamentals of Brazilian Honey Analysis: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/67279",slug:"fundamentals-of-brazilian-honey-analysis-an-overview",totalDownloads:2725,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Brazilian honey possesses large floral sources with various colors and flavors due to botanical and geographical differences and the large extension of the country. The absence of antibiotics and pesticides contamination positively differentiates Brazilian honey in the international market. Thus, the present chapter presents an overview of regulatory aspects for identity and quality evaluation of honey produced and commercialized in Brazil and international markets, as well as, it compares the production and consumption of honey with other countries. In addition, the chapter presents physicochemical and microbiological analysis commonly used in honey, as fundamentals of the technics and literature results with different kinds of honey obtained in Brazil. Physicochemical quality control and microbiological analysis of honey samples is of fundamental importance for assessing their quality, possible adulteration and storage conditions. In the literature, several methodologies exist to be used in the performance of honey quality control and each one complements the results in order to have an idea about the quality of the product, the absence of adulteration, deterioration, and environmental pollution and geographical area. Finally, we will present the market scenario nowadays with future perspectives and some recognition obtained for Brazilian bee products in international events.",signatures:"Franciane Marquele-Oliveira, Daniel Blascke Carrão, Rebeca Oliveira\nde Souza, Nathalia Ursoli Baptista, Andresa Piacezzi Nascimento,\nElina Cássia Torres, Gabriela de Padua Moreno, Andrei Felipe\nMoreira Buszinski, Felipe Galeti Miguel, Gustavo Luis Cuba, Thaila\nFernanda dos Reis, Joelma Lambertucci, Carlos Redher and Andresa\nA. Berretta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54239",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54239",authors:[{id:"191621",title:"Dr.",name:"Andresa",surname:"Aparecida Berretta",slug:"andresa-aparecida-berretta",fullName:"Andresa Aparecida Berretta"},{id:"192234",title:"Dr.",name:"Franciane",surname:"Marquele-Oliveira",slug:"franciane-marquele-oliveira",fullName:"Franciane Marquele-Oliveira"},{id:"192235",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nathalia",surname:"Baptista",slug:"nathalia-baptista",fullName:"Nathalia Baptista"},{id:"192238",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Redher",slug:"carlos-redher",fullName:"Carlos Redher"},{id:"192327",title:"Dr.",name:"Andresa",surname:"Nascimento",slug:"andresa-nascimento",fullName:"Andresa Nascimento"},{id:"192962",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Carrão",slug:"daniel-carrao",fullName:"Daniel Carrão"},{id:"192963",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrei",surname:"Buszinski",slug:"andrei-buszinski",fullName:"Andrei Buszinski"},{id:"192964",title:"Mrs.",name:"Elina",surname:"Torres",slug:"elina-torres",fullName:"Elina Torres"},{id:"192965",title:"Mrs.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Moreno",slug:"gabriela-moreno",fullName:"Gabriela Moreno"},{id:"192966",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebeca",surname:"De Souza",slug:"rebeca-de-souza",fullName:"Rebeca De Souza"},{id:"192967",title:"Dr.",name:"Joelma",surname:"De Brito",slug:"joelma-de-brito",fullName:"Joelma De Brito"}],corrections:null},{id:"53497",title:"Physicochemical Characterization of Maltese Honey",doi:"10.5772/66330",slug:"physicochemical-characterization-of-maltese-honey",totalDownloads:2109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Maltese Islands are renowned for the production of genuine honey from different floral sources depending on the season and the location of the apiary. Honey samples were collected directly from local beekeepers over a period of 4 years. Each sample was coded and the details provided by the beekeepers were recorded. A total of 259 samples were collected. The distribution of the apiaries was also considered for the three honey seasons: spring, summer and autumn. All samples were tested for the parameters according to the EU Directive on Honey (2001/110/EC) and the Harmonised Methods of the International Honey Commission (2009). The samples were analysed for consistency (by appearance), moisture content and Brix (by refractometry), colour index, diastase, proline and hydroxymethylfurfural (by spectrophotometry), pH and electrical conductivity (by pH/conductivity meters), salinity (chloride meter), free acidity (by titrimetry), polyphenols (by the Folin-Ciocalteu test), sugar content (high performance liquid chromatography), antioxidant activity (by DPPH and FRAP) and antimicrobial activity. The Maltese honey can be classified into three seasons with distinctive physicochemical characteristics. Honey originating from particular season showed significantly different values for specific parameters. Typically, high sucrose content is found in spring honey and a high conductivity in autumn honey.",signatures:"Everaldo Attard and Adrian Bugeja Douglas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53497",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53497",authors:[{id:"81688",title:"Prof.",name:"Everaldo",surname:"Attard",slug:"everaldo-attard",fullName:"Everaldo Attard"},{id:"192365",title:"Mr.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Bugeja Douglas",slug:"adrian-bugeja-douglas",fullName:"Adrian Bugeja Douglas"}],corrections:null},{id:"53469",title:"Techniques for the Evaluation of Physicochemical Quality and Bioactive Compounds in Honey",doi:"10.5772/66839",slug:"techniques-for-the-evaluation-of-physicochemical-quality-and-bioactive-compounds-in-honey",totalDownloads:3847,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Honey is a concentrated aqueous solution of sugar, especially glucose and fructose, and minor amounts of dextrin, enzymes, waxes, volatile oils, organic acids, ethers, albuminoidal gum substances and minerals. Commercially available honey samples vary in quality according to various factors such as climate diversity, type of flora of the surrounding region, geographical characteristics, processing, floral supply period, and packaging and storage conditions, which can compromise the standardization and quality of the final product. The different techniques that will be presented in this chapter to assess the quality of honey are tests required by identification standards and national and international quality control or are important quality tools that can be used in the evaluation of the conditions for obtaining and processing of the honey, fraud identification and changes to and/or adulteration of the honey, ensuring the physical and chemical composition of the project and guaranteeing quality standards, directly impacting the shelf life and use and presentation of the product.",signatures:"Maria Josiane Sereia, Paulo Henrique Março, Marcia Regina Geraldo\nPerdoncini, Rejane Stubs Parpinelli, Erica Gomes de Lima and\nFernando Antônio Anjo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53469",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53469",authors:[{id:"192188",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Sereia",slug:"maria-sereia",fullName:"Maria Sereia"}],corrections:null},{id:"54003",title:"Antimicrobial Activity of Honey",doi:"10.5772/67117",slug:"antimicrobial-activity-of-honey",totalDownloads:4353,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Honey has had a valued place in traditional medicine for centuries. It was used to overcome liver, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems and for treatment of some types of infectious disease. Particularly, good results were achieved in the case of application of this product for therapy of infected, difficult to heal wounds. The high health-promoting properties of honey have been recently confirmed in many research investigations. The antimicrobial activity of this product is highly complex. Generation of hydrogen peroxide, bee defensin-1, high osmolarity and low value of pH seems to be crucial for its antimicrobial potential. Considering honey as a therapeutic, antimicrobial agent special attention deserves Manuka honey. Its high antimicrobial activity is caused by high concentration of 1,2-dicarbonyl compound methylglyoxal. Some authors also suggest that other phytochemicals, especially phenolic compounds, are important antibacterial ingredients of honey. The results of many in vitro but also in vivo studies confirm high antimicrobial potential of honey against some important human and veterinary pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, Helicobacter pylori, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. We do not have doubts that honey, but also other bee products, especially propolis, is promising antimicrobial agents and possibilities of their application in clinical medicine deserve consideration.",signatures:"Piotr Szweda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54003",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54003",authors:[{id:"117528",title:"Dr.",name:"Szweda",surname:"Piotr",slug:"szweda-piotr",fullName:"Szweda Piotr"}],corrections:null},{id:"54195",title:"Microorganisms in Honey",doi:"10.5772/67262",slug:"microorganisms-in-honey",totalDownloads:3960,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Honey is a product with low water activity because of the great amount of sugars (fructose and glucose), and also it has antimicrobial compounds derived from flowers or because of its transformation process in the beehive. Despite all the honey microorganism barriers, some species of microorganisms are able to survive and may cause damage to honeybees or consumers. Techniques of pathogenic microorganism identification by DNA using PCR are recommended and required for sanitary and customs control. It is important to know the diversity of contaminating microorganisms in honey, especially due to disseminate pathogenic microorganisms in the international traded marketing. In contrast, beneficial microorganisms such as yeasts can remain latently in this product waiting for the moment in which the environment is suitable for their development. Among the beneficial bacteria found in honeybee products, we can mention some lactic acid bacteria that act as prebiotics when ingested. The microorganisms in the digestive tract of honeybees are important for their health. Thus, we present the knowledge of microbiota associated with honey from honeybees and stingless bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae) and the techniques available for the detection of microorganisms in honey.",signatures:"Mayara Salgado Silva, Yavor Rabadzhiev, Monique Renon Eller, Ilia\nIliev, Iskra Ivanova and Weyder Cristiano Santana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54195",authors:[{id:"192986",title:"Dr.",name:"Weyder Cristiano",surname:"Santana",slug:"weyder-cristiano-santana",fullName:"Weyder Cristiano Santana"},{id:"197594",title:"MSc.",name:"Mayara",surname:"Salgado-Silva",slug:"mayara-salgado-silva",fullName:"Mayara Salgado-Silva"},{id:"197595",title:"Dr.",name:"Yavor",surname:"Rabadzhiev",slug:"yavor-rabadzhiev",fullName:"Yavor Rabadzhiev"},{id:"197596",title:"Prof.",name:"Monique",surname:"Eller",slug:"monique-eller",fullName:"Monique Eller"},{id:"197597",title:"Prof.",name:"Iskra",surname:"Ivanova",slug:"iskra-ivanova",fullName:"Iskra Ivanova"},{id:"197598",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilia",surname:"Iliev",slug:"ilia-iliev",fullName:"Ilia Iliev"}],corrections:null},{id:"54073",title:"Techniques for the Evaluation of Microbiological Quality in Honey",doi:"10.5772/67086",slug:"techniques-for-the-evaluation-of-microbiological-quality-in-honey",totalDownloads:3031,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to describe the most commonly used techniques to evaluate the microbiological characteristics of honey for the purpose of identifying its contaminant flora, its significance and its control in this type of food. Honey is a product that is rich in simple sugars, minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds and possesses an antimicrobial activity of great significance for human health. However, as it has physical and chemical properties that are unfavourable for the proliferation of micro-flora, honey can contain a large population of microorganisms from two sources of contamination—the first primarily represented by pollen, the digestive system of the bee, dust, air and the flower itself; and the second as the result of negligence and the absence of good health practices during handling and use; for example, placing honey in wooden beehives directly on the floor or the use of improperly washed honey extraction equipment, rather than equipment based on the oxidizable material, or using very dark honeycombs and storing the honey for long periods in wooden beehives. As honey is a natural product, the risks inherent to the lack of industrial processing, such as pasteurization and strict microbiological quality control, are often overlooked.",signatures:"Maria Josiane Sereia, Marcia Regina Ferreira Geraldo Perdoncini,\nPaulo Henrique Março, Rejane Stubs Parpinelli, Erica Gomes de\nLima and Fernando Antônio Anjo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54073",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54073",authors:[{id:"180403",title:"MSc.",name:"Rejane Stubs",surname:"Parpinelli",slug:"rejane-stubs-parpinelli",fullName:"Rejane Stubs Parpinelli"},{id:"192847",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia",surname:"Perdoncini",slug:"marcia-perdoncini",fullName:"Márcia Perdoncini"}],corrections:null},{id:"53775",title:"Honey as a Functional Food",doi:"10.5772/67020",slug:"honey-as-a-functional-food",totalDownloads:2192,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The most well‐known functional properties of honey are its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. The bioactive components of honey are affected by the flora from which it is produced and by geographical variations. Phenolic compounds promote, among other activities, high antioxidant action, being capable of minimizing intracellular oxidative damage associated with cellular aging, apoptosis and neurodegenerative diseases. A living cell system would provide a better platform for determining antioxidant activity, since the bioactive honey compounds can act modulating antioxidant defense gene expression. Indeed, phenolic compounds, amino acids and reducing sugars are among the substances responsible for honey antioxidant activity. Most of phenolic compounds also exert antimicrobial activity against a number of pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. The antimicrobial activity of honey is also due to the action of enzymes. In addition, honey was found to contain lactic acid bacteria (LAB), which itself produce a myriad of active compounds that remain in variable amounts in mature honey. In addition, these antioxidant compounds might play a key role as prebiotic, protecting and stimulating growth of probiotic bacteria. Oligosaccharides present in honey are well‐known prebiotic substances stimulating growth, activity and protecting probiotic bacteria during passage through the gastrointestinal tract and during storage of the products. This chapter describes the main bioactive components of honey, especially with respect to the phenolic compounds and their antioxidant activity and assay methods.",signatures:"Rosa Helena Luchese, Edlene Ribeiro Prudêncio and André\nFioravante Guerra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53775",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53775",authors:[{id:"191671",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Luchese",slug:"rosa-luchese",fullName:"Rosa Luchese"},{id:"192130",title:"MSc.",name:"Edlene",surname:"Prudêncio",slug:"edlene-prudencio",fullName:"Edlene Prudêncio"},{id:"192133",title:"MSc.",name:"André",surname:"Guerra",slug:"andre-guerra",fullName:"André Guerra"}],corrections:null},{id:"53175",title:"Analytical Procedures for Determining Heavy Metal Contents in Honey: A Bioindicator of Environmental Pollution",doi:"10.5772/66328",slug:"analytical-procedures-for-determining-heavy-metal-contents-in-honey-a-bioindicator-of-environmental-",totalDownloads:3699,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Metals are pollutant residues detectable in honey and in fact account for most of the inorganic pollutants found in this food product. Metal pollutants can be accumulated through the food chain and, at levels exceeding safe thresholds, can be toxic to humans and even damage physiological functions. During the honey-making process, bees can transport pollutants to the beehive following contact with polluted botanic species or from drinking contaminated water. Detecting very low concentrations is a persisting challenge to accurately measure these elements in honey. Additionally, since honey is a complex organic matrix, treatments are needed prior to applying any classical chemical methods for metal determination, such as inductively coupled plasma and atomic absorption spectroscopy. Therefore, optimal results are dependent on adequate sample conditioning prior to heavy metal content analyses. Chemical pretreatments include calcination processes and/or acid digestion. Regarding execution, the last steps of any metal detection methodology are the primary determinants of result quality, where any loss of mass is reflected by unreliable values.",signatures:"Enrique Mejías and Tatiana Garrido",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53175",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53175",authors:[{id:"191583",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Mejias",slug:"enrique-mejias",fullName:"Enrique Mejias"},{id:"193079",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Garrido",slug:"tatiana-garrido",fullName:"Tatiana Garrido"}],corrections:null},{id:"53811",title:"Residue Determination in Honey",doi:"10.5772/67135",slug:"residue-determination-in-honey",totalDownloads:2588,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The use of antibiotics to fight bacterial and fungal honeybee diseases is documented since 1940s. Although at present in some countries certain antibiotics are authorized in apiculture, only few law systems provide maximum residue limits in honey. In addition, residues of worldwide banned antibiotics such as chloramphenicol, nitrofurans and nitroimidazoles have been frequently found. Therefore, the availability of reliable analytical methods able to detect concentrations at few parts per billions is fundamental. After a general overview of the available sample treatment strategies and analytical techniques, the most significantly published methods are discussed. Aminoglycosides and, to a lesser extent, tetracyclines are the more difficult classes to analyse. The current trends are the development of multiclass procedures and of micro-extraction techniques to improve the cost-effectiveness of residues control in the globalization era.",signatures:"Simone Moretti, Giorgio Saluti and Roberta Galarini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53811",authors:[{id:"191469",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",surname:"Galarini",slug:"roberta-galarini",fullName:"Roberta Galarini"},{id:"197618",title:"BSc.",name:"Simone",surname:"Moretti",slug:"simone-moretti",fullName:"Simone Moretti"},{id:"197619",title:"Dr.",name:"Giorgio",surname:"Saluti",slug:"giorgio-saluti",fullName:"Giorgio Saluti"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8023",title:"Honey Analysis",subtitle:"New Advances and Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d0cd45987714a9e6f8e5f9cf7fe67495",slug:"honey-analysis-new-advances-and-challenges",bookSignature:"Vagner de Alencar Arnaut de Toledo and Emerson Dechechi Chambó",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8023.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"117226",title:"Prof.",name:"Vagner De Alencar",surname:"Arnaut De Toledo",slug:"vagner-de-alencar-arnaut-de-toledo",fullName:"Vagner De Alencar Arnaut De Toledo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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When a part of bowel which is inside the hernia sac becomes obstructed, there may initially be no interference with blood supply. This case results in a strangulated inguinal hernia, in which gangrene of the contents of the sac has been occurred. Strangulated inguinal hernia is a life-threatening condition which requires urgent surgical intervention. Historically, the prominence of “adhesive bands” as a cause of intestinal obstruction was already known, and was also the main historical cause of small intestinal obstruction before the advent of anesthesia. The descriptive history of hernias can be traced back through the centuries to Hippocrates and the knowledge of the catastrophic effects of incarceration of a hernia dates back to immemorial times. Celsus had referred many interesting historical incidences and he was also the first to describe the surgical techniques for the correction of recurring hernias. Of course, these procedures were very brutal compared to modern techniques, involving various techniques of cautery or caustics [1].
The modern era of thoughtful anatomical and surgical approach to hernia restoration dates back to the beginning of the nineteenth century with Sir Ashley Cooper’s and Antonio Scarpa’s illustrated monographs in England and in Italy respectively. It is interesting that the life threatening problem of strangulated inguinal hernia was occasionally successfully managed by the simple process of resecting the ischemic part of the bowel, leaving what amounted to a double-barreled enterostomy. Undoubtedly, few patients survived the debilitating effects of small bowel fistula but occasionally intestinal continuity was spontaneously re-established by retraction of the open ends of the bowel and gradual closing of the external fistula. Some of the well-known surgeons of the nineteenth century, such as Gimbernat (1793), Richter (1778), Camper (1801), Hesselbach (1806) and Scarborough (1809), contributed to the anatomy and clinical findings associated with hernias. There was a limit, however, to what could be accomplished surgically until the introduction of antisepsis, and anesthesia techniques, so subsequent surgeons such as Bassini, Halsted, Billroth, Marcy and others defined the various types of surgical approach to abdominal wall hernias, up to 1880.
In the groin, an indirect inguinal hernia is caused when obliteration of the processus vaginalis (the peritoneal extension which accompanies the testicle in its descent into its final position, the scrotum) fails to occur. The hernia sac which has been formed passes through the internal inguinal ring, a defect in the transversalis fascia, between the anterior iliac spine and the pubic tubercle. The sac may extend partway along the inguinal canal, or it can pass through the external inguinal ring, a defect medially in the external oblique muscle, above the pubic tubercle. When the hernia sac reaches fully into the scrotum is called
A direct inguinal hernia however, is caused by a weaknes or defect in the floor of Hesselbach triangle. The Hesselbach triangle is defined inferiorly by the inguinal ligament, laterally by the inferior epigastric arteries, and medially by the conjoined tendon. Usually, the transversalis fascia, which forms the floor of Hesselbach triangle, is weakened, though a discrete defect in the fascia may occasionally occur. This type of direct inguinal hernia has distinct borders, thus it is more possible to incarcerate [2].
At this point, we need to mention some anatomic structures, which are important, not only for understanding the pathophysiologgy of hernias, but also for understanding the surgical techniques being used. The conjoined tendon is a fusion of the medial aponeurosis of transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles, that passes along the inferolateral edge of the rectus abdominis muscle and attaches to the pubic tubercle. The inguinal ligament is formed by the lowermost border of the external oblique aponeurosis, and it passes between the pubic tubercle and the anterior iliac spine. The Cooper ligament is a strong, fibrous band that extends laterally for about 2.5 cm along the iliopectineal line on the superior aspect of the superior pubic ramus. Finally, the iliopubic tract, parallel to inguinal ligament, is a band of connective tissue that starts form the iliopsoas fascia, crosses below the internal inguinal ring, and inserts into the superior pubic ramus, in order to form the Gimbernat ligament.
The majority of inguinal hernias are indirect hernias. As we mentioned above, an inguinal hernia is formed when the processus vaginalis cannot obliterate, and a direct inguinal hernia is caused when the floor of Hesselbach triangle is weakened. An indirect hernia may dilate the internal ring and displace or attenuate the inguinal floor. Then the peritoneum may protrude on either side of epigastric vessels, to form a combined direct and indirect hernia, which is called “
The appearance and progression of a hernia is caused by the increase of intra-abdominal pressure. Many conditions are responsible for this increase. Marked obesity, abdominal strain from heavy exercise, cough, constipation with straining at stool and prostatism with straining on mictutition are some of the common reasons of intra-abdominal pressure’s increase. Cirrhosis with ascites, chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and chronically enlarged pelvic orgaans can also contribute. Last but not least, advanced age and chronic debilitating disease can result to transversalis fascia (which forms the floor of Hesselbach triangle) debilitation.
The
The incidence rate of strangulated inguinal hernia varies between 0.29 and 2.9 %. The mortality rate also ranges between 2.6 to 9 %, but Tanaka et al[3] have shown that a delay of 12 h increased significantly intestinal resection rate. Needless to say, the delay in diagnosis can also affect the length of hospital stay and hospital costs. Moreover, mortality risk is seven times higher in cases after emergency strangulated inguinal hernia surgery and 20 times higher if bowel resection was undertaken. Strangulated hernias are more frequently seen in elderly patients, and their prevalence in the over-60-year-old population has been reported to be 9.8 % compared with 1.8 % for younger patients; morbidity and mortality rates are 55 and 15 %, respectively, for patients over 65 years in case of herniorrhaphy in emergency. In addition, it has been reported that advanced age in the patients with strangulated inguinal hernia is considered as a prognostic factor of surgical or medical postoperative complications. The relation between mortality and age is understandable, poor risk being related to both intestinal necrosis and systemic complications of more dubious control in emergency circumstances.
Many habits, conditions and diseases have been accused of development of an inguinal hernia. Patients with abnormal collagen metabolism have an increased risk, due to transversalis fascia debilitation. This fact is substantiated by the higher incidence of inguinal hernias in patients with aortic aneurysm. Abnormality in collagen metabolism can be familial, and studies have revealed families with increased incidence rates of hernias. Smokers have also an abnormal collagen metabolism, as a result smoking is almost certainly considered as a risk factor. Another risk factor is a patent processus vaginalis. Chronic coughing in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) seems to be a risk factor, as it contributes to an increase of intraabdominal pressure. Ascites in terms of hepatic cirrhosis and peritoneal dialysis can increase the risk of inguinal hernia or a recurrent hernia. Although physical work is not a risk factor, some studies revealed that long-term and heavy work does increase the risk of hernias [3]. Needless to say that, the patient should be questioned, if it is possible, about these factors. This would help a lot to an early and a safer diagnosis.
Inguinal hernia is a known complication after radical retropubic prostatectomy, whether if it is open or laparoscopic, and has been reported to occur in 7–21% of patients. Other types of lower midline incision surgery as well could promote the development of postoperative inguinal hernia, such as a low (cosmetic) incision for appendectomy, which can disrupt the shutter mechanism and increase the risk of an inguinal hernia. Surgeons should be aware of this important postoperative complication and prophylactic surgical procedures must be evaluated to address the problem.
As we mentioned above, it has been reported that a delay in diagnosis of 12 h or more, increases significantly morbidity and mortality [4]. This fact points out the importance of the early diagnosis. Strangulated hernia should be regarded as a possible diagnosis in cases of acute small bowel obstruction, especially when no previous laparotomy has been carried out. The first diagnostic tool is the physical examination of the patient. The most common presenting clinical findings for emergency admission are an irreducible mass in the abdominal wall and localized pain (Fig. 1). Patients may have also signs and symptoms of mechanical bowel obstruction, as well as metabolic disorders, such as breath odor, constipation, diarrhea, vomiting and inability for gas exit. Duration of symptoms prior to admission can be from a few hours, up to several days. Significant concomitant medical illnesses can also be found in some cases, though essential hypertension and cardiovascular disorders are considered to be the commonest problems seen. The palpation of the infected area can provide additional information. A punctilious palpation of the inguinal area is needed, in order to locate the hernia site. In the majority of cases, the physical examination establishes the diagnosis of strangulated hernia, and no further examination is needed. The diagnosis of inguinal hernia can be established by physical examination with a sensitivity of 74.5–92% and a specificity of 93%.
Strangulated recurrent hernia 2 years after a mesh repair. Local swelling, redness, edema and tenderness are the main local signs.
Although they are considered to be rare, there are some cases in which the hernia is occulted, particularly in obese patients, where a small part of the small intestine is strangulated. In these cases, the physical examination cannot establish the diagnosis of strangulated inguinal hernia by itself, and further imaging examinations are carried out. An ultrasonography of the lower abdomen can be performed, after patient’s metabolic stabilization, but its sensitivity is low. A computed tomography is another diagnostic tool, with low specificity, but it is useful in the rare case of involvement of the urinary bladder. MRI can also be performed, and is capable for revealing the inflammatory site, and the bowel obstruction, which occurs in strangulated hernias. MRI’s sensitivity is 94.5% and specificity is 96.3%. Herniography is also safe, sensitive (100%) and specific (98–100%) imaging examination [4]. Imaging findings are taken into account in combination with physical examination’s findings and the general condition of the patient, and the diagnosis is established.
Although laboratory findings are remarkable, they cannot be used for diagnosis of strangulated inguinal hernia. Hemoconcentration and leucocytosis (especially when is not accounted for by hemoconcentration) can indicate bowel obstruction and strangulation, and so do lactic acidosis, when it does not resolve with volume resuscitation. When the strangulation of small intestine is diagnosed, however, the reason (in this case strangulated inguinal hernia) is not pointed out.
A definitive diagnosis of strangulation of the intestine can only be made through surgical exploration. Very little data have been published regarding the laparoscopy and exploratory laparotomy in comparison as a first approach in cases of strangulated groin hernia, when intestinal ischemia is suspected. Although midline laparotomies increase morbidity, due to possible intestinal resection, in some studies, almost the half of overall of midline laparotomies were performed without any intestinal resection [5]. When the patient is older, and there is a big possibility to have a lot of co-morbidities, the laparoscopy or hernioscopy could be of most benefit, avoiding the alternative of a laparotomy. Laparoscopy could help to diagnose bowel ischemia thus decreasing both negative and nontherapeutic laparotomy rates. Once the diagnosis of bowel ischemia is established, laparotomy could be performed. Evisceration, which is a rare occurrence of any incision, is more possible when the patient is old and he/she undergoes an emergency surgery. This complication could be avoided in emergency cases in this advanced aged population by using laparoscopy. Moreover, the decision to perform a bowel resection can be reliably made only by using laparoscopy.
Strangulated hernia should be distinguished from other conditions which include swelling in the groin. First of all, a differential diagnosis should be made between strangulated inguinal and other types of hernias, such as femoral and incisional hernias. Other cases, in which the patient has groin swelling mass are lymhadenopathy, varicocele, aneurysm, soft-tissue tumor and an abscess, which can be a result of many pathological conditions in the inguinal area. Other relatively rare conditions are endometriosis and several genital anomalies (for example, ectopic testis). Cases that include pain in the inguinal area, but not the typical swelling are adductor tendinitis, pubic osteitis, hip artrosis and bursitis ileopectinea [4].
A strangulated inguinal hernia, as an incident of acute abdomen, needs emergency surgery. As we mentioned above, the incidence rate of strangulated inguinal hernias is relatively low, because of the high acceptance of the value of elective hernia repair, but it is still a frequent incident of acute abdomen, especially in the elderly patients, in whom the hernia is not always diagnosed until strangulation.
The choice between different anesthesia types for inguinal hernia repair is currently under discussion, and it is influenced by patient preferences and his/her medical history. Local anesthesia allows for quick recovery time and, thus, is safe for early discharge in today’s increasingly ambulatory surgery era. For patients with increased age or with elevated American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) classification (depending on co-existing cardiovascular and/or pulmonary disease), local anesthesia causes much less hemodynamic disorders and it is believed that it is being better tolerated than general anesthesia. Large randomized control studies have shown decrease in overall anesthesia time, urinary retention, and postoperative pain following use of local anesthesia compared to regional and general anesthesia. It has also been indicated that local anesthesia is associated with recurrence rates, but it doubtful whether this increased recurrence rate is a result of local anesthesia, or the use of Lichtenstein repair technique [6].
Needles to say, when herniorrhaphy is performed under local anesthesia, patients still feel the pressure and little pain. These effects can be minimized with the addition of anxiolytic agents. Additionally, the patient must always give consent for the possibility of conversion to general anesthesia, should he or she develop difficulty tolerating the procedure because of anxiety or discomfort.
Commonly used local anesthetics are 0.5-1% lidocaine with epinephrine, or 0.25% bupivacaine, or a combination of these 2 agents in 50:50 mixtures. A field block is applied by injecting along the site of incision, superficial to deep, and lateral to the pubic tubercle, to provide anesthesia to the deeper structures. In order to block the ilioinguinal nerve, an injection is placed just medial to the anterior superior iliac spine. Additional local anesthetic can be injected throughout the procedure. For example, the administration below the fibers of the external oblique aponeurosis, as described by Lichtenstein’s group, anesthetizes its 3 major nerves by flooding the enclosed inguinal canal and serves to hydrodissect the underlying ilioinguinal nerve (making it less prone to injury when the aponeurosis is incised). Other techniques, such as epidural anesthesia, have been widely reported, but results depend largely on local expertise.
Elective inguinal hernia repair is considered an aseptic procedure as there is only a <2% surgical site infection rate. Although current data remain controversial, it is suggested (by numerous recent meta-analysis) to use antibiotic prophylaxis when performing a mesh-based repair. Cephalosporins (eg, cefazolin) are commonly administered by the anesthesiologist as a single dose prior to the skin incision. However, a properly funded, prospectively randomized study is still needed to definitively reveal the safest choice of anesthesia.
Traditional surgical repairs, like Bassini and Shouldice techniques are not used very common in elective inguinal hernia repair. However, in an emergency surgery, as in cases of strangulated inguinal hernias, these techniques are preferred from contemporary tension-free techniques, due to high possibility of mesh infection, in tension free techniques. Regardless the choice between traditional and tension-free techniques, the operation begins with an oblique skin incision (or along the Langer lines) approximately 2 centimeter superior to and parallel to the thigh crease, and then the incision is being extended 5 cm toward the anterior superior iliac spine, starting from just lateral to the pubic tubercle. In thin patients, the external ring can actually be palpated just lateral and slightly above the pubic tubercle and should be the medial starting point of incision. Then the dissection is going deeper through the subcutaneous tissue until the aponeurosis of the external oblique is identified. In strangulated hernia the tissues maybe inflamed and edematous, therefore careful dissection of the anatomic structures is mandatory. Along with external oblique aponeurosis, the apex of the inguinal canal and also the external inguinal ring must be identified, before incising the external oblique muscle. The inguinal canal should be entered at its apex. For a correct identification of the apex of the canal, the lower wall of the canal, which is where the external oblique aponeurosis disappears into the fat of the thigh, should be pointed out. Approximately one finger breadth above this point is a good entry site into the canal. The external inguinal ring is also important because the external ring is ultimately the end point of the division to be made in the external oblique aponeurosis and defines the orientation of this cut [6].
Once the external oblique aponeurosis is identified, is thoroughly exposed and a gentle stab incision in its mid-portion along the orientation of its fibers is made. This incision is extended superiorly, and medially downward, through the superficial ring, thus exposing the inguinal canal and the cord structures. Afterwards comes the circumferentially mobilization of the cord structures off the floor of the canal by working on the pubic tubercle as a fulcrum. With blunt dissection of the index finger in a sweeping and medially encircling fashion, the cord is sufficiently freed, so that the cord structures can be surrounded by a Penrose drain for convenient retraction. This allows exposure of the inguinal floor and protects the cord structures. Then, an examination of the anteromedial aspect of the cord should be made, for an indirect component of the hernia. Separating the cremasteric muscle along its fibers often facilitates this. The cremasteric muscle fibers must be dissected carefully with slow electrocautery coagulation, as the cut muscle fibers tend to bleed. If an indirect hernia is present, the sac is dissected off the cord structures, down toward its base at the internal inguinal ring, until it is comfortably invaginated into the preperitoneal space. This is preferably achieved without division of the sac. However, if necessary, as with certain large hernias, the sac can be entered carefully and examined for visceral contents, and then divided with a high ligation. The peritoneal fluid within the sac should be sucked and sent for culture. If there is ischemic bowel inside the sac it should be resected promptly and anastomosed with an end-to-end manner. Occasionally there may be only strangulation of a portion of the greater omentum or strangulation of a portion of the sac itself, which maybe the cause of local discomfort and pain (Fig. 2). Direct hernias, which protrude through the inguinal floor at the Hesselbach triangle, are similarly dissected away from the cord structures toward their base and then are inverted below the transversalis fascia.
After opening of the subcutaneous tissue, a gangrenous portion of the sac and the adjacent preperitoneal tissue was revealed, which was resected.
Closure of the defect and buttressing of the inguinal canal floor can now be performed. The Bassini technique is widely used, but the Shouldice technique is considered to be better, in terms of recurrence, is not usually used, because of the more extensive dissection, and a belief that the skill of surgeons is important as well. The Bassini repair is a technique in which the surgeon sutures the conjoined tendon to the inguinal ligament, which slides the patient’s own muscles together to cover the hole in the abdominal wall and repair the hernia. The spermatic cord remains in its normal anatomic position under the external oblique aponeurosis. The surgeon closes the incision with a stitch known as the simple interrupted suture pattern, a speedy stitch that allows for surgery to be complete in approximately one hour. Bassini\'s original technique yielded outstanding results for a pure tissue technique; however, problems occurred when surgeons failed to open the posterior wall. So, a new operation, known as the "modified" or "North American" Bassini was introduced. By not opening the posterior wall, the wall tissue was damaged in its most medial portion by sutures placed under tension, and recurrences resulted, primarily in the pubic tubercle area. Thus, the failure of this operation in its first year was more likely due to an overlooked second hernia or to poor surgical technique, rather than a metabolic or tissue defect that might predispose to recurrent hernia.
The Shouldice technique (it is also known as ilio-inguinal incision) begins with the ligation of superficial veins. Afterwards, comes the same procedure as described above. The reconstruction in Schouldice technique is achieved by continuous suturing using 2.0 or 3.0 polypropropylene sutures; starting medially, not through the periosteum of the pubic tubercle. Suturation of the inferior edge of the fascia transversalis (Thomson’s ligament) to a fold of the anterior side of the conjoined tendon (‘white line’) is being made, until the internal ring is constricted (in order to allow passage for the spermatic cord and point of tweezers). Then comes the second layer after including cremaster stump with the same thread to the iliopubic tract (inferior edge of the inguinal ligament). The third layer begins laterally, with the closure of the conjoined tendon to inguinal ligament. Original Shouldice has a fourth layer in the same plane. Finally, the reapproximation of the external oblique aponeurosis is achieved with a running 3-0 polyglactin suture; at that stage the surgeon must be careful for the underlying ilioinguinal nerve. Reapproximation of the Scarpa fascia is followed with interrupted 3-0 polyglactin suture and then a running subcuticular closure of the skin with 3-0 poliglecaprone suture. The operative site is cleaned and sterile dressings are applied
The Lichtenstein repair is widely accepted as the tension-free technique of choice. The operation starts again with medial incision as possible, for good exposure of the tubercle of pubic bone and rectus sheath. The superficial veins are ligated and the external oblique is cleaved, just like the traditional operation (with caution of the ilioinguinal nerve). The spermatic cord is surrounded and the posterior wall is assesed. Cremaster does not need to be excised unless hypertrophic, thus, leaving an unacceptably wide internal ring. The hernia sac is dissected until inside the internal ring, and then it can be reduced (which is the preferable option), transected, or resected. If necessary, the surgeon sutures a large direct hernia tension-free with continuous soluble sutures until a flat posterior wall has been created with a normal internal ring. All nerves should be preserved in principle, but it is advised that if a nerve is damaged or interfers with the palcemnet of mesh it should be resected. Special attention to the iliohypogastric nerve should be paid; this nerve may lie under the mesh, but preferably not against a sharp edge. In that case the prosthesis is cut to the size it needs to be, because it is obvious that dividing a nerve is better than causing neuralgic pain. Polypropylene mesh 7x9x14 cm is applied (trimming is often necessary) with a 2-cm overlap at the pubic tubercle. Then the prosthesis is sutured continuously with polypropylene sutures 3.0 starting 2 cm mediocranially from the pubic tubercule on the lateral rectus edge and then on the inguinal ligament to the internal ring. An incision in the mesh is made on 1/3 of the lower side until just medial to the spermatic cord. And both flaps of the prosthesis are sutured, overlapping on the lateral side to the inguinal ligament with one polypropylene suture; upper flap over the lower flap. The cranial edge of the mesh is also stabilized with one or more sutures (which may be soluble) to the aponeurosis of the internal oblique, avoiding muscle in order to avoid injury to the intramuscular segment of the iliohypogastric nerve. Again particular attention should be paid in order not to entrap nerves by suturing. Mesh must lie tension-free (domed) after removal of the wound spreader. The closure procedure is the same as in the Shouldice technique. In women, it is important to preserve the round ligament and the ilioinguinal nerve (like the spermatic cord). If both structures are cut, it is not necessary to create flaps in the mesh.
Endoscopic technique has been used rarely in the management of strangulated inguinal hernias, but lately, even more surgeons prefer that technique. In the endoscopic repair (or extraperitoneal approach TEP) the bladder must be empty before the operation. An incision (2 cm) is made just under and next to the umbilicus until inside the anterior rectus sheath. The preperitoneal space is opened with the finger and, if needs be, a balloon (optional) is inserted, up to the pubic bone. The surgeon insufflates with gas, under camera control, and replaces the balloon with blunt balloon or Hasson trocar. The patient is during the procedure in Trendelenburg position. Then, identification of os pubis, Cooper’s ligament, epigastric vessels and internal ring takes place. Next, the surgeon dissects with a second trocar (5 or 10 mm in medial line) the lateral space until ASIS and inserts a third trocar (5 mm). The lateral hernia sac is dissected from the spermatic cord which is put aside over 5–7 cm. Polypropylene prosthesis with dimensions 15x9x15 or 10x9x15 cm is inserted and it is draped over the abdominal wall with plenty of overlap for all potential hernia defects. Finally, the surgeon desufflates carefully and removes instruments while holding the peritoneal sac ‘inside’ the mesh.
Lately, the use of prosthetic material for inguinal hernia repair has increased dramatically. Tension-free repairs have gained popularity not only for elective or recurrent hernias but also for complicated inguinal hernia repairs as well. Inguinal hernia mesh repair according to Lichtenstein ‘‘tension-free’’ technique has gained great acceptance from the surgeons all over the world, showing efficacy to consolidate the posterior wall of the inguinal canal and to reduce postoperative pain and recurrence risk due to tension on suture lines. Recent clinical trials on tension- free anterior repair of inguinal hernia using a mesh revealed that the immediate postoperative complications were rare and always minor, and rate of long-term recurrence is very low (0.5%) [7].
The presence of a strangulated inguinal hernia cannot be considered a contraindication for the use of a prosthetic mesh, although the use of traditional repairs, such as the Bassini repair in strangulated inguinal hernia is a common practice. Lichtenstein hernioplasty can be successfully used not only as an elective operation but also as an emergency operation for incarcerated inguinal hernia with a good outcome, with a low risk of the local infectious complications and a decently low rate of postoperative complications. However, the outcomes of emergency Lichtenstein hernioplasty were inferior to the outcomes of elective Lichtenstein hernioplasty [8]. Wound infection is a potential complication of all hernia repairs and an infection involving an inserted mesh may result in chronic groin sepsis, which usually necessitates complete removal of mesh. Along with the catastrophic effects of a groin sepsis, removal of mesh would potentially result in a weakness of the repair and as a result, a recurrent hernia. It has been proved however that hernia recurrence following mesh removal for chronic groin sepsis, was not a common phenomenon, and the explanation of that fact is that the strength of a mesh repair lies mostly in the fibrous reaction evoked within the transversalis fascia by the prosthetic material rather than in the physical presence of the mesh itself. Of course, when there is established deep infection, there should be no unnecessary delay in removing an infected mesh in order to allow resolution of chronic groin sepsis. However, that procedure has a relative risk of bowel injury.
Surgical techniques and implanted materials are crucial to the results and costs associated with hernia repair considering that specific mesh materials are related to specific complications. Polypropylene meshes are ideal for use in contaminated or potentially contaminated fields. The macroporous structure of the meshes of polypropylene, with pores of diameter larger than 70 micronmeters, allows contact among the bacteria, which measures almost one micrometer in diameter, and the cells of the immune system, granulocytes and macrophages, with a diameter of 15–20 micronmeters, which is significant for the recovery from infections [7]. The use of antibiotic prophylaxis for tension-free mesh herniorrhaphy may contribute in lowering the incidence of postoperative mesh infection, although there is little direct clinical evidence supporting this fact, and it is not officially recommended.
At this time, a few randomized studies comparing tension-free repairs and classical techniques have been performed, and the available data are considered to be low [9]. It is known that mean operative time and postoperative hospital stay were significantly longer for modified Bassini technique in comparison with tension-free repair, but postoperative complication rate and recurrence rate did not differ significantly between the two operations, according to the latest studies. It is important that in the majority of cases where tension-free repair has been chosen, no mesh had to be removed. Postoperative wound infection rate following Lichtenstein technique is not by far different from that following Bassini technique.
Recurrence rate in cases where a Bassini repair has been performed is approximately 20% and the worst results were observed with direct hernias (29% recurrence) when compared with indirect ones (16% recurrence). Moreover, the use of slowly absorbable suture material in the Bassini technique was reported to result in a high recurrence rate. Also, long-term (12–15 years) recurrence rate following Bassini repair is around 33% [7]. In conclusion, it seems that tension-free repair has lower recurrence rate, and the risk of mesh infection is not as important as it was believed to be during the past decades. Further randomized studies must be carried out, in order to ensure this fact
Postoperative complications are not uncommon after strangulated inguinal hernia repair. Identification of risk factors can be used in order to establish a high-risk group of patients, who are more likely to have a strangulated inguinal hernia. As we mentioned above, advanced age is the most important predisposing factor, as the reserve capacity of the older individual to compensate for stress, metabolic derangement, and drug metabolism is increasingly low. Functional disability occurs faster and it is more difficult to remediate. Some type of complication is encountered in almost half of patients older than 65 years and in 25% of younger patients who have undergone a strangulated inguinal hernia repair. The most frequent serious complications are pulmonary diseases and cardiovascular disorders. Pneumonia is not uncommon, as well as acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Heart failure, coronary artery disease and cardiac arrhythmia are the most frequent complications from the cardiovascular system. Gastrointestinal bleeding, and hepatic failure (in existing cirrhosis) can been found in patients after strangulated hernia repair [10].
Local wound complications are seen in one third of overall patients, Wound infections, hematoma, seroma, and wound dehiscence are some of the most significant wound complications. Urinary retention has been reported in some cases, after the removal of urinary catheter.
Reoperations are not frequent. The causes of reoperations are necrosis of strangulated bowel, evisceration of the bowel, and small bowel obstruction by adhesions. Postoperative mortality has been reduced during the last years, and deaths are usually happening in patients over 65 years who have significant coexisting illness. The causes of death were the following: respiratory failure (which is common between patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), sepsis, which is associated with resection of necrotic bowel in reoperations, and multiorgan failure.
It is doubtful whether there is a significant difference between indirect and direct inguinal hernias in terms of strangulation rate. Postoperative complications have been found by some studies to be more commonly in patients with hernia more than 10 year. Late hospitalization is generally considered to be an important factor for bowel resection and subsequent morbidity and mortality [11]. Usually, the cause of delay in admission is through the patients fault, but a wrong diagnosis can also result in delay of treatment.
Concomitant diseases in patients with incarcerated groin hernias have been reported to be associated with poor outcome, affecting not only the morbidity, but also the mortality rate. The length of hospital stay was also encountered to be longer in patients with concomitant diseases. The ASA class considers the patients’ comorbidity and acute physiological disturbance. It has been reported that high ASA score was found to be an independent predictor of gangrenous bowel [12]. A significantly longer hospital stay and a significantly higher morbidity in elderly patients with ASA class III or IV who underwent emergency hernia repair was also reported.
The effect of anesthesia on the outcome of hernia repair has also been examined in the literature [13]. As we mentioned before, it is believed that general and spinal anesthesia were associated with higher rates of postoperative complications, but this fact is not widely accepted.
Recurrent groin hernias are a special complication of strangulated inguinal hernia repair and they are more difficult and hazardous to repair. The frequency of recurrent groin hernias observed after a treatment of strangulated inguinal hernia varied from 10% through 30%. The time to recurrence varies; it is believed to be approximately 25 years, but around 5.6% of recurrences appear during the first postoperative month, and 39.1% of overall recurrent hernias appear during the first year.
The mechanisms of recurrence after a repair are difficult to identify, especially when the recurrence is late, and the previous treatment technique is unknown. Even during the reoperation, the previously used procedure is often not identifiable. Incorrect technique is responsible for most recurrences during the first postoperative year. Examples include not dissecting or not finding a sac, leaving too long a peritoneal “stump”, incorrect closure of the hernia orifice, as demonstrated by the frequency of indirect recurrences, and suture under tension, which is most involved in direct recurrences. We previously mentioned that some techniques are more likely than others to lead to a recurrence. These include totally pre- or retrofunicular repairs. Large hernias recur twice as often as small ones, and careless management results in a recurrence. Extended dissection or traumatic sutures may change a contractible inguinal wall into a fibrous wall exposed to progressive rupture. Other risk factors, independent of the quality of the operation, are the patient\'s general condition and age, abdominal wall weakness, and obesity. The most dangerous factors are postoperative sepsis and chronic cough. It used to blame early activity or return to work for recurrence, but this has been turned down lately, as 80% percent of recurrent hernias are independent of heavy work [14].
Recurrences after prosthetic repair result exclusively from technical mistakes and, thus, appear during the first postoperative year. During the postoperative course, seromas and hematomas must be distinguished from recurrent hernias. The classic clinical signs can be confirmed by ultrasonography. Recurrence rate of strangulated inguinal hernias is high, and it is strongly correlated with the surgical technique. Moreover, technical mistakes during the procedure may worsen this rate. The surgeon must be very careful about the choice of treatment method, considering the predisposing factors that may be present.
In the 1830s, the use of plant resources such as flax, hemp and others was widespread as their fibers were in high demand by the textile, the paper and sailing industries. These plants were grown over large areas for exploitation. However, with the progress of science and technology (loom, steam engine, development of cotton harvesting and processing technique and others), materials such as metals, ceramics, glass, polymers, stones and concrete were preferred to plant resources. In 1900, fiber plants experienced their lowest implantation in terms of surface area. Indeed, the rise of new materials has greatly contributed to the improvement of human living conditions through the construction of more robust and sophisticated habitats, the development of the automotive, railway, aeronautics, textile industries, etc. Subsequently, in a concern for economy, lightness and performance, the development of composite materials was born during the 1930s.
The industrial use of plant fibers began in the early twentieth century with the manufacturing of aircraft seats, fuel tanks or other electronic boxes in plant fibers reinforced polymer materials. The need for securing constructions or structures that are made up of these materials inevitably arose. From an engineering viewpoint, this is taken into consideration during the design, due to a good knowledge of the material characteristics. Plant fibers have specific properties that make them good candidate reinforcing materials for high-performance composites and other applications [1]. However, the mechanical properties of PFs vary considerably both within the same species and from one species to another. Humidity variation, for example, leads to shrinkage or swelling that changes mechanical properties [2]. Similarly, their thermal properties are by far very different from those of synthetic fibers.
Various studies also indicate that plant fibers exhibit, for example, a very complex anisotropic behavior [3, 4, 5]. This anisotropy must be accounted for if a reliable design is to be achieved. Close collaboration between scientific disciplines such as botany, chemistry, biochemistry, molecular structural biology, plant genetics, physics and mechanics allows each of them to make a constructive and complementary contribution. PFs must withstand stresses of all kinds when they are associated with their deriving plants. They are loaded when it comes to supporting the weight of the plant or when it comes to resisting the winds, storms and hurricanes so common in their environment. PFs are diverse, and can all be studied for their use as engineering materials, in order to take benefit of the particular advantages offered by each of them. Meanwhile, their mechanical, physical and chemical characterization can differ between members of the same species and from one species to another. They are most often in the form of bundles (technical fibers) comprising one to twenty elementary fibers. They have a complex hierarchical structure inducing anisotropy and, have great geometric and mechanical variability. Humidity variation, for example, leads to shrinkage or swelling and changes in mechanical properties.
The characterization of material generally involves so-called monotonous tests (tensile, compression, torsion, bending or a combination) according to the load’s direction (uniaxial or multiaxial), cyclic tests, hardness and resilience tests. Tensile test is undoubtedly the most common test applied to PFs [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12] because it allows obtaining Young’s modulus, strength and elongation at break. Recent works show that PFs exhibit a delayed behavior over time and temperature [13, 14] highlighting their viscoelastic nature. A tensile test alone is therefore not sufficient to characterize these materials.
This chapter is structured in four sections. Following this introduction, Section 2 will give an overview of some essential applications, the supply chain and the techniques of separating fibers from their plant. In Section 3, we will describe the experimental characterization methods generally used to derive their structure morphology and their elastic, viscoelastic and thermomechanical properties. Section 4 is the conclusion.
The natural fiber derived from wood, sisal, hemp, coconut, cotton, kenaf, flax, jute, abaca, banana leaf fibers, bamboo, wheat straw or other fibrous material and the matrix can be a polymeric material. The key advantage of natural fibers and their composites over traditional materials is their biological and environmental durability as well as their superior biodegradability. Natural PFs are increasingly used in several fields of engineering applications because of their interesting properties [15]. Diverse abundance of natural fiber, shapes and forms is caused by their occurrence in different climatic zones, hence stimulating the interest and opportunities to conduct comprehensive studies for identifying new applications for the fibers in industry. Notably, they are gaining popularity due to their optimal use in reinforcement of bio-composite structures. These fibers are biodegradable, structurally sound and environmental friendly. However, a sound theoretical basis for modeling their structure and mechanical behavior has yet to be established. Thus, it will be a priority field of study that will challenge the scientists and researchers.
The emerging trends and opportunities for natural fibers are broadening due to desirable attributes such as biodegradability, eco-friendly, sustainability and energy efficiency. Sustainability supply chain of natural fibers is assessed and rated based on the following criteria: water usage, CO2 emissions, cost, availability and any other impacts [16]. Moreover, in the fashion industry, businesses tend to identify the impacts of fibers on brands that contribute to the most impressive reduction in their impact on environmental footprint. Some of the preferred fibers include Linen, Tencel, Bamboo, Recycled Polyester, Recycled Wool, Cork, Organic Cotton and Hemp.
Perhaps the most important factor is the understanding of the entirety of the supply chain of natural fibers and the stages that contribute to having the biggest impacts. Consequently, a map of biodiversity quantitative impact indicators that help the companies determine where to focus their efforts in supply chain management to alleviate natural fiber environmental footprint was developed.
Nowadays, only 23% of companies take into account their environmental footprint when choosing their suppliers and between 40 and 60% of a company’s environmental footprint actually comes from its supply chain. Hence, in developing the natural fiber supply strategy, it is critical to understand the role of supply chain management and the associated impacts of environmental footprint. Network analysis, optimization of transhipment costs and decision analysis on optimal solutions to minimize both the supply chain cost and environmental footprint are essential toolkits in the advancement and promotion of natural fibers industry.
Moreover, over the last two decades, the trends in production of plant fibers have been declining due to popularity of synthetic fibers as well as adverse drought conditions. The fiber production plants spread across all continents of the globe. Table 1 illustrates the trends of different sources of fibers, production capacities and where they are produced.
Fiber source | World production (103 tonnes) | Origin | Country |
---|---|---|---|
Abaca | 70 | Leaf | Malaysia, Uganda, Philippines, Bolivia, Brazil |
Bambou | 10,000 | Stem | Africa, India, Brazil |
Banana | 200 | Stem | Africa, India, Brazil |
Broom | Abundant | Stem | |
Coir | 100 | Fruit | India, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Malaysia, Brazil |
Cotton Lint | 18,500 | Stem | India, Europe, USA |
Elephant Grass | Abundant | Stem | India, Africa |
Flax | 810 | Stem | Europe |
Hemp | 215 | Stem | Yugoslavia, China |
Jute | 2500 | Stem | India, Egypt, Guyana, Jamaica, Ghana, Malawi, Sudan, Tanzania, Brazil |
Kenaf | 770 | Stem | Iraq, Tanzania, Jamaica |
Linseed | Abundant | Fruit | USA |
Nettles | Abundant | Stem | Europe |
Oil Palm Fruit | Abundant | Fruit | Malaysia, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Philippines |
Palmyrah | Abundant | Stem | India |
Ramie | 100 | Stem | Honduras, Mauritius |
Roselli | 250 | Stem | Borneo, Guyana, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Togo, Indonesia, Tanzania |
Rice Husk | Abundant | Fruit/grain | India, Japan, Brazil, Others |
Rice Straw | Abundant | Stem | India, Japan, Brazil, Others |
Sisal | 380 | Leaf | East Africa, Bahamas, Antigua, Kenya, Tanzania, India, Brazil |
Sun Hemp | 70 | Stem | Nigeria, Guyana, Siera Leone, India |
Wheat Straw | Abundant | Stem | USA, Brazil, India, Canada |
Wood | 1,750,000 | Stem | All Countries |
Fiber sources, country and annual production of plant fibers.
In 2018, world production of all apparel and textile fibers reached 110 million tons, with natural fiber production estimated at 32 million metric tons. Natural fibers accounted for 29% of the total world fiber production capacity, with most of annual yield variation linked to dry weather conditions. Moreover, the decline in the amounts of natural fibers in total fiber production in the last decade is due to the exponential growth in polyester production, whose demands were triggered by the fast-fashion apparel industry.
Cellulosic fibers originated from plants and trees such as cotton, flax, hemp, jute, ramie, kapok, coir and bamboo are termed natural PFs. Such fibers are derived from various parts of plants including leaves, stems (bast fibers), fruits and seeds. Because all natural PFs are made up of mainly cellulose, they are categorized as ‘natural cellulosic fibres’, which may consist of one plant cell or an aggregate of cells bounded together by non-cellulose materials. Major commercially used PFs include: seed fibers (cotton, coir, kapok), bast fibers (flax, hemp, ramie, bamboo, banana), leaf fibers (sisal, kenaf, pineapple, abaca). To date, bast fibers are produced and utilized to manufacture a wide array of traditional and novel products including ropes, nets, carpets, mats, brushes, mattresses, paper and board materials. Generally, PFs are classified into two groups, namely soft fibers and hard fibers. Soft fibers are obtained through labour-intensive processes. It involves the following steps: selection of plant and harvesting the plant, partial drying, pounding with stone mallet, scraped with devices similar to comb to clean the fibers, wash the fibers, dry in the sun and finally comb the fibers. Subsequently, the fibers are ready to be spun or twisted into thread or cord. Soft fibers are often used to make ropes, string, nets, bags, and hammocks.
Hard fibers are processed through successive phases of cutting, drying, cleaning, and soaking before they can be woven. They are strong and naturally flexible fibers, thus suitable and utilized to make furniture, birdcages, toys, baskets, and mats.
Figure 1(a) and (b) shows the matured flax plants grown under a controlled greenhouse environment and a setup of bench-scale trouph for water retting of flax stems [17].
Greenhouse controlled experiments for flax plants [
Historically, most plant fibers were extracted manually, supplemented by natural retting. Evidently, this process is tedious, time-consuming and the extracted quality of fibers depends on the skill of the labourer. Nowadays, these fibers are extracted by chemical, mechanical or biological methods.
Akubueze et al. [18], reviewed the chemical techniques employed to extract fibers from natural plants, which include alkali, acid and other reagents. The typical mechanical extraction methods involve the use of stripping the plant stem (typically known as Bacnis and Leonit processes). The latest mechanical extraction methods utilize the decortication process, whereby the plant stems are crushed between two drum rollers to obtain the fibers after removing the pulp. The use of decorticators increase fiber production by 20–25 times compared with the manual process. With biological processes, both consortium of microorganisms and enzymes are utilized to efficiently extract fibers from plant stems.
Overall, the mechanical extraction is incapable to remove the natural binding material (pectin) from the interspaces of the fibers within fiber bundle, chemical extraction is capable to remove the pectin within the fiber bundle but causes significant environmental pollution, whereas the biological extraction method provides increased fiber yield, with minimum detrimental effects to the environment.
According to the Centre for Learning and Teaching in Art and Design (CLTAD), bast fibers, for example, are generally obtained from the phloem, an inner skin of a plant. These fibers support the cells of the phloem to provide strength to the stem. During processing, the fibers need to be separated from both the interior (xylem) and exterior (epidermis) which is the outermost layer of cells. The processes for separating these fibers from plant stalks are known as retting and decortication. Bast fiber bundles are typically several feet long, composed of overlapping cellulose fibers and a cohesive gum (or pectin), which strengthens the stem of the plant. The processes with which the bast fibers are separated significantly influence the quality of fibers as there are many stages involved. Kumar et al. [19], reported that the processing of sustainable fiber starts with fiber extraction and yarn production followed by bleaching, dyeing, softening, printing and drying.
Moreover, the process that separates the fibers into smaller bundles and elementary fibers is known as retting. Fiber retting is a key process and is an important criterion that most industries value because it determines the ultimate properties of the fibers produced. Traditional retting methods include dew and water retting. Dew retting depends on ambient weather conditions, typically takes several weeks and hence the quality of fibers produced varies considerably. Similarly, water retting has been a primary method for low-cost production of bast fibers. The process involves submerging bast straws into water and then the decomposition of the pectic is effected by the activity of anaerobic microorganisms. The quality of retting is assessed by the weight, degumming rate and the fiber properties. The faster rate of weight loss is preferred, the degumming rate is evaluated as the percentage change in pectin content of phloem regions in the raw plant to those in water-retted plant, whereas the desired fiber properties include color, linear density and tensile strength. Ruan et al. [20], reported that water retting improved both whiteness and fineness as well as the mechanical properties of fibers.
Although water retting is capable to produce good quality fibers, the inherent long duration of 7–14 days and associated odor has made it less attractive. The retting period can be reduced to 100 h by using warm water (35°C), but high water consumption and unpleasant odor limit its use to some developing countries. Retting is the process by which pectin gets dissolved or softened from the fiber bundles and separates the fibers from stems through microbial activity. As such, a group of Clostridium microorganism is commonly known to play a significant role in the process by hydrolysing the pectin as it produces pectinase enzyme. These enzymes initially attack the cambium layer and then the other thin-walled cells in the cortex. This phenomenon takes place in most plant bast fibers as they have similar long filament structures, except those from cotton fibers which are single plant cells. As an example, for the retting process conducted in a bench-scale trouph under no-flow process water conditions, there were distinct features on how the fibers separate from bundles. Figure 2(a) and (b) show the scanning electron microscopy of the unretted and retted fibers of flax.
A SEM shows the microstructure of flax fibers (a) before retting and (b) after the retting process [
Figure 3(a) shows that cellulosic fiber production accounted for 6% of the total in 2018, synthetic filament accounted for 45% and synthetic staple 20%. Similarly, Figure 3(b) depicts that cotton accounted for 81% of natural fiber production by weight in 2018, jute accounted for 7%, while coir and wool each accounted for 3%.
World total fiber production and natural fiber production [
The synthetic fibers are dominated by polyester, which accounts for nearly 90% of world filament production and 70% of world synthetic staple production. The remaining synthetic fibers are composed mostly of nylon, acrylic and polypropylene.
Perhaps a key factor is to consider the role and contribution of human capital and household social economics. Employment statistics in natural fiber industries is difficult to estimate because households do not engage in consistent annual production. In Ref. [23] it is estimated that about 60 million households worldwide are engaged in natural fiber production, and hence the total employment, reflecting both full-time year-round employment and part-time or seasonal employment, is around 300 million, which represents about 4% of the world’s population.
Natural fibers possess superior advantages over synthetic fibers including widespread availability, low cost, low density, moderate strength modulus to weight ratio, high acoustic damping, low manufacturing energy consumption, low carbon footprint and biodegradability. Consequently, there are emerging concerted research initiatives that explore and promote the understanding of the characteristics of natural fibers [15, 24].
As discussed in Section 2.3.1 above, dew and water retting are the most common processes for fiber retting. Plant fibers can also be extracted using chemical and enzymatic retting, which provide better control than dew and water retting. Unfortunately, chemical retting while effective in extraction of fibers, causes significant pollution challenges due to higher amount of chemicals utilized. For the chemical extraction methods, alkali and selected reagents have been employed. Alkali treatments promote the fibrillation, whereby the composite fiber bundle is degraded into smaller fibers. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is popularly used to reduce the fiber roughness, but also produces good quality fiber. Reagents such as sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, protease and sodium citrate can also be used for chemical extraction [25].
Similarly, enzymatic retting is relatively expensive despite its shorter retting time, yet it produces acceptable fiber quality and is advantageous over other retting processes. In the enzymatic method, the selection of enzymes depends on the type of substrate, composition, size and lignin content. The most common enzymes utilized are cellulases and pectinases. Cellulase enzymes enhance the fiber smoothness by removing fibrils from the outer layer. As such, this results in reduction in the mechanical properties due to the damage caused in the fibers. Pectinases remove the inter-lamellar pectin, which is a natural adhesive compound between fibers.
The ultrastructure is about dimensions between the atomic and molecular domains. These are accessed using microscopes. Morphology and quantitative chemistry investigations on plant fibers can be achieved following various analytical techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), surface electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) [7, 24]. TEM, which uses the principle of electron diffraction leads to very high magnifications of about 5,000,000. Recent progress in instrumentation has made Raman microscopy an extraordinary analytical tool in biological and plant research [26]. The main advantage of confocal Raman microscopy (CRM) is its lateral spatial resolution and the fact that it provides not only chemical composition information but also structural information.
A plant fiber is a nanostructured, renewable, sustainable and biodegradable composite material (Figure 4) [27]. Its cell wall can be likened to a composite lamina, consisting of a few plies reinforced with fibrils. Each individual fiber is composed of a primary wall P and a secondary wall S, itself consisting of three layers S1, S2, S3. In the centre, there may be a cavity called lumen if the cell has not filled up completely during its development. Individual cells are interphased with the middle lamellae (ML) as presented in Figure 4. The S2 layer of the secondary wall represents about 80% of the section and governs the mechanical behavior of the fiber [28]. The middle lamella is a wall 0.5–2 μm thick that surrounds the fiber; it plays the role of matrix that maintains the cohesion of the fibers. It is mainly composed of hemicelluloses, pectin and lignin (about 70%) [29]. Figure 5(a)–(d) show micrographs of the RC fiber [30] obtained on a Hitachi H-7650 TEM.
Simplified structure of the wood cell wall as seen by Coté [
TEM micrographs of the RC fiber (a) consecutive layers (16,400), (b) layer stacking (16,400), (c) warty sub-layer (7660) and (d) reinforcement by a small cell (10,900) [
The microfibrillar angle is defined as the angle that the microfibrils form with the longitudinal axis of the cell. These two parameters explain partially the difference in mechanical properties between different types of cortical fibers (Table 2) [15]. The microfibrillar angle has a major influence on the elastic properties of plant fibers. The weaker is this angle, the better are the properties for plant fibers to behave as a composite material, which presents better mechanical properties in the reinforcement direction [24, 31]. Xu and Liu [32] predicted that the cell wall elastic modulus of wood varies by a factor of 3 when microfibril angle changes from 40° to 10°.
Fibers | Crystallinity index (CrI) | Microfibril angle (°) | Cross-section area (mm2) | Length of the cell (mm) | Aspect ratio l/d |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coco | 45.0 | 1.20 | 3.3 | 35 | |
Flax | 10.0 | 0.12 | 2. | 1687 | |
Hemp | 6.2 | 0.06 | 23 | 960 | |
Jute | 8.0 | 0.12 | 2.3 | 110 | |
Ramie | 7.5 | 0.03 | 154 | 3500 | |
RC [35] | 42 | 0.05–0.962 | >2000 | ||
Sisal | 56.6–66.2 | 20.0 | 1.10 | 2.2 | 100 |
The cellulose fibrils are oriented in a helix at an angle called micro-fibril angle, as shown in Figure 4. The microfibril angle in the S1 and S3 layers is greater than that of the S2 layer. It means that the fibrils in S1 and S3 layers are almost transversely oriented with respect to the fiber axis. According to the small microfibril angle in the S2 layer, its fibrils are oriented more parallel to the axis of the fiber [22]. In addition, for a given percentage of cellulose, the lower the microfibril angle, the higher the stiffness and strength of the fiber. The greater the microfibril angle, the greater the elongation at break [28]. Each microfibril can be considered as chains of cellulose crystals bound by amorphous zones [36].
The microfibril angle partly explains the elastic deformation of the plant fiber and therefore its elongation at break. Under relatively low tensile forces, a plant fiber undergoes a reversible deformation due to the progressive alignment of cellulose microfibrils with the fiber axis and an elasto-visco-plastic deformation of amorphous polymers. If the stress of the fiber is stronger, the deformation of it enters an irreversible phase that can continue until the rupture. A high microfibril angle implies a greater elastic deformation for a low tensile fiber stress. In addition, there is a negative correlation between the microfibril angle and the corresponding Young’s modulus (Figure 6) [37].
Variation of the young modulus with the microfibril angle of a unit cell.
In order to estimate suitability of different fibers to engineering and other applications, it is necessary, among other things, to determine their mechanical properties in the longitudinal and transverse directions as well as the origin of the viscoelastic properties. Thus, we will present in the following paragraphs a state of the art on the main methods used to evaluate the elastic and viscoelastic properties of PFs. Various methods have been used to measure the angle of microfibrils in the S2 layer, which is generally considered a Z-helix. Nevertheless, some studies using cross-field pit punctuations such as those of Pysznski and Hejnowicz [38] on the tracheids of Norwegian Spruce show that in about 80% of the trees studied, the Z-shaped microfibrils have an angle of 10°–40° while in the remaining 20%, the angle is lower with variations in orientation. A complete list of the different microfibril angle measurement techniques with their advantages and disadvantages is given by Huang et al. [39]. Among these techniques, X-ray diffraction is fast, but it is impossible to measure the angle of a single fiber, because of the bundle, only an average of the angle on the X-rays affected cells can be determined. The results obtained by different methods are often contradictory. For example, the work of Herman et al. [40] on individual tracheids shows large variations in the microfibril angle within annual dark circles with a sharp decrease from spring cells to summer cells. While other studies by Lichtenegger et al. [41] using the SAXS (small-angle X-ray scattering) method, on the same cell type shows a higher microfibril angle in summer tracheids than in spring tracheids. Currently, it is necessary to understand where the differences in results obtained by the available measurement methods originate from and to find a method that gives safe and reproductive results. A technique was developed by Jang [42] which uses polarization confocal microscopy based on dichromic cell wall fluorescence when stained with specific fluorochromes showing a high affinity with cellulose. In this technique, sample preparation still needs to be addressed. In fact, very thin samples, only allow observation of fluorescence intensity in the S2 layer without interference with the other layers. A quick but reliable estimate of the Rhectophyllum Camerunense (RC) fiber [30] microfibrils angle was obtained on the SEM (following a microtome longitudinal section of the fiber coinciding with the S2 layer) and fluorescence micrographs.
The chemical composition of plant fibers depends largely on the particular needs of their stemming plant. However, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are the main constituents, and their content depends on the age, origin and extraction conditions of the fibers. Cellulose is the chemical constituent that contributes the most to the strength and stability of the plant cell wall and therefore of the fibers. The cellulose content of the fiber largely influences mechanical properties, the economic aspect and the production of the fiber. Fibers with a high cellulose content would be preferable for use in textiles, paper, composites and other fields of activity while those with a high hemicellulose content would be suitable for the production of ethanol and other fermentation products because hemicellulose is easy to hydrolyse in fermentable sugars. Thus, the value of plant fiber and its potential applications depends largely on its cellulose content. Let us say, however, that the value of a plant depends mainly on the quality of its fibers and their end-use and not on the cellulose content itself. As with all-natural products, mechanical and physical properties of natural fibers vary greatly. These properties depend on the chemical and structural composition which depends on the origin of extraction (from leaves, seeds or stems), the local environment where the plants grow, the age of the plants and the climate. The chemical composition, structure, defects and dimensions of the fiber cells are the main parameters that condition all properties of the fibers including mechanical properties [12]. With the exception of cotton, the constituents of plant fibers are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, waxes and water-soluble substances. The average chemical composition of some plant fibers is shown in Table 3.
Fiber | Chemical content (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Cellulose | Hemicellulose | Lignin | Pectin | |
Abaca | 63.2 | 19.6 | 5.1 | — |
Bamboo | 48 | 23 | 19 | — |
Cotton | 83 | 5 | — | — |
Flax | 65–70 | 10–16 | 2.9 | 2–4 |
Hemp | 67 | 16.1 | 4 | — |
Jute | 55–64 | 12–18 | 12–33 | 0.2 |
Kenaf | 55–59 | 18–20 | 6.8–8 | 4.5–5 |
Ramie | 68.6 | 13.1 | 0.6 | — |
RC | 68.2 | 16 | 15.6 | — |
Sisal | 54–66 | 12 | 7.3 | 0.8 |
TJ | 62.7 | 14.5 | 4.1 | 7.6 |
Wood | 83 | 5 | 19–26 | 0 |
Chemical contents of some fibers.
The chemical bonds of the fibers can be determined with FTIR. Crystallographic properties can be analyzed with XRD. TGA, DTA and DSC are used to understand the thermal degradation behavior, the maximum degradation temperature of fibers. Pull-out tests applied to both raw and NaOH treated fibers aim for evaluation of the surface interaction of fibers with polymer matrices for composite materials applications.
In 1838, Anselm Payen proposed that cell walls of many plant cells be made of the same substance to which he gave the name cellulose. Cellulose is a natural polymer whose molecule, formed by long chains, consists of units of D-anhydroglucopyranoses (formula: (C6 H10 O5)n) linked by β-(1,4)-glycosidic bonds in position C1 and C4 (Figure 7). It represents the most abundant biological molecule on our planet. It is present in plants, algae, bacteria and some animals.
Cellulose molecule.
Cellulose is the major constituent of wood and is the major constituent of cotton and other textile fibers such as flax, hemp, jute and ramie. Its degree of polymerization varies according to the plant species. It can be 14,000 for native cellulose, but the insulation and purification procedures reduce it very sharply by about 2500. Cellulose contributes to the strength and rigidity of the fiber thanks to its strongly oriented chains. These macromolecular chains can be arranged, either regularly, in crystalline regions, or randomly in amorphous regions. Mechanical properties of natural fibers depend on their type of cellulose, as each type has its own cellular geometry. If cellulose is a prime structural constituent for the vast majority of plant cell walls, then hemicellulose with lignin acts as binding materials. Properties depend on the fiber cell geometry of each type of cellulose and its degree of polymerization.
Hemicelluloses represent the second most abundant constituent of plant fiber. Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides found in lignocelluloses alongside cellulose and pectin. Hemicelluloses, unlike cellulose, are composed of several sugars that form short chains with ramifications. The sugars present can be divided into different groups: pentoses (xylose, arabinose), hexoses (glucose, mannose, galactose), hexo-uronic acids (glucuronic acid and methyl-glucuronic acid) and l-deoxyhexoses (rhamnose and fucose). Hemicelluloses are, by definition, water-soluble polysaccharides that can be extracted from the plant cell walls using alkaline solutions. They are the most hydrophilic biopolymers in the cell wall that promote moisture absorption. In their natural state, they have a degree of polymerization that varies from 200 to 300, and their structure depends on the plant species. The best-studied class of hemicelluloses are xyloglucans. They have a bridging role between cellulose microfibrils in order to strengthen the cell wall by interaction with cellulose and, in some cell walls, with lignin. They consist of a glucose chain and short side chains of xylose, galactose and fructose.
Lignin together with cellulose and hemicelluloses is part of the wood industry. Its proportion in wood varies between 15 and 30% [43]. Lignin or ‘lignins’ are three-dimensional polymers from the radical polymerization of three phenylpropenoic alcohols: coniferryl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol and p-coumaryl alcohol [44]. Lignin contributes to the rigidity of cell walls, and thus to the erect port of terrestrial higher plants. Lignin also offers a protective barrier against the microbial attack of plants. Indeed, due to its chemical nature, lignin is very resistant to various chemical agents and biological degradation. To sum up, lignin polymers make the cell wall rigid and impermeable, allowing the transport of water and nutrients through the vascular system by protecting plants from microbial invasion. Lignin is totally amorphous and hydrophobic. It is not hydrolysed by acids, but hot soluble in soda, easily oxidized and also condensable with phenol.
Pectins are polymers of acidic polysaccharides, composed of a main chain of uronic acid bound in 1–4. Regularly, rhamnose molecules are interspersed between these monomers by bonds 1–2 and 1–4. Some of these rhamnose units carry side chains composed of neutral oses among which galactose and arabinose are the most abundant. The type of bond between uronic acid and rhamnose molecules forms elbows. The pectin macromolecule appears like a zigzag. This arrangement contributes to its special properties and provides some flexibility to plants. Pectins are extracted from the fiber by a chemical method either by boiling water or by ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid.
Different methods can be used including solid pycnometers or gas pycnometers [45, 46, 47]. The choice of gases (helium for example) or immersion liquids such as toluene, ethanol and xylene is decisive for quality results [46, 47]. Fibers must be dried for at least 72 h in a desiccator containing silica (previously regenerated). Fibers are then cut into lengths of 5–15 mm and then introduced into the pycnometer which is eventually placed in the desiccator for at least 24 h. Before carrying out the hydrostatic weighing with the immersion liquids, the vortex agitation of fibers to evacuate the microbubbles between needs to be done. Significant degassing could occur at this stage and provides information on the porosity rate of the fibers [30].
In general, PFs are suitable for reinforcing plastics (thermosets and thermoplastics) and textiles manufacturing thanks to their relatively high strength and low density. The tensile strength and the modulus of elasticity of PFs are very important characteristics for the use of fibers as reinforcements in composite and textile materials. However, the tensile test data for most fibers in service have yet to be studied, as the data found in the literature are scattered and often unreliable. In fact, methods used for the characterization are not identical. Table 4 shows the tensile mechanical properties of some plant fibers compared to synthetic fibers [48]. The properties of the fibers and their structure depend on several factors such as the origin, variety, conditions of growth and harvesting of fibers associated with the treatments, the location in the stem, the presence or absence of a lumen, measurement techniques that vary greatly from one research team to another. These factors can make a difference for the same type of fiber and influence test results.
Fiber | Density (g/cm3) | Diametre (μm) | Length (mm) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Young modulus (GPa) | Elongation at break (%) | Moisture content (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abaca | 1.5 | 10–30 (20) | 4.6–5.2 (4.9) | 430–813 (621.5) | 31.1–33.6 (32.35) | 2.9 | 14 |
Bamboo | 0.6–1.1 (0.85) | 25–88 (56.5) | 1.5–4 (2.75) | 270–862 (566) | 17–89 (53) | 1.3–8 (4.65) | 11–17 (14) |
Banana | 1.35 | 12–30 (21) | 0.4–0.9 (0.65) | 529–914 (721.5) | 27–32 (29.5) | 5–6 (5.5) | 10–11 (10.5) |
Coir | 1.2 | 7–30 (18.5) | 0.3–3 (1.65) | 175 | 6 | 15–25 (20) | 10 |
Cotton | 1.21 | 12–35 (23.5) | 15–56 (35.5) | 287–597 (442) | 6–10 (8) | 2–10 (6) | 33–34 (33.5) |
Flax | 1.38 | 5–38 (21.5) | 10–65 (37.5) | 343–1035 (689) | 50–70 (60) | 1.2–3 (2.1) | 7 |
Hemp | 1.47 | 10–51 (30.5) | 5–55 (30) | 580–1110 (845) | 30–60 (45) | 1.6–4.5 (3.05) | 8 |
Jute | 1.23 | 5–25 (15) | 0.8–6 (3.4) | 187–773 (480) | 20–55 (37.5) | 1.5–3.1 (2.3) | 12 |
Kenaf | 1.2 | 12–36 (24) | 1.4–11 (6.2) | 295–930 (612.5) | 22–60 (41) | 2.7–6.9 (4.8) | ) 6.2–12 (9.1) |
Pineapple | 1.5 | 8–41 (24.5) | 3–8 (5.5) | 170–1627 (898.5) | 60–82 (71) | 1–3 (2) | 14 |
Ramie | 1.44 | 18–80 (49) | 40–250 (145) | 400–938 (669) | 61.4–128 (94.7) | 2–4 (3) | 12–17 (14.5) |
RC | 0.94 | 70–350 (120) | — | 450–1500 (557.1) | 5.8 (±3.5) | 27.5 | — |
Sisal | 1.2 | 7–47 (27) | 0.8–8 (4.4) | 507–855 (681) | 9–22 (15.5) | 1.9–3 (2.45) | 11 |
TJ | (1.398) | 40–90 () | (404.0) | (32.3) | (1.8) |
Mechanical properties of some selected plant fibers versus synthetic fibers [48].
Selection of plant fiber implies a prior study of its mechanical properties, chemical resistance, dimensional stability, separation process, etc. It is worth recalling that linear cellulosic macromolecules are linked by hydrogen bonds and are closely associated with hemicelluloses and lignin, which confer stiffness to fiber. One of the issues of natural fibers is the scattered information and the differences in mechanical properties reported. Likewise, the lack of standards for both producers and users of these materials regarding methods to collect, process, post-process and characterize plant fibers underlines the complexity in the selection.
Quasi-static tensile test is the method commonly used in the literature for the characterization of the mechanical properties of plant fibers in the longitudinal direction. This type of characterization presents challenges linked to the assembly and to the single nature of the fiber. In addition, the geometry of the plant fiber makes it often difficult to conduct the tests. Therefore, evaluation of the mean diameter along the fiber using a microscope is necessary for the performance of the test. The single fiber is mounted on a paper frame and a drop of glue is used to stick the fibers. The role of this paper frame is to facilitate the handling and alignment of the fiber on the jaws of the experimental device as shown in Figure 8 [35].
Tensile test and gripping tab specimens for plant fibers.
The large dispersion of the mechanical properties of the plant fibers observed (Figure 9) is mostly related to the test conditions. The research work by Ntenga et al. [14] focused on the choice of the stress speed and the gage length, in order to keep the deformation in the elastic domain and reduce this dispersion during the tests. The machine cross-head speed of 1 mm/min and the gage length of 10 mm were found to cause less dispersion of the mechanical properties in a tensile test.
Tensile stress/strain curves for the four cross-head speeds of gage length 10 mm [
Nanoindentation is a technique used to characterize the longitudinal and transverse mechanical properties of fibers at the cell wall scale. Commonly measured properties are Young’s modulus and material hardness. In the literature, nanoindentation tests have been carried out to access both transverse and longitudinal mechanical properties on wood fibers [34, 49] and recently on flax fibers [50]. According to Cisse [51], nanoindentation only gives access to local behavior of the fiber, and the identification of mechanical properties requires knowledge and use of a behavior model. The testing technique consists of applying a force to the indenter and taking the area of the indentation, in order to determine the Young’s modulus and the hardness of the material (Figure 10(a) and (b)).
(a) Nano indentation experimental device and (b) indentor impression Berkovich [
A typical set of nanoindentation tests results [53] is shown in Figure 11.
Transverse modulus of plant fibers obtained in nano indentation.
Differences in transverse and longitudinal modulus noted between the fibers can be explained not only by the differences in micro-fibrillary angles but also by the rate of cellulose that varies between fibers. Hemp and sisal in particular have a cellulose content of around 60%, while that of flax is over 75%; however, the mechanical properties of cellulose are much superior to those of lignin, hemicelluloses and pectins, other constituents of natural fibers [50].
A large amount of work exists in the field of vibration-based non-destructive testing (NDT) including an extensive survey of over 300 papers by Kong et al. [54]. Indeed, the vibration-based technique has been a very active area of research for many years, however, has always dealt with rigid bodies. As an extension of the use of this technique, the purpose of this section is to present the applicability of the low-frequency vibration-based technique towards estimation of dynamic Young’s modulus of natural fiber-based materials, initially having no bending stiffness. This technique enhances the applicability of non-contact acoustic non-destructive testing to the estimation of dynamic characteristics of thin materials, where the current standard method [55] is not applicable.
Let us consider a thin rectangular specimen having a length
Specimen configuration (i): undeformed, and vibrating at (ii): fundamental frequency, (iii): second frequency in flexural mode.
The specimen, considered as a membrane, initially has no bending stiffness. It is then slightly stretched in the y-direction, in order to make it possible to vibrate transversally (i.e. in the
In general, for a specimen having intrinsic elasticity, the equation of motion is expressed as follows:
where
where
The frequency equation with the fixed-fixed boundary condition shown in Figure 12 above was derived in Mfoumou et al. [56] to obtain the frequency of vibration
where
For a plant fiber-based material considered as a membrane; therefore, no account of intrinsic elasticity is taken so that Eq. (3) is simplified, and the normal frequencies equation is expressed as:
The Young’s modulus can therefore be determined using the flexural resonance method by monitoring normal modes of vibration. These modes for an oscillating system are special solutions where all the parts of the system are oscillating with the same frequency. At these modes, considering only bending modes in the length direction (
thus, enabling extraction of the constant
Both creep experiment and relaxation experiment are two techniques commonly used to characterize the delayed behavior of ‘conventional’ materials. A creep test consists of imposing an almost instantaneous stress load on the plant fiber and maintaining it constantly over time and then proceeding to a discharge. The resulting deformation under the action of the load is creep, and that under the action of discharge is recovery. In general, the creep responses can be broken down into three stages depending on the strain rate as shown in the following Figure 13. The first stage in which creep occurs at a decreasing rate is called primary creep; the second step, commonly called secondary creep, is carried out at a relatively constant speed; and the third stage, tertiary creep, occurs at an increasing rate and terminates with material fracture.
Creep/recovery test of an elementary hemp fiber under a constant environment [
The creep test was successfully carried out on an elementary hemp fiber and the results allowed it possible to highlight the viscoelastic nature of the plant fiber [51]. Figure 13 shows the creep test results obtained.
When a constant strain is applied to a material for a long period, cross-links or the primary bonds that form between molecules start breaking with time and spontaneously lose their bonding capability. High level of strain or long period is the main reason for intermolecular bond breakage, thus creating stress decay over time, called stress relaxation. The rate of bond breakage influences the rate of stress relaxation. Other factors control the rate of bond breakdown, such as stress on the bond, chemical interference, molecular chain mobility which allows molecular chains to move out from their position. The behavior of stress relaxation in plant fibers is also influenced by temperature, humidity, and strain levels. The stress relaxation tests are therefore mainly performed with different ranges of temperature, humidity and strain levels. The time taken to reach the end of relaxation is called relaxation time. From other studies, it is reported that at higher temperature relaxation time becomes shorter, while at lower temperature it becomes longer but the shape of relaxation does not change with temperature [57]; moreover, the variation of strain level affects the stress relaxation [58]. The literature also reports the sensitivity of this class of material to loading-directionality, and ductile and brittle phenomena [59].
During structural design, the properties of the material must be considered. Elastic Modulus is one of the most important material properties describing the stiffness of the material. When a force is applied to an object, modulus of elasticity or elastic modulus gives the mathematical description of the object’s tendency to be deformed elastically.
In orthotropic materials such as wood-based natural fibers, the strain quickly increases linearly with the stress, then exhibit a nonlinear behavior when the strain exceeds the proportional limits. When the stress relaxation tests are conducted for a very small deformation, the viscoelasticity of the material can be considered linear. During stress relaxation test, the material relieves stress over time as well as the elastic modulus of material
where,
A rectangular strip of specimen is placed between the clamps of the tensile test machine (see Figure 8), and it is slightly loaded within its elastic region. The specimen is tested in uniaxial stress-state at a strain rate of 1 mm/mm with 0.4% strain changes. The elongation is kept constant at 0.4% strain level (1 mm extension) for 5400 s and time, stress, and strain are recorded.
Experiments were carried out for paperboard (PPR) without crack and PPR with crack. Five specimens were tested for each case and each experiment continued for 5400 s (1.5 h) with 1 mm extension. The reason for taking 1 mm extension was to keep the deformation within the elastic region.
The stress relaxation of each specimen was monitored and analyzed at constant.
elongation. The load, stress and time data for constant strain were obtained from the experiments. From the testing of five specimens in each case, we have plotted stress versus time curves. The plotted stress relaxation of PPR without and with the presence of a side crack is presented in Figure 14.
Stress relaxation of paperboard with and without crack.
Figure 15 show the stress relaxation behavior of PPR at different strain levels (two different extension levels, 1 mm and 0.5 mm).
Stress relaxation of paperboard for 1 mm and 0.5 mm extension.
The data obtained from the stress relaxation experiments are decreasing type of data with function of time and this type of data can be fitted to the poly-exponential function of the following form:
where,
The parameters of a set of mechanical models can be calculated from experimental data. MATLAB, for example, can be used to extract the parameters from the data. To analyze the suitability of the mechanical model with the experimental stress relaxation, Maxwell Model, Two-unit Maxwell Model, Modified Two-unit Maxwell Model, Standard linear solid model are constructed and then compared with the experimental relaxation. Analytical description of these models is given in [62].
In Ref. [56] we have chosen Foss method to develop curve fitting for all models and then compared with the experimental relaxation. Whereas in Ref. [15] we used the Zapas-Phillips method. The best-fitted model with the experimental data was then selected to analysis all experimental data and mathematically stress relaxation equations were derived.
To predict the stress relaxation behavior of natural fibers, we derived the mathematical equations for PPR with and without presence of crack. These equations were derived by the Modified Two-unit Maxwell model which suits best with the experimental result. Though we carried out our experimental tests with five specimens for each kind of test and among them three specimen-data were taken into consideration, but here we will construct the stress relaxation equation for only one specimen for each case.
Below the comparison, diagrams between experimental relaxation data and the Modified Two-unit Maxwell are shown in Figures 16 and 17. The stress relaxation equation for each case is derived using Modified Two-unit Maxwell model.
Stress relaxation of paperboard—curve fitting.
Stress relaxation of paperboard with crack–curve fitting.
Suitability of materials inverse characterization, destructive or non-destructive, is widely investigated [52, 63, 64]. Furtado et al. [65] used an ultrasound shear wave viscoelastography method to determine the viscoelastic complex shear modulus of macroscopically homogeneous tissues. Ilczyszyn et al. [66] performed the mechanical characterization of flax fibers using an inverse optimization simplex method.
The aim here is to use macro-micro approaches to achieve an efficient estimation of the fiber properties. In fact, homogenization laws of the micromechanics of the elastic/viscoelastic behavior of composite materials provide relationships of the properties of these materials in terms of their constituents’ properties. For an orthotropic material, the knowledge of its off-axes elastic modules in a set of
For a tensile test in the
There are five independent properties to be determined
Analytical expressions of the five properties in terms of fiber and matrix phase properties and the volume fractions are given by:
with
Eqs. (8)–(13) are then solved for
There are evolving global challenges on the utilization of non-renewable resources in the manufacturing industry and increasingly stringent environmental legislation. Both consumers and regulatory agencies are thriving for products that reduce dependency on fossil fuels and thus, are more environmentally friendly. As such, this paves for an opportunity to embrace the use of natural fibers in products and composites leading to significant growth of biobased economy, which the present chapter intends to stimulate.
The field of study of plant fibers that can be industrially exploited remains open. In this chapter, a particular emphasis has been put on their production, in particular on the methods that are generally used to separate them from their originating plants. To date, the question of improving the quality of the extracted fiber has been satisfactorily answered, particularly as regards the possibility of combining several methods when necessary. Some other questions still require research. These include, among others, growing conditions for seed multiplication and fiber production, harvesting methods, optimisation of fiber separation, the molecular basis for improving fiber decortication and performance. The knowledge gained from this work could be used to design new varieties of fibers, tailored for specific industrial applications. Similarly, the recourse to proteomics [68, 69], to isolate genes involved in the biosynthesis of cell wall lignin and hemicellulose in tobacco. Variations in these constituents can affect the fiber quality and cellulose availability. This could then lead to a new orientation on molecular selection research as well as genetic modifications studies to improve the quality of plant fibers.
Morphology and surface behavior of plant fibers are studied using various techniques such as XRD, FTIR, SEM, AFM, TEM and thermogravimetric analysis that helps in understanding the nature of natural fibers.
In terms of the mechanical behavior of plant fibers, important milestones have been achieved to highlight the influence of the chemical composition and structural parameters of the plant wall on their tensile properties. The microstructure of plant fibers is very complex, precisely when it comes to defining generalizable geometric and analytical models that describe it. As mentioned above, improving the mechanical properties of fibers may require the introduction of new types of fibers. And we could mention in this regard the ongoing research on spinning with solvents [70, 71], to obtain fibers of greater strength and low scattered properties. Understanding how fiber morphology affects the properties of composite materials is essential. More precisely, it is important for the selection of new fibers and for the cultivation of fibrous plants genetically selected. This would help to predict their potential for reinforcement in other materials to achieve desired properties.
Investigation of the viscoelastic properties of plant fibers has also been outlined. A variety of dynamic modulus measurement methods exists including ultrasonic wave propagation and the flexural resonance method presented here, for which normal modes of vibration are monitored. Stress relaxation tests are to be carried out to retrieve stress over time as well as the elastic modulus of the fiber material. A mathematical method for extracting the relaxation modulus from relaxation experimental data has to be proposed to this end. Proper selection of the testing vibrational mode and machine cross-head speed (during relaxation) appear important in the suggested methods in order to avoid dispersive results. The Young’s modulus that is obtained from the dynamic behavior of the specimen should, therefore, reflects the frequency dependence of the material.
The authors wish to acknowledge the Director of the University Institute of Technology of the University Ngaoundéré, Prof. Mohammadou Bouba Adji, for providing research facilities within the department of mechanical engineering.
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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"