Pressure-driven membrane process.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5217",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Silage Production and Utilization",title:"Advances in Silage Production and Utilization",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Ensiling is a technique that is used to store food, mainly vegetable crops, to feed the herd when the forage supply from the pastures is not enough to maintain the productive performance of the ruminant animals. However, silage can also be used as substrate for biogas production and other different purposes. In the past years, we have seen many advances in the knowledge about silage production utilization, and this book is a compilation and discussion of the outstanding scientific research activities concerning actually the most recent advances and technologies that have been studied about silage and future demands. It is directed to a broad public of readers - farmers, academics, students, or anyone just curious or interested in the subject.",isbn:"978-953-51-2778-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2777-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4151-8",doi:"10.5772/61574",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-silage-production-and-utilization",numberOfPages:206,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"74a9d90a738f4237f986bfc897dec332",bookSignature:"Thiago da Silva and Edson Mauro Santos",publishedDate:"November 16th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5217.jpg",numberOfDownloads:22629,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:65,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:148,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 22nd 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 12th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 8th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 9th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 8th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144240",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Carvalho",surname:"Da Silva",slug:"thiago-da-silva",fullName:"Thiago Da Silva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144240/images/3752_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Da Silva is a professor of Forage Crops and Pastures at the Federal University of Goias. Dr. Da Silva was a postdoc fellow at the Federal University of Bahia and Federal University of Vicosa where he worked with silage fermentation and ruminant nutrition. Dr. Da Silva has a PhD degree in Animal Science (forage crops and ruminant nutrition) from the Federal University of Vicosa, an MSc degree in Animal Science (forage crops and ruminant nutrition) from the Federal University of Paraiba, and a BS degree in Agronomy Engineering from the State University of Santa Cruz. The fields of research explored by Dr. Da Silva include silage fermentation and microbiology, pasture management, feedlot cattle and sheep, alternative feeds for ruminants, and ruminant nutrition.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Viçosa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"139631",title:"Dr.",name:"Edson Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"edson-mauro-santos",fullName:"Edson Mauro Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139631/images/system/139631.jpg",biography:"Dr. Santos is a Professor of Forage Crops and Pastures and Beef Cattle at the Federal University of Paraiba, Brazil. Dr. Santos received his Ph.D. in Animal Science (forage crops and ruminant nutrition) from the Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil, a master’s degree in Animal Science, and a BS in Animal Science from the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (animal production). Dr. Santos’ areas of interest include silage microbiology, cultivation and conservation of forage crops in semiarid regions, alternative feeds for ruminants, and pasture management. He is a researcher for INCT (National Institute of Science and Technology) - Animal Science, and a member of the Advisory Animal Science Committee of the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq).",institutionString:"Federal University of Paraíba",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Federal University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"328",title:"Food Technology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-bromatology-food-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"52093",title:"Survey About the Use of Bacterial Inoculants in Brazil: Effects on Silage Quality and Animal Performance",doi:"10.5772/64472",slug:"survey-about-the-use-of-bacterial-inoculants-in-brazil-effects-on-silage-quality-and-animal-performa",totalDownloads:2329,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Our objective was to report the effect of bacterial inoculants on silage quality and animal responses in Brazil. A survey of bacterial inoculants utilization in Brazil was made based on a total of 178 published articles assessing a widely varied crops (alfalfa, cabbage, cassava, corn, grass, high-moisture corn (HMC), high-moisture sorghum, millet, oat, orange bagasse, peanut forage, sorghum, soybean, stylosantes Campo Grande, sugarcane, and sunflower). Sugarcane and grass silages comprised 58.1% of the total crops investigated. Homolactic inoculation reduced dry matter (DM) losses in alfalfa silages, but not in corn, grass, HMC, and sorghum silages. Heterolactic inoculation enhanced the aerobic stability of corn and HMC silages. The use of heterofermentative lactic acid-bacteria (LAB) was more effective to improve fermentation of sugarcane silages compared to homofermentative LAB. Inoculation impaired the DM intake in cattle fed corn, grass, and sugarcane silages, but DM intake increased in sheep due to inoculation. In some cases, silage digestibility was affected by inoculation. Positive responses to inoculation occurred most often when the compatibility between the bacterial inoculant and crop was better understood (e.g., homolactic inoculation for grass silage and heterolactic inoculation for sugarcane silage). The performance of animals consuming inoculated silages has been investigated in Brazil only a few times, but the data suggest a greater impact of bacterial inoculants on DM intake and weight gain in cattle and sheep than that indicated in temperate conditions.",signatures:"Carlos H.S. Rabelo, Lucas J. Mari and Ricardo A. Reis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52093",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52093",authors:[{id:"180707",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Carlos",surname:"Rabelo",slug:"carlos-rabelo",fullName:"Carlos Rabelo"},{id:"185246",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas",surname:"Mari",slug:"lucas-mari",fullName:"Lucas Mari"},{id:"185247",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Reis",slug:"ricardo-reis",fullName:"Ricardo Reis"}],corrections:null},{id:"51614",title:"Environmental Factors Affecting Corn Quality for Silage Production",doi:"10.5772/64381",slug:"environmental-factors-affecting-corn-quality-for-silage-production",totalDownloads:2634,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Corn silage is a major ingredient of diets for dairy cattle. Environmental factors can affect the yield and composition of corn silage. Drought and heat are two common environmental factors that affect silage yield and quality. Corn silages with low concentrations of dry matter, high concentrations of protein, high concentrations of fiber, and low concentrations of starch indicate that the crop was harvested too early, that abiotic stresses affected the structure of the plant, or a combination of both. Drought stress during vegetative stages does not affect yield and nutritional composition as much as during reproductive stages. High environmental temperatures (>35 °C) can also induce kernel abortion. The effects of abiotic stresses on cell wall composition are less clear. Drought stress would likely increase fiber digestibility, whereas heat stress would decrease fiber digestibility. These statements are somehow contradictory in the sense that drought stress and heat stress likely occur simultaneously. Management practices, such as hybrid selection and planting date, should be considered to avoid silking and early kernel development during season of very high environmental temperatures.",signatures:"Gonzalo Ferreira and Alston N. Brown",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51614",authors:[{id:"180479",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonzalo",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"gonzalo-ferreira",fullName:"Gonzalo Ferreira"},{id:"185277",title:"MSc.",name:"Alston",surname:"Brown",slug:"alston-brown",fullName:"Alston Brown"}],corrections:null},{id:"52641",title:"Advances in Silage Sealing",doi:"10.5772/65445",slug:"advances-in-silage-sealing",totalDownloads:2206,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spoiled silage at the top and shoulders of a horizontal silo is common because of their lower density and higher aeration. Thus, avoiding or reducing aerobic deterioration in the peripheral areas of the silages becomes a key factor for commercial farms. There are two factors that affect the top spoilage: the quality of the plastic film and how well it is held to the forage. The quality of the plastic film is related to oxygen permeability, thickness, and ultraviolet blocking. To hold the sheet to the crop, sidewall plastic associated to gravel bags and used tires have been good alternatives to be used as weights to secure the sheet on the top surface, but many other means can be applied like sidewall disks. Preventing silage losses due to an inappropriate sealing is important, both from nutritional and economic contexts. Proper air sealing produces well-fermented silage and mitigates losses in the upper layer of the silo.",signatures:"Thiago F. Bernardes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52641",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52641",authors:[{id:"180092",title:"Prof.",name:"Thiago",surname:"Bernardes",slug:"thiago-bernardes",fullName:"Thiago Bernardes"}],corrections:null},{id:"52837",title:"Ensiling of Forage Crops in Semiarid Regions",doi:"10.5772/65446",slug:"ensiling-of-forage-crops-in-semiarid-regions",totalDownloads:2061,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Edaphoclimatic condition of the semiarid region is unfavorable for the forage production of livestock. Silage is considered a better alternative to conserve forage crops. Ensiling is a technique for preserving forage, in which the ensiled mass is acidified under anaerobic conditions. The lactic acid bacteria present in the environment produce lactic acid, thereby making the environment acidic, and convert soluble substrates into organic acids. Many microorganisms are involved in the fermentation process of silage and their development depends on the characteristics of ensiled materials, such as dry matter, water-soluble carbohydrate content, buffering capacity and presence of indigenous microbial. Ensiling is a favorable technque used in the semiarid region because it preserves the nutritional values of the crops and the water. Some plant species are produced in semiarid regions because they are resistant to water deficit and high solar radiation. The main crops of semiarid regions are sorghum, pearl millet, grasses, cactus pear, and leguminous. Due to agronomic conditions available for their production during periods of rain, for ensiling these plants are important for the fermentation profile of each species because the ratio of the dry matter to water-soluble carbohydrate content and buffering capacity directly influence the end product of silage.",signatures:"João Paulo F. Ramos, Edson M. Santos and Ana Paula M. Santos, Wandrick Hauss de Souza and Juliana Silva Oliveira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52837",authors:[{id:"180196",title:"M.Sc.",name:"João Paulo De",surname:"Ramos",slug:"joao-paulo-de-ramos",fullName:"João Paulo De Ramos"}],corrections:null},{id:"51639",title:"Potential Use of Nonconventional Silages in Ruminant Feeding for Tropical and Subtropical Areas",doi:"10.5772/64382",slug:"potential-use-of-nonconventional-silages-in-ruminant-feeding-for-tropical-and-subtropical-areas",totalDownloads:2588,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The conventional silage uses crops such as corn, sorghum or other forages for this specific objective. The nonconventional silages use by-products, co-products and other materials obtained during the harvest or during the processing in the industry of sugarcane, juice extraction of citrus, pineapple, cassava, pumpkin and others. These products are available in high amounts during a short period of time. These by-products can be ensiled to maintain their nutritive value during longer period in the year and then used as feed for animals. These by-products have adequate characteristics for ensiling, i.e., moisture content and fermentable carbohydrates. Forages reduce their crude protein (CP) concentration in a period of the year (dry season or in winter), which may limit animal production. Most by-products used for silage have low CP concentration; some additives may help increase the nutritive value of these silages. These by-products (sugarcane, juice extraction of citrus, pineapple, cassava, pumpkin and others) can be mixed and ensiled with other by-products as poultry excreta or forage rich in protein to obtain silage with greater CP concentration. The research shows the feasibility of obtaining good quality silages from sugarcane tops, by-products of citrus, cassava and pumpkin; the particularities of each are discussed in detail in this chapter.",signatures:"Jaime Salinas Chavira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51639",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51639",authors:[{id:"181866",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Salinas-Chavira",slug:"jaime-salinas-chavira",fullName:"Jaime Salinas-Chavira"}],corrections:null},{id:"52394",title:"Intake and Digestibility of Silages",doi:"10.5772/65280",slug:"intake-and-digestibility-of-silages",totalDownloads:2377,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The intake of DM (DMI) is determinant for ingress of nutrients to cater to the requirements for animal maintenance and production, principally the intake of protein and energy. The end‐products of fermentation can affect the intake of silages and influence animal performance, since some organic acids negatively influence the intake of silage and digestibility of nutrients. For example, acetic and butyric acid have large effects on the intake of silage. Ammonia also can negatively affect the intake of silages. The digestibility can be influenced by end‐products of fermentation and change the characteristics of ensiled plants. The objective of this chapter is to explain how silage end‐products of fermentation and changes in the structure of forage resulting from the ensiling process can affect the intake and digestibility of silages. Some control mechanisms of silage fermentation can be used to improve the intake and digestibility of silage. Biological or chemical additives may contribute to the increased intake of silage and improve digestibility. Appropriate management techniques can influence the result.",signatures:"Juliana Silva de Oliveira, Edson Mauro Santos and Ana Paula Maia\ndos Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52394",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52394",authors:[{id:"180036",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"juliana-oliveira",fullName:"Juliana Oliveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"51820",title:"Maximizing Fiber Utilization of Silage in Ruminants",doi:"10.5772/64471",slug:"maximizing-fiber-utilization-of-silage-in-ruminants",totalDownloads:2819,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter highlights the importance of fiber digestibility and utilization in ruminants and to summarize the main factors that influence fiber digestibility in silages. Forage provides at least half of the diet of lactating cattle and greatly affects energy and carbohydrate intake. It is important to maximize the intake of digestible carbohydrate from forages, because energy requirements for maintenance and milk production often exceed the amount of energy high-producing cows can consume, particularly in early lactation. There are many approaches used for enhancing fiber utilization in silage and subsequent maximizing energy intake and productivity of dairy cattle. Out of these approaches are: selecting appropriate forages with high fiber digestibility, applying the appropriate agronomic practices such as harvesting at the proper stage of maturity, fertilization, and cutting height at harvest, along with using of esterase-producing inoculants or fibrolytic enzymes have been proposed as approaches to improving the productivity of dairy cattle.",signatures:"Basim Refat and Peiqiang Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51820",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51820",authors:[{id:"12680",title:"Prof.",name:"Peiqiang",surname:"Yu",slug:"peiqiang-yu",fullName:"Peiqiang Yu"}],corrections:null},{id:"52124",title:"Grass Silage for Biogas Production",doi:"10.5772/64961",slug:"grass-silage-for-biogas-production",totalDownloads:3002,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Renewable energy resources of part of the Asian region are not only able to fight against climate change issues but also could contribute to economic growth, employment, and energy safety. Biogas production and use are generally regarded as a sustainable practice that can guarantee high greenhouse gas savings. Thailand is an agricultural area suitable for growing of many plants, especially annual crops that can be used as an energy crop or raw material for biogas plant. In addition, grassland biomass is suitable in numerous ways for producing energy and is the most common material for producing biogas in the present scenario. There are several types of grasses popularly growing in Thailand. Grasses are converted to silage which will be used as feedstock for anaerobic digestion. Consequently, this chapter addresses the advances in silage preparations and utilization for efficient biogas production with several digestion methods including dry and wet fermentation processes, monodigestions, and co-digestions.",signatures:"Natthawud Dussadee, Yuwalee Unpaprom and Rameshprabu\nRamaraj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52124",authors:[{id:"181920",title:"Prof.",name:"Natthawud",surname:"Dussadee",slug:"natthawud-dussadee",fullName:"Natthawud Dussadee"},{id:"181923",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuwalee",surname:"Unpaprom",slug:"yuwalee-unpaprom",fullName:"Yuwalee Unpaprom"},{id:"181925",title:"Dr.",name:"Rameshprabu",surname:"Ramaraj",slug:"rameshprabu-ramaraj",fullName:"Rameshprabu Ramaraj"}],corrections:null},{id:"51571",title:"Maize Silage as Substrate for Biogas Production",doi:"10.5772/64378",slug:"maize-silage-as-substrate-for-biogas-production",totalDownloads:2614,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presented work studies the possibilities of using maize silage for biogas production in laboratory as well as in full-scale conditions. From the results of long-term operation of a mixed laboratory anaerobic reactor, it follows that processing of maize silage as a single substrate is an unstable process due to the low alkalinity of silage that has to be compensated by pH adjustment. Specific production of biogas was 0.655 m3/kg of volatile solids. Start-up of a full-scale anaerobic reactor of a biogas plant with the volume of 2450 m3 takes approximately 100 days. At the end of the start-up, the biogas plant reached the designed parameters—maize silage dose 6–7 t/d of total solids, the reactor load about 2.5 kg/(m3/d) of volatile solids, the biogas production of 4200 m3/d, electricity production of ca. 6600 kWh/d, and heat production of ca. 11,500 kWh/d. Processing of co-substrates in a biogas plant revealed both positive and negative effect on the biogas plant operation, for example, the meat and bone meal addition had a negative effect on the operation due to its high nitrogen content. Loading of crude glycerol (12.1% of the total volatile solids added) showed a positive and stabilizing effect.",signatures:"Miroslav Hutňan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51571",authors:[{id:"180686",title:"Prof.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Hutňan",slug:"miroslav-hutnan",fullName:"Miroslav Hutňan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. 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An Overview of PET Radiopharmaceuticals in Clinical Use: Regulatory, Quality and Pharmacopeia Monographs of the United States and Europe",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66068.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66068",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66068",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66068",chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:{name:"National Taiwan University Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:{name:"National Taiwan University Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}}]},book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9476",leadTitle:null,title:"Craniosynostosis - New Perspectives of Prevention and Treatment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCraniosynostosis (CS) is defined as the premature fusion of cranial sutures, resulting in an abnormal skull shape. CS can be isolated (non-syndromic) or it can be part of multiple congenital abnormalities syndromes (syndromic craniosynostosis - SCS). Different etiologies have been reported for CS but a genetic cause is found overall in 20% of cases, especially mutations in the FGF/TWIST pathways cause the majority of these conditions of syndromic CS.
\r\n\r\n\tUnfortunately, even though in this age of molecular therapy the identification of potential targets for molecular or pharmacological therapy that could assist the delineation of a non-surgical treatment of CS, is currently still not available. Therefore, surgery is still considered the only treatment for CS. Gold standard for complex syndromic CS and for the presurgical planning is the 3D-CT scan, but nowadays it is valuable and less invasive the ultrasound examination of cranial sutures, as first-line imaging when a clinical diagnosis of craniosynostosis is suspected. Surgery should be carried out during the first year of life to achieve the best results, clinical and cosmetic, and to reduce the development of learning disabilities and symptoms of intracranial hypertension. Furthermore, even if the standard of surgical treatment for the craniosynostoses is the cranial vault remodeling, this implies for the infant a prolonged anesthesia, a risk of brisk bleeding related to the wide cranial exposure not only during surgery but also in the immediate postoperative period in case of a poor haemostasis, and a medium-long hospitalization. For these reasons, many centers are using the minimally invasive endoscopic suturectomy with postoperative helmet therapy for both single-suture and complex CS.
\r\n\r\n\tIndeed, each patient should be discussed in a multidisciplinary team, including clinical and molecular geneticist, neurosurgeon, maxillary surgeon, ophthalmologist, ENT, radiologist, pediatrician, in order to evaluate every aspect of the complexity of CS. One of the main concerns of this book is to present the state-of-the-art and to deal with the debated aspects of the craniosynostoses, especially regarding the chance to prevent the CS by identifying specific biomarkers, or the chance to treat the CS with effective target therapies, thanks to recent advances in the understanding of the molecular pathophysiology of CS.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f41fe5819d0828befc916bd0f3f46628",bookSignature:"Dr. Raffaella Messina and Dr. Valeria Blè",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9476.jpg",keywords:"Craniosynostosis, Syndromic, Non-syndromic, Clinical Features, Isolated CS, Complex CS, Minimally Invasive Surgery, Targeted Therapies, Biomarkers, Prenatal Diagnosis, Early Diagnosis, Risk Factors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 14th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 12th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 30th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Italian board-certified neurosurgeon currently working as a Consultant Neurosurgeon at the University Hospital in Bari, Italy as well as the Doctoral Fellow in Neuroscience and Assistant Professor in the Department of Basic Medical Science, Neurosciences and Sense Organs at the University of Bari Aldo Moro.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"291148",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaella",middleName:null,surname:"Messina",slug:"raffaella-messina",fullName:"Raffaella Messina",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291148/images/system/291148.jpg",biography:"Dr. Raffaella Messina is an Italian board-certified neurosurgeon. She was trained in neurosurgery at the University Hospital of Bari, Italy. She has held a fellowship in pediatric neurosurgery at the IRCCS Institute for Treatment and Research - Bambino Gesù Children\\'s Hospital, Rome. She is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Neurosciences and has been an assistant professor at the\nUniversity of Bari “Aldo Moro,” Italy, since 2010. Her major field of interest is pediatric neurosurgery, in which she has focused her main scientific activity. She had the opportunity to improve her surgical skills and to achieve board certification for the European Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery (ESPN), attending the three-year cycle of ESPN.",institutionString:'University of Bari Medical School "Aldo Moro"',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Bari Aldo Moro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"327232",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeria",middleName:null,surname:"Blè",slug:"valeria-ble",fullName:"Valeria Blè",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/327232/images/system/327232.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Valeria Blé is an Italian board-certified neurosurgeon. She was trained in neurosurgery at the University Hospital of Bari, Italy, and was an observer in pediatric neurosurgery at Hôpital Femme Mère Enfant, Lyon, France, and fellow at the IRCCS Institute for Treatment and Research - Bambino Gesu Children\\'s Hospital, Rome. \n\nShe is a consultant neurosurgeon in the University Hospital in Bari, Italy. 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The zone includes a wide variety of volcanic facies, ranging from explosive to effusive and recording transient conditions during eruptions. Volcanic rocks of Cabo de Gata are calc-alkaline in composition and were erupted from submarine vents and deposited in submarine settings, although rare facies record the transition to subaerial settings. Therefore, volcanism in Cabo de Gata is essentially submarine, although some volcanic edifices and products may have risen from above sea level. In terms of rock chemistry, eruptive style, age and depositional setting, volcanic successions in Cabo de Gata can be compared with similar examples from the volcanic arc of Japan. The Cabo de Gata volcanic zone constitutes the best exposed, best preserved and most voluminous record of the volcanic arc of the Betic-Rif Orogen and is certainly the most important record of submarine volcanism in the western Mediterranean area.
\nDespite its significance, it has not been until very recently that systematic studies with a modern facies to processes approach were undertaken in the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone and for this reason this area has remain virtually unknown for most volcanologists. Previous studies were mainly focused on petrological aspects of the volcanic rocks and on the Rodalquilar gold epithermal deposits associated with volcanic rocks, without providing a comprehensive stratigraphic framework aimed to understand the processes and products of Cabo de Gata volcanism [1–6]. Comparison of Cabo de Gata volcanic rocks with other Miocene volcanic zones such as the Iblean Mountains in Sicily, Sulcis in Sardegna and volcanic islands in the Aegean Sea may provide a more comprehensive view on volcanism of similar age occurring in different geotectonic scenarios of the narrow Mediterranean area.
\nHere, we first present an introductory section on the principles of subaqueous volcanism and then a review of our research undertaken during the last five years in the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone. In particular, we focus on those facies and successions of facies that reveal transient conditions of eruptive styles during eruptions and on submarine volcanic debris-avalanche deposits, which constitute a unique opportunity for a direct study of this kind of deposits in the geological record. We also focus on the facies and the stratigraphic successions of sedimentary rocks interbedded with volcanic rocks, aiming to characterize the bathymetric conditions for sediment deposition and, indirectly, for volcanism. Using the evidence provided by facies analyses we typify the characteristic eruptive models in Cabo de Gata and their link to the tectonics of the Neogene volcano-sedimentary basin in which volcanic rocks are exposed.
\nUnderstanding volcanic processes in subaqueous environments has always been challenging because first, in most cases, they cannot be directly observed, and second the physical properties of water and the way that water interacts with erupting or intruding magma are still not fully understood. Despite many contributions to the subject, the major debate still seems to revolve around the factors that relate water depths and explosive eruptions.
\nIn modern environments, one of the greatest limitations has been the inability to observe processes and seafloor volcanic topography as well as the distribution of different facies or deposit types at scales that provide understanding of the characteristics, extent, scale and relations of processes and deposits. Local submersible and camera observations have been helpful, but are very limiting. However, recent advances in imaging technology, such as high-resolution side-scan sonar and bathymetry technology mounted on autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) such as Sentry, allow very high-resolution Digital Elevation Model imagery to be produced over large areas and whole submerged volcanoes that will open up a new world of understanding of subaqueous volcanic processes. In addition, new generation photographic videoing and sampling facilities on remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) such as Jason and Medea provided hitherto unparalleled opportunities to learn about modern sea floor processes, including volcanism.
\nIn ancient volcanic successions, the principal approach for understanding volcanological processes and settings remains detailed mapping of the relations between facies and analysis of their characteristics to assess original water depths and the process origins of the facies. This has given rise to an ongoing need to quantify the physical processes associated with subaqueous eruptions, including the constraints on processes imposed by subaqueous environments, in order to understand the origins of different deposit types.
\nThe most recent review of submarine volcanic processes has been by [7] (see for a listing of other reviews and major research contributions) in which they provided a summary of the essential physical properties of water and magma, as well as a conceptual overview of the processes and deposit characteristics. To illustrate the concepts, they cited examples from the Cabo de Gata volcanic succession that has been well described by [8–12] and is summarized below in this paper. Recently, [13] quantified many of the physical processes involved in the formation of volcanic glass and the quench fragmentation of volcanic glass in subaqueous settings based on the materials-science literature. These authors then related the characteristics of hyaloclastite deposits to those physical processes and rates of processes. In this section, we briefly review the main processes, principles and deposit types in subaqueous environments.
\nThe major difference between subaerial volcanism and subaqueous volcanism is the aqueous medium in the latter and the different ways that magma and water can interact to influence the style of eruption and the types of deposits. Water has a significant impact on the cooling rates of magma that is erupted into it, as well as creating ambient confining-pressure constraints on the way that exsolving magmatic volatiles and superheated water behave. Water is a high-enthalpy substance. It has a high heat capacity (4.187 kJ/kg K) and high thermal conductivity (0.58 W/m Kelvin at 25°C for water and 0.61 W/mK at 25°C, and 0.68 W/mK at 120°C for seawater [14]). Water is therefore very thermodynamically responsive to changes in temperature, which allow it to readily absorb and release heat transmitted to it by magma, via conduction and radiative-heat transfer. This is particularly important when magma at temperatures from 700 to 1200°C comes into contact with liquid water (<20°C). Water acts as a heat sink and can cause the magma to instantaneously cool through the glass transition temperature, causing glass to form. If the rate of heat loss or cooling rate is high, the magma/glass is thermally shocked, causing contractional tensile stresses to form in the glass. If these exceed the tensile strength of the glass, it shatters in situ, leading to a formation of a network of contractional fractures that propagate inwards from the cooling margin of the magma body. This process is called quench fragmentation and the breccia of glass debris that forms is called hyaloclastite [7, 13]. This process can occur at any water depth.
\nHowever, water can very quickly change state over a limited temperature range (0–100°C) when superheated by contact with magma (700–1200°C) and over a range of external pressures that are determined by water depth. The hydrostatic pressure gradient in a body of water is 1 bar (0.1 MPa)/10 m water depth. In particular, liquid water can readily transform into steam, which has a much lower thermal conductivity (0.016 W/m K at 125°C) and specific heat capacity (1.996 kJ/kg K [15]). If this occurs at the interface between magma and water in a process called film boiling (also known as the Leidenfrost Effect), a vapour film forms at the interface, which can insulate the magma from heat loss. Sustained and efficient film boiling can thus reduce the rate of heat loss or cooling of the magma, moderate the rate of contraction, and so minimize thermal tensile stresses in the cooling glass. As a result, the magma may remain coherent and be preserved as a coherent lava or a coherent intrusion in the case where magma intrudes water-saturated sediments.
\nThe super-heating of liquid water at low confining pressures causes a phase transformation to steam and a consequent major volume expansion. At high, instantaneous, rates of expansion such transformations are explosive, driving phreatic and phreatomagmatic volcanic explosions. This is most likely to occur at shallow water depths up to several hundred metres [16].
\nHowever, at increasing water depths and hydrostatic pressures the hydrostatic pressure approaches the critical pressure of water. The critical point of water is the pressure (and temperature) at which there is no distinction between the liquid and the gaseous phases; the fluid is called a supercritical fluid and has the properties of both the gaseous and the liquid forms. For pure water, the critical pressure is ∼218–221 bars or 21.8–22.1 MPa and for seawater, it is about 300 bars or 30 MPa [17]. Since the hydrostatic pressure gradient in water is 1 bar or 0.1 MPa/10 m water depths, at water depths of 2 or more kms steam that forms at the interface between magma and the water mass is highly compressed and cannot expand explosively unless it can be instantaneously decompressed, which is difficult to do at those water depths. The modern seafloor record and the geological record tell us that voluminous explosive eruptions (cf. subaerial plinian eruptions) that occurred at water depths of more than 1 km are rare, although there are many examples of deposits of variably vesiculated pumiceous debris that originated in shallower water but were then resedimented into deeper water by various processes.
\nOn this point, however, it is important to stress that not all pumice is explosive in origin. Coherent pumice domains can be well developed in subaerial lavas, formed through slow volatile exsolution and vesicle growth at nonexplosive rates in lavas with a subcritical volatile content to drive explosive eruption. In relatively deep subaqueous environments, the hydrostatic confining pressure will hinder both the initial exsolution of volatiles and the vesicle-growth rates. Growth rates may, however, be high enough to form well-vesiculated lavas with coherent pumice domains, but not high enough to drive explosions [7, 13]. Quench fragmentation of such coherent pumice domains can produce large volumes of pumice hyaloclastite.
\nAnother factor that suppresses the intensity of submarine explosive eruptions is the bulk modulus of water, which for pure water is 2.15 × 109 Pa and for seawater is 2.34 × 109 Pa. The bulk modulus of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to uniform compression, i.e., its compressibility or the degree to which it deforms. In comparison, the adiabatic bulk modulus of air is orders of magnitude less, at 1.42 × 105 Pa. Because water is much less compressible and deformable than air, explosions into water are much more suppressed, restricted and much less intense than in air [7].
\nWe now focus on the principal findings of [13] about the principles involved in the fracture behavior of volcanic glass, based on assessment of the ceramics and glass literature in materials science.\n
Cooling contraction cracks propagate perpendicular to the cooling surfaces, which initially are the margins of the magma body at its interface with water or water-saturated sediments.
The distance between cooling cracks depends on the cooling rate, the temperature differential and gradient between magma and water and the level of thermal stress. This determines the first-order grain size of the resultant hyaloclastite breccia and explains why grain size is smaller at the margins of a magma body compared with the interior, where cooling rates and temperature gradients are lower.
Once a cooling crack forms, it also becomes a cooling surface and other cracks will form perpendicular to it and then others perpendicular to the second-order fractures, etc.
The spacing between propagating cracks is usually equal to the length of the crack.
When a crack approaches another crack, it will try to change direction and approach at right angles.
When a crack intersects another crack, it will usually stop because it cannot propagate across the space.
Crack formation results in release of both thermal and mechanical energy and cracks may stop if the tensile stress falls below the strength of the glass, which increases as glass cools.
Crack shape, and thus fragment shape, depends on cooling rate, the crack propagation velocities and the orientation of the cooling surfaces. At high crack velocities, which occur when the temperature differential is high, cracks tend to be straight and form under what is called the critical crack regime. Crack velocities can be >600 ms−1. At crack velocities greater than 0.25 times the speed of sound in glass, cracks may bifurcate and form wedge to splinter-shaped fragments. Low-temperature differentials lead to low crack velocities (subcritical regime (<cm s−1) and cracks may become curviplanar.
Water not only plays a physical role in facilitating crack propagation by causing cooling contraction tensile stresses at the crack tip but also plays a chemical role in breaking chemical bonds in the glass in a propagating crack tip.
Heterogeneous glass, with dispersed crystals, lithic fragments and vesicles, experiences complex fracture formation because of the variable properties of the various components of the glass.
Glass with abundant dispersed crystals is stronger than aphyric glass, is more resistant to quench fragmentation and, should it fragment, it is likely to form coarse hyaloclastite breccia.
The presence of abundant vesicles in glass weakens it and makes it more prone to quench fragmentation.
Pumice hyaloclastite formed through nonexplosive quench fragmentation should be quite common in submarine settings. If the deposit is still in situ, it may still preserve jigsaw fit textures. However, if it is resedimented, it should be bedded and preserve characteristics of a variety of subaqueous mass flow processes (e.g., grain-flow, turbidity currents, debris flow, debris avalanches and rafted suspension transport).
These principles and processes help to explain many of the characteristics of quench-fragmented hyaloclastite deposits, as described above, but also including the following:\n
Equant, blocky clast aggregates are likely to have formed under steady, slow, subcritical crack-propagation conditions. Equant clasts with curviplanar margins are likely to have formed at low temperatures and low temperature differentials.
Elongate, splinter- and wedge-shaped clasts are likely to have formed under high crack velocity in critical crack-growth regimes at high temperature differentials.
Perlite cracking may be a product of thermal stressing and quenching under slow-cooling, subcritical conditions.
Fine hyaloclastite breccia is the product of a fast cooling rate and high temperature differential, which is why hyaloclastite grainsize may vary from fine at the margins of a body to coarser in the interior and even grade into a coherent interior.
Jig-saw fit textures are indicative of in situ, nonexplosive, cooling contraction quench fragmentation.
Clast-rotated textures indicate postcrack formation movement as a result of continued lava or intrusion movement or downslope resedimentation.
The grainsize of quench-fragmented crystalline glass hyaloclastite is likely to be coarser than for aphyric glass hyaloclastite.
Pumice hyaloclastite should not be unusual in subaqueous settings and not all pumice is pyroclastic in origin.
In the following sections, we illustrate how some of the processes of subaqueous volcanism, in particular those regarding magma fragmentation and transport and deposition of volcanic debris, are recorded in the submarine volcanic rocks of Cabo de Gata.
\nThe Betic-Rif is a complex orogenic system whose geodynamic evolution has been widely debated (e.g., for recent reviews [18–20]). This complexity partly arises from the need to reconcile the structures and kinematics of geodynamic processes operating at different scales and times in the narrow area of the western Mediterranean with the large-scale and long-standing geodynamic scenario of African and Eurasian plate convergence.
\nThe Betic-Rif Orogen is an arcuate mountain belt with a northern branch formed by the Betic cordillera in the Iberian Peninsula and a southern branch formed by the Rif chain in northern Africa. The orogen displays a tight arc with a westward concavity in the Gibraltar strait (Figure 1). Igneous rocks of tholeitic, calc-alkaline, shoshonitic and ultrapotassic compositions show enrichment in K with time and are exposed in the internal areas of the belt [19, 21, 22]. Igneous rocks are subduction-related in a broad sense and are partly coeval with the extension tectonics developed in the internal areas of the Betic-Rif during Neogene. Calc-alkaline rocks in particular, display a clear arc-related geochemical signature and are synchronous with the opening of the back-arc Alborán basin (Figure 1). Arc curvature, arc magmatism and back-arc extension were formed during Miocene time by the westward rollback of a narrow eastward-subducting slab fragmented from the African plate [20, 22, 23]. Westward retreat of the subducted slab was accompanied by thinning of the continental crust, formation of oceanic crust and extension, leading to the formation of Neogene intramontane basins in the internal areas of the Betic-Rif [20, 22, 24]. Extension ceased in Late Miocene and deformation in the internal areas of the Betic-Rif was dominated by the kinematics of African and Eurasian plate convergence. NNW convergence of Africa with Iberia compressed the Alborán basin and reactivated suitably oriented faults in the intramontane basins. The internal areas of the Betic-Rif became a diffuse plate boundary between Africa and Eurasia dominated by wrench tectonics processes that are still active, as shown by recent seismicity of the Carboneras fault and other similar strike-slip faults [20, 22, 25].
\nGeologic map of the Betic-Rif Orogen in the Western Mediterranean with location of the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone (modified from [
Due to the complex geodynamic evolution of the Betic-Rif Orogen and to the wrench tectonics established in the internal areas since Late Miocene time, the volcanic arc of the Betic-Rif appears distributed along fault-bounded seamounts in the Alborán Sea and onshore in volcano-sedimentary basins on both branches of the mountain belt (Figure 1). The Cabo de Gata volcanic zone corresponds to a portion of this volcanic arc exposed in the eastern part of the Almería-Níjar basin (Figure 2). This basin is structurally controlled by the Carboneras fault, which divides the basin into a western through dominated by Late Miocene to Pleistocene sedimentary rocks and an eastern through dominated by Miocene volcanic rocks (Figure 2). The Carboneras fault is an active structure with a complex kinematic history that includes contemporaneous strike-slip and dip-slip movements since Early Miocene time [27–29]. Basement to the Neogene succession of the Almería-Níjar basin are Paleozoic to Jurassic metamorphic rocks of the Maláguide, Alpujárride and Nevado-Filábride complexes that crop out in the mountain ranges bounding the basin (Sierra Cabrera, Sierra Alhamilla) and along the Carboneras fault strands (Figure 2). Gravimetric data and magnetic modeling suggest that volcanic rocks underlie Late Miocene to Pleistocene sedimentary rocks in the western part of the Almería-Níjar basin. The residual gravimetric anomaly together with well log data suggest that Neogene infill of the basin increases to the southwest (SW) and that the Neogene-basement boundary dips to the SW [30, 31]. The structure of the Almería-Níjar basin, of other intramontane basins of the Betic-Rif and of submarine promontories in the Alborán Sea consists of low-amplitude open folds with kilometer-scale wavelengths related to stepped normal faults, which are in turn associated with regional strike-slip faults [30, 32, 33].
\nSimplified geologic map of the Almeria-Níjar basin and the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone (modified from [
The Cabo de Gata volcanic zone is an area of semiarid climate in which rock exposure is virtually continuous both along the shoreline and the inland. Maximum elevation is nearly 500 m above sea level and the original morphologies of volcanic edifices are poorly preserved due to erosion. Nevertheless, excellent exposures of stratigraphic sections along marine cliffs and inland allow a precise reconstruction of the volcanic stratigraphy. Based on preserved exposures of deposits, Cabo de Gata can be understood as a volcanic field formed by dispersed small-scale lava domes and larger dome complexes and by larger volcanic seamounts. The stratigraphic succession of Cabo de Gata consists of volcanic rocks interbedded with sedimentary rocks, mainly carbonate and siliciclastic deposits. Bedding of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, dip of tabular lavas and overall disposition of volcanic bodies are subhorizontal or shallowly inclined to the northeast (NE), providing a general upward stratigraphic polarity toward the NE.
\nChronostratigraphic scheme of the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone with distribution of the different lithostratigraphic units (modified from [
The volcanic stratigraphy shown in Figure 3 is a revision of that in [10] with some minor changes regarding the aggregation of formations into groups, in particular the Agua Amarga and Rodalquilar groups. Description, discussion and extended data on the Ar40/Ar39 ages of formations are available in [22]. The lithostratigraphic units distinguished are formations formally defined that were subsequently divided into informal subunits when required [10]. The criteria used to divide the stratigraphic succession of Cabo de Gata into formations and to aggregate them into groups is based on lithology, stratigraphic position, age and geochemical affinity. Formations, groups and the informal units within formations are bounded by unconformities of different hierarchy. Volcanic units are interbedded with sedimentary units throughout the Cabo de Gata region with an overall trend of thicker and older volcanic units toward the SW and thicker and younger sedimentary units toward the NE (Figure 3). Upper Tortonian to Messinian sedimentary rocks cap the volcano-sedimentary succession toward the NE. Sedimentary units are laterally discontinuous, in particular toward the SW of Cabo de Gata, which may result in the local amalgamation of thick piles of volcanic rocks separated by unconformities.
\nThe main structural features in Cabo de Gata are subvertical normal faults that affect volcanic and sedimentary units and can be grouped into three sets based on their orientation: dominant NW-SE- to N-S-trending faults and subordinate NE-SW-trending faults (Figure 4). Fanning stratal dips and differences in bed thickness across fault blocks are thought to indicate that displacement along some faults is syndepositional to the emplacement of volcanic and sedimentary rocks [32]. Epithermal ore deposits of the Rodalquilar mine area result from hydrothermal fluids precipitated at high temperatures along N-S-trending faults [6]. Structures in Cabo de Gata are similar to those of other Neogene intramontane basins of the Betic Rif Orogen and of volcanic seamounts of the Alborán Sea. These structures are associated with the still active wrench tectonics established in the area since Late Miocene. This tectonic regime is ultimately responsible for the observed uplift-downlift displacements along some faults and for the present-day exposure above sea level of the submarine volcano-sedimentary successions of Cabo de Gata.
\nSimplified geologic map of the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone with the distribution of groups and location of figures (modified from [
The chronostratigraphic position of volcanic units based on radio-isotopic ages indicates that volcanism in Cabo de Gata started in Serravalian and ended in Tortonian times (Figure 3). During this time, volcanism migrated toward the NE while hiatuses in the volcanic activity became increasingly significant (Figure 5). Geophysical and well-log data reveal the occurrence of volcanic rocks beneath the oldest dated unit of Cabo de Gata [30, 31]. Hence, given the Messinian age of the Cerro del Hoyazo dacite [35], the volcanic activity in the whole Almeria-Níjar basin may have encompassed Middle to Late Miocene time (Figure 5). Volcanic formations and informal subunits within them correspond to volcanic cycles in a wide sense, meaning that they include all the deposits associated with the volcanic activity during an eruptive period. The volcanic units are separated from each other either by distinct unconformities or by sedimentary rocks, indicating hiatuses in the volcanic activity and erosion of volcanic edifices and deposits. In the following sections, the relevant features of Cabo de Gata volcanism are illustrated with selected examples of deposits and stratigraphic successions.
\nChronologic timetable of the volcanic activity in the Almería-Níjar basin based on Ar40/Ar39 ages of dated rocks approximately distributed from SW-NE (modified from [
Transitions from explosive to effusive activity or vice versa are common during individual eruptions in most subaerial volcanoes (Teide, Soufrière Hills, Mount St. Helens, Monte Pilato, etc.). Transient conditions during eruptions have been either witnessed in active volcanoes or are well documented through the study of volcanic deposits. In subaqueous settings, however, their study is certainly more problematic and the usually incomplete and fragmental nature of many submarine successions hampers a proper understanding of how these transitions are recorded. Here, transitions from explosive to effusive eruptive style during individual eruptions are illustrated with examples from the volcanic succession of the El Barronal Formation in southwestern Cabo de Gata (Figure 4). An extended description of the lihofacies succession of this unit is available in [9].
\nThe El Barronal Formation consists of a succession of lavas interbedded with volcaniclastic rocks that is intruded by subvertical dikes (Figure 6). The lower boundary of this unit is an unconformity with the Cerro Cañadillas Formation while the upper limit is not exposed. The whole El Barronal Formation is composed of up to five lava units. The El Barronal Formation has been Ar40/Ar39-dated at 12.19 Ma for lava unit 4 and 12.67 Ma for lava unit 3 [9]. Interbedded between these two lava units is the rhyolitic dome of the Los Genoveses Formation and also carbonate rocks with shell fragments and polymictic siliciclastic rocks with rounded pebbles from the metamorphic basement of the Neogene succession of Cabo de Gata (Figure 3).
\nPanoramic view of the stratigraphic succession of the El Barronal Formation at Playa del Barronal. Note lava unit 3 pinching out into bedded volcaniclastic succession to the west (see
Lavas, volcaniclastic rocks and dikes of the El Barronal Formation have identical andesitic composition and mineralogy. Lavas are formed by a coherent core grading into an outer carapace of in situ to clast-rotated hyaloclastite breccia. The coherent core of lavas has colonnade columnar joints and entablature columnar joints usually forming rosette structures (Figure 7A). The outer carapace consists of massive hyaloclastite with dense clasts grading outward into massive and flow-banded hyaloclastite with vesicular clasts (∼40% vesicles). Volcaniclastic rocks are bedded and consist of massive breccia with dense and vesicular clasts, diffusely bedded pumice-rich breccia, cross-bedded crystal-rich sandstone and thinly bedded fine tuffaceous sandstone. These facies types contain outsized clasts and have rapid vertical and lateral transitions between them (Figure 8).
\nVolcaniclastic facies contain a variety of clasts indicating provenance from different sources: juvenile components (pumice clasts, glass shards and crystals), clasts derived from underlying lavas (dense rock clasts and vesicular clasts) and exotic well-rounded andesite cobbles likely derived from sources above wave base. Juvenile components are rare in massive breccia, whereas they are present in different amounts in the rest of volcaniclastic facies. Textural evidence of juvenile clasts (i.e., vesicularity >60%, tube-pumice clasts and bubble-wall shards) suggests fragmentation of magma in the conduit by magmatic explosions, whereas the blocky shape of crystals and lithics can be attributed to some degree of magma-water interaction in the fragmentation processes (Figure 7B). Finer-grained volcaniclastic facies show distorted bedding, small-scale faults, folds and dish structures, suggesting that they were water-saturated at emplacement. Soft-sediment deformation structures are invariably located at the contact between volcaniclastic facies and upper lavas indicating that volcaniclastic facies were wet and poorly consolidated at the emplacement of upper lavas (Figure 8). These contact relations suggest that the time encompassed between the deposition of volcaniclastic facies and the emplacement of upper lavas was short and that lavas and volcaniclastic rocks were likely syn-eruptive.
\nStratigraphic log and contact relations of the volcaniclastic deposits located between lava unit 2 and 3 of the El Barronal Formation. mh, massive hyaloclastite; mb, massive breccia; tbt, thinly bedded fine tuffaceous sandstone; dr, dense rock clast; v, vesicular clast (see
The El Barronal Formation can be characterized as a succession of eruptive cycles, each of which started with explosive eruptions that yielded deposition of volcaniclastic facies and ended with the effusive emplacement of lavas. A hiatus in the andesite volcanic activity of El Barronal, with eventual deposition of carbonate sediments and emplacement of rhyolitic magma, separates each volcanic cycle. Explosive activity was complex as suggested by the rapid lateral and vertical transitions among volcaniclastic facies and by coexistence of textural evidences indicating fragmentation of magma by magmatic explosions and by magma-water interaction processes. The latter would have enhanced fragmentation efficiency yielding the grain size of finer volcaniclastic facies. Explosive eruptions may have mixed together the different types of juveniles, lithics and clasts from above-wave-base settings too. Steam-driven explosions would have been responsible for the fragmentation of blocks and smaller clasts and the deposition of massive breccia.
\nCollapse of volcanic edifices and deposition of debris-avalanche deposits in submarine settings are common processes. They often partially affect ocean-island volcanoes such as Hawaii, Tenerife, Reunion and Augustine and also submarine volcanic edifices such as lava domes and stratovolcanoes. Most of the debris avalanches under the sea are inaccessible for obvious reasons and their study has to be undertaken indirectly by means of different geophysical techniques. To our knowledge, there is only one volcanic submarine debris avalanche deposit described in the literature that has been studied in detail by direct access to onshore exposures [37].
\nThe volcanic debris avalanche deposits of Cabo de Gata are well exposed and fairly well constrained in terms of their submarine depositional setting. Therefore, they constitute a unique opportunity for a direct study of this kind of deposits. Here we summarize the main characteristics of two debris avalanche deposits in Cabo de Gata, one of which has been already described in a former work [8] and is the subject of ongoing research.
\nSubmarine volcanic debris avalanche deposits crop out to the northeast of San José village in southern Cabo de Gata (Figure 4). These deposits are stratigraphically located in informal subunits 2 and 4 of the Los Frailes Formation. Ar40/Ar39 ages of sampled blocks from the debris avalanche deposits in subunits 2 and 4 are 12.71 Ma and 12.42 Ma, respectively.
\nThe debris avalanche deposit of subunit 2 is particularly well exposed and is bounded by upper and lower carbonate sedimentary rocks that are laterally discontinuous and contain oysters, corals, echinoderms, algae, and undifferentiated shell fragments (Figure 9). This debris avalanche deposit is laterally associated to the northwest with dacite lavas showing a flow-banded and columnar-jointed coherent core that grades outward into in situ to clast-rotated hyaloclastite breccia (Figure 9). Lavas and debris-avalanche deposit have identical dacite composition and mineralogy. The debris-avalanche deposit of subunit 2 is massive and monomictic and has an internal organization consisting of block facies “floating” in matrix facies or mixed facies (Figure 10A), which is consistent with the classical descriptions of debris avalanche deposits in the literature [38–40]. Some blocks are up to 104 cubic meters, although most of them are usually about an order of magnitude smaller and most blocks have a flow-banded and polyhedral-jointed interior (Figure 10B). The basal contact of megablocks is sharp, planar, and often fractured with dislocations showing stepped geometry. Shear planes with sigmoid shape form anastomosed lenses and are common at the base of megablocks (Figure 10C). Matrix consists of a clast-supported framework of centimeter- to decimeter-size angular clasts with randomly oriented internal flow banding (Figure 10B). The upper surface of the debris avalanche deposit in subunit 2 is flat, whereas the lower surface is more irregular, gently dipping to the SE in the northwestern part (Figure 9). The maximum thickness of this deposit is nearly 100 m. If a map view of the upper surface of the deposit was exposed rather than an oblique cross-section of the whole deposit, the positive topography built up by megablocks would have likely resulted in the classical hummocky morphology of most debris avalanche deposits [38, 41, 42].
\nGeologic map of the Los Frailes Formation (see
The lateral association of the debris-avalanche deposit and lavas within subunit 2, together with their identical composition and mineralogy, indicates that dacite lavas are probably the source area for the volcanic debris of the avalanche deposit. Thickness and areal distribution of the debris-avalanche deposit in Figure 6 and nearby areas suggests a volume <0.5 km3 and run-out distance <5 km [8]. These factors together suggest that the debris avalanche is derived from the sector collapse of a submarine lava dome or a dome complex. In this view, megablocks correspond to the coherent core of the lava dome, whereas matrix facies corresponds to the hyaloclastite carapace surrounding the core. In spite of this general provenance for block and matrix facies, block disintegration and clast-to-clast friction during transport are not to be excluded as mechanisms producing block and clast fragmentation [42, 43]. This is particularly evident by the shear deformation and stepped geometry at the base of megablocks.
\nThe debris-avalanche deposit of subunit 4 is thinner and less extended laterally than that of subunit 2. It is massive, monomictic and dacitic in composition and is stratigraphically limited by lower and upper carbonate sedimentary rocks that contain marine fossils. The internal organization of the debris avalanche deposit of subunit 4 is similar to that of subunit 2, consisting of block and mixed facies.
\nInland exposures to the west of Las Negras and to the north of Rodalquilar in the central Cabo de Gata area provide well-preserved profiles of the debris avalanche deposit of the Cerro Estorvillas Formation (Figure 4). This unit uncomformably overlies rhyolite bedded pumice breccia of the Cerro de los Guardias Formation and is unconformably overlain by flow banded dacite lavas of the Monte Cinto Formation and by andesite lavas and breccias of the Cerro Negro Formation. The age of the Cerro Estorvillas Formation is stratigraphically constrained between 12.30 Ma and 11.93 Ma (Figure 3). The Cerro Estorvillas Formation is dacitic in composition and monomictic and consists of a volcanic succession with a debris avalanche deposit at the base grading upward into bedded pumice breccia that in turn grades upward into bedded and massive breccia (Figure 11). To the west of Las Negras, the Cerro Estorvillas Formation also includes dacite lavas.
\nStratigraphic logs of the Cerro Estorvillas Formation (see
The debris avalanche deposit of the Cerro Estorvillas Formation is almost 100 m thick near Las Negras, whereas it is less than 50 m thick farther to the west. This deposit is massive and internally organized in block and mixed facies. Block facies consists of angular clasts up to 6 m across, including meter-size pseudopillow blocks that exhibit radial jointing and meter-size blocks with columnar jointing (Figure 12A and B). Mixed facies comprises a clast-supported framework of centimeter- to decimeter-size angular clasts of the same composition and mineralogy as the blocks. Blocks are usually shattered with a jigsaw-fit fracture framework. In the lower part of the debris-avalanche deposit, irregular domains with diffuse margins extend laterally for more than 10 m and are less than 5 m thick. These domains consist of well-rounded cobbles of dacite occasionally supported in a matrix of coarse sand that consists of dense rock fragments of dacite and crystals (Figure 12C). The contact of the debris avalanche deposit with the underlying Cerro de los Guardias Formation consists of an irregular zone in which clasts and small, usually vein-like, portions of the debris avalanche deposit are mixed with clasts and portions of the underlying pumice breccia deposit (Figure 12D). This mixing zone extends up to 2 m upward from the basal contact of the debris-avalanche deposit.
\nLack of sorting, massive character, internal organization in block and mixed facies and shattered blocks with jigsaw-fit fractures are usual features of debris avalanche deposits [38, 40, 44, 45]. Pseudopillow radial-jointed blocks may derive from pillows and lava lobes surrounded by hyaloclastite breccia originally deposited in subaqueous settings while the monomictic character indicates a homogenous source for the volcanic debris. Rounded cobbles must have been formed by long-term reworking in highly energetic settings rather than in a nearly instantaneous event like a debris-avalanche. Although marine fossils have not been observed in the cobble domains, rounding of the clasts and the coarse sand matrix fits well with original deposition in a beach environment and subsequent transport within the debris avalanche. Transport and deposition of nearly intact parts of the volcano stratigraphy is a common feature observed in many debris avalanche deposits [39, 41]. Hence, the debris avalanche of the Cerro Estorvillas Formation may have involved the partial collapse of an emerged dacite lava dome likely located to the west of Las Negras, where dacite lavas of the same composition and mineralogy occur. Rhyolite pumice and andesite clasts and irregular portions of pumice breccia from the underlying Cerro de los Guardias Formation at the basal contact of the debris avalanche are interpreted to have been ripped up from the substrate during transport.
\nThe nearly continuous sedimentation in passive-margins and other types of sedimentary basins allows characterization of basin dynamics by use of the principles of sequence stratigraphy and techniques such as backstripping and decompaction on sedimentary successions. In contrast, the record of volcanism is discontinuous in the geologic history due to its episodic character, whereas volcanic rocks allow a reasonably good determination of absolute ages via radio-isotopic dating. Additionally, in the coherent lithofacies of volcanic successions, compaction effects on accumulated thicknesses are minor and can be likely disregarded.
\nIn Cabo de Gata, volcanic units were emplaced in submarine settings at unknown depth and are interbedded with sedimentary units in which paleobathymetry can be better constrained by analyzing the lithofacies of sedimentary successions. Using the known thickness and ages of volcanic rocks and the better-constrained paleodepth deposition of sedimentary rocks, the paleobathymetric setting of volcanism can be indirectly constrained and the uplift-downdrop history of volcano-sedimentary successions in Cabo de Gata can be roughly assessed. In addition, lateral correlation of the different lithofacies forming subunits of the Los Frailes Formation allows characterization of the eruptive styles and interpretation of the constructive and destructive processes of volcanic edifices during the eruptive periods. This may serve to illustrate the tectonic controls on cyclic volcanism not only of the Los Frailes Formation but also of other units in Cabo de Gata.
\nDebris-avalanche deposits of subunits 2 and 4 are laterally associated toward the north with coherent lava that grade into hyaloclastite breccias (Figure 13). Subunit 1 is also made up of debris-avalanche deposits and coherent lava that grade into hyaloclastite breccia and have a similar dacitic composition and mineralogy to dacite of subunits 2 and 4. Subunit 3 is made up of pumice-rich and glass-shard-rich lithofacies (i.e., massive and bedded pumice breccia, massive pumice tuff and thinly bedded fine tuff). Lithofacies of subunit 3 are fines depleted, have low-angle cross bedding and soft-sediment-deformation structures and show similar dacitic composition and mineralogy to subunits 2 and 4. Although subunit 3 is laterally discontinuous, it constitutes a distinctive stratigraphic marker in the Los Frailes area that allows lateral correlation of subunits within the Los Frailes Formation (Figure 13).
\nCorrelation of volcanic subunits and sedimentary units of the Los Frailes Formation in the Los Frailes area (see
At Collado de los Grajos, lava of subunit 2 is overlain by a fining-upward siliciclastic succession that, from base to top, consists of massive conglomerate with well-rounded pebbles of phyllite from the metamorphic basement to the Neogene succession of Cabo de Gata, low-angle cross-bedded coarse sandstone and cross-laminated fine sandstone to siltstone. The siliciclastic succession is overlain by lava of subunit 4, which consists of hyaloclastite breccia grading upward into coherent lava. Fine sandstone and siltstone of the upper siliciclastic succession fluidized and filled the space between clasts of in situ to clast-rotated hyaloclastite breccia of subunit 4. Coherent lava of subunit 4 is capped by a fining- and thinning-upward succession that, from base to top, includes a conglomerate bed, rhodolith-rich facies and cross-bedded sandstone (Figure 14A). The conglomerate bed is horizontal, up to 1 m thick and grades upward into a carbonate bed of up to 50 cm thick. The base of the conglomerate bed is irregular on the coherent dacite lava of subunit 4. Conglomerate is composed of well-rounded dacite cobbles with the free space among cobbles filled up with carbonate material infiltrated from the overlying carbonate bed (Figure 14B). Dacite cobbles and the underlying coherent lava are remarkably reddish. The upper carbonate bed is massive to crudely bedded and grades upward into low-angle, cross-bedded bioclastic sandstone up to 25 cm thick. The carbonate bed is a rhodolith-rich rudstone that contains angular volcanic clasts, serpulids, bryozoan, bivalve fragments and other bioclasts (Figure 14C). Rhodoliths have a concentric algal framework around bioclastic nuclei and occasionally around volcanic clasts. The carbonate succession is overlain by cross-bedded monomict sandstone, massive monomict breccia and coherent lavas of the Cerro de la Palma Formation (Figure 13).
\nDetailed stratigraphic log of with the sedimentary sequence overlying coherent lava of subunit 4 in the Collado de Los Grajos log (see
Fluidized sandstone and siltstone at the base of lava of subunit 4 indicates that the sediment was wet and nonconsolidated at the time of lava emplacement. The reddish color of the uppermost part of coherent lava of subunit 4 and of dacite cobbles of the upper conglomerate bed can be attributed to oxidizing conditions either at lava emplacement or after emplacement. Rhodoliths are encrusting coralline algae usually associated with above wave base environments, although they have been also described in deeper water settings [46, 47]. In terms of modern sequence stratigraphy, rhodolith-rich facies deposited on unconformities have been interpreted as condensed beds, indicating the onset of marine transgression ([48] and references therein). This interpretation fits well with the conglomerate bed on coherent lava of subunit 4 as deposited in a beach environment after lava emplacement and with rhodolith-rich bed and cross-bedded sandstone as a deeper facies in an ongoing marine transgression. Hence, the fining and thinning-upward sedimentary sequence with the conglomerate bed at the base and the cross-bedded sandstone at the top is interpreted to have been deposited above wave base and to reflect deepening water conditions from the shoreface down to infralittoral settings. The depositional model of a Late Holocene clastic prograding wedge in the western Mediterranean has been studied in detail and shows that the mean storm wave base is 20 m below sea level [49]. The present-day configuration of the western Mediterranean was somewhat similar to the paleogeographic configuration in early Tortonian times, in which the Mediterranean Sea was connected to the Atlantic Ocean by narrow passages [50]. Hence, the mean storm wave base during Serravallian-Tortonian times can be reasonably assumed at 20 m below sea level (mbsl) and the exceptional storm wave base at 30 mbsl, both marking the slope break that separates infralittoral and littoral depositional settings from offshore deposition.
\nSubunits 2, 3, and 4 are separated by sedimentary successions in which silt grain size is minor and clay grain size is absent. These successions contain a variety of shallow-water marine fossils (bryozoan, echinoderms, bivalves, and coralline algae) and have low-angle cross stratification, rounded cobbles and pebbles and other evidence of above wave base settings as shown above. Therefore, the sedimentary units separating the volcanic subunits of the Los Frailes Formation can be collectively interpreted as mixed carbonate-siliciclastic platform-beach facies deposited in infralittoral to littoral settings. The fines-depleted character, soft-sediment deformation structures, low-angle cross-bedding and interbedding with sedimentary rocks from shallow-water settings suggest subaqueous deposition of volcanic subunit 3 of the Los Frailes Formation [8]. Hence, the composite stratigraphic succession obtained from lateral correlation in the Los Frailes area includes thin sedimentary units deposited in infralittoral to littoral settings (0–20 mbsl) and thicker volcanic units emplaced in deeper, likely offshore, settings (>20 mbsl). Based on these paleobathymetyric constraints, the relative sea-level curve can be obtained with hiatuses corresponding to the unconformities at the contacts between volcanic and sedimentary units (Figure 15). Fluidization of unconsolidated sediments into overlying lavas suggests that the time encompassed from deposition of sediments to lava emplacement was not very long. Based on the ages of volcanic subunits and on the number of volcanic subunits of the Los Frailes formation, the periodicity of volcanic cycles can be roughly approximated at 105 years. Volcanic activity during each volcanic cycle includes constructive and destructive events of volcanic edifices and is assumed to have occurred in a relatively short time span (<104 years). The Los Frailes area can be regarded as a volcanic field composed of individual, partly overlapping, domes that are active along a time span of about 5 × 105 years with periods of volcanic repose separating dome activity. A similar scenario has been proposed for Surtseyan volcanism of the Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka-Deborah volcanic field in New Zealand but encompassing a time span of several 106 years [51]. The accumulated thickness of the stratigraphic succession at Los Frailes is mainly derived from the volcanic activity while the sedimentary succession accumulated during repose periods has much smaller thickness (Figure 15). Sea-level oscillations can be explained by the progradation and retrogradation of mixed carbonate-siliciclastic platform-beach wedges after each volcanic cycle and by infilling of offshore settings with volcanic material during volcanic cycles. This dynamics requires tectonic subsidence to accommodate the thickness of volcanic material accumulated during volcanic cycles in infralittoral to littoral sediments. Similar to other Neogene basins of the Betic-Rif Orogen [52–54], we propose that tectonic subsidence in Cabo de Gata is controlled by uplift-downdrop displacements along major strike-slip faults that bound the Almeria-Níjar basin (i.e., the Carboneras fault) and/or by vertical displacements along minor faults associated with these major faults.
\nComposite stratigraphic log of the Los Frailes area based on the lateral correlation of
Volcanism in Cabo de Gata is cyclic, with eruptive periods being characterized by both construction and partial dismantling of volcanic edifices, whereas noneruptive periods are characterized by volcanic repose, sedimentation of carbonate and siliciclastic rocks and erosion of volcanic edifices and deposits. The El Barronal Formation, the Los Frailes Formation and many other units in Cabo de Gata, which are divided into volcanic subunits separated by sedimentary units, are the geological record of this cyclic volcanism and volcanic hiatus history. Volcanic activity in Cabo de Gata includes effusive and explosive eruptions and syn-eruptive partial collapse of volcanic edifices yielding avalanches of volcanic debris deposited in submarine settings. The characteristic eruption model in Cabo de Gata likely began with explosive eruptions that produced juvenile and lithic fragments and deposition of pyroclastic density currents and ended with the effusion of lavas. Volcanic debris-avalanche deposits of the Los Frailes Formation and the Cerro Estorvillas Formation resulted from the sector collapse of submarine to emergent lava domes and were deposited in offshore settings. They constitute rare examples in the geological record of submarine volcanic debris avalanches that can be studied by direct access on exposed outcrops. Based on depositional setting of sedimentary rocks and on thickness and ages of volcanic rocks, it is suggested that the volcanic pile produced during each volcanic cycle in infralittoral to littoral settings is accommodated by tectonic subsidence along major faults controlling the Almeria-Níjar basin.
\nWe thank Miguel Garcés for comments and suggestions on a first version of the manuscript. This research has been partly funded by project 2014SGR1595 and by grant PRX14/00303 to Carles Soriano.
\nWastewater is produced as a result of human and industrial activities. Different kinds of firms are emerging because of ever-changing needs and demands, and as a response, numerous new pollutants are deposited in wastewater, necessitating the development of advanced treatment techniques. To manage ever-changing wastewater discharges, advanced methods are essential, and there is always a connection between water and energy. Although it is impossible to completely eliminate wastewater formation because no business is 100% efficient, however, it is feasible to develop novel and improve existing wastewater treatment and reuse methods to satisfy water demand. Moreover, water reuse has an enormous prospective for replenishing water resource portfolios that are already overburdened.
Since wastewater treatment and reuse are linked to public health, they are extremely important. The existence of pathogenic organisms and polluted substances in wastewater presents the possibility of harmful health effects where contact, inhalation, or ingestion of substance or microbiological elements of health concern occurs. The impact of several factors (such as pH, temperature, colour, and particle matter) and chemical components (cations, anions, and heavy metals) on human health have already been proven, and acceptable thresholds have been set. However, if industrial emission comprises a major portion of the wastewater, the influence of organic elements in treated water utilized for non-potable activities requires investigation [1]. Furthermore, while modern technologies can assist in reducing energy consumption and improving reliability, the difficulties in human understanding can be even more worrisome. Past and contemporary proof of disease carried by water (such as cholera, typhoid, malaria, dengue fever, and anaemia) has sparked public debate about the safety of reusing water [2]. On-line sensors, membranes, and enhanced oxidation mechanisms are examples of sophisticated technology that can aid to alleviate this impression. Nevertheless, a clearer knowledge of the processes of reuse and the qualities of reused water in comparison to freshwater resources will lead to a more favorable public opinion.
Wastewater treatment is an eco-friendly process because it protects the ecosystem by releasing less contamination; it employs sustainable resources; it offers the opportunity for unused products to be recycled, and it manages leftover wastes in a more biologically acceptable manner. The features and kinds of contaminants contained in the water, as well as the anticipated use of treated water, influence the choice of treatment technique. Activated sludge mechanisms and anaerobic digestion are century-old methods that continue to work well and have become the treatment of choice [3]. Emerging pollutants in wastewater and rising wastewater loads in water bodies necessitate immediate studies in this field to provide safe and clean water while also ensuring freshwater supplies. With this goal in mind, this chapter focuses on research into the present and emerging wastewater treatment and reuse technologies while highlighting their limitations and prospects [4].
Physical, chemical, biological, and combined technologies are commonly used in wastewater treatment facilities. Primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment procedures make up a conventional wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Primary processes consist of screening, filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, coagulation, and flotation. Biological treatment, which can be oxic or anoxic, is the most common secondary procedure while oxidation, precipitation, reverse osmosis, electrolysis, and electrodialysis are examples of tertiary treatment. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), ion exchange, ultra and nanofiltration, adsorption/biosorption, and advanced biological treatment combining algae, bacteria, and fungi are all emerging treatment methods that offer healthy and clean treated water [3].
Physical methods, in which physical forces are utilized to remove contaminants, were among the first wastewater treatment technologies used. They are still used in most wastewater treatment process flow systems. These methods are typically employed when water is heavily polluted. The most often used physical wastewater treatment methods are:
The first phase in a wastewater treatment operation is screening. The purpose of screening is to eliminate solid waste from wastewater, and it is applied to remove items such as faecal solids, fibre, cork, hair, fabric, kitchen trash, wood, paper, cork, and so on. As a result, different-sized screens are utilized, the size of which is dictated by the requirement, i.e. the size of the particles in the wastewater.
In the filtering process, water is filtered in via a substance having fine holes. This is usually done with a set-up having pore diameters ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 mm. It is used to remove suspended particles, greases, oils, germs, and other contaminants. Membranes and cartridges are examples of filters that can be employed. Filtration can remove particles smaller than 100 mg l–1, as well as oil smaller than 25 mg l–1, reducing it by up to 99%. For water purification, the filtering process is used. Filtration water is utilized in ion exchange, adsorption, and membrane separation processes. Furthermore, filtration devices create potable water [5, 6].
To remove suspended noncolloidal particles, centrifugal separation is performed (size up to 1 mm). Solids (sludges) are separated and released after the wastewater is put to centrifugal devices and rotated at different speeds. Suspended solids segregate to a degree proportional to their densities. Furthermore, the centrifugal machine’s speed is also important for the removal of suspended materials. Oil and grease separation, as well as source reduction, are examples of applications.
This process removes suspended particles, grits, and silts by leaving water undisturbed/semi-disturbed in various types of tanks for varied time intervals. Under the pull of gravity, the suspended solids settle [5, 6, 7, 8]. The size and density of the solids, as well as the velocity of the water if it is moving, determine the settling time. To speed up the sedimentation process, alums are occasionally utilized. Gravity separation alone can remove up to 60% of suspended particles. Sedimentation is normally carried out before the application of standard treatment methods. It’s a cost-effective way to treat waste from the paper and refinery industries. Water is generated for membrane processes, ion exchange, industrial water supply, using this technology. Source reduction is another application of technology.
Non-settleable solids are allowed to settle when suspended solids do not settle down through sedimentation or gravity. Coagulation is the term for this process [5, 7]. It is possible to employ alum, starch, ferrous minerals, aluminum salts, and activated silica. Coagulants made of non-ionic polymers, anionic polymers, and synthetic cationic polymers are also effective, but they are usually more expensive than natural coagulants. The most essential governing parameters in the coagulation process are temperature, pH, and contact time. Specific coagulants are added to biological treatment units to remove bacteria and other organics that may be floating in the water. It’s the most significant part of a wastewater treatment unit, and it’s used for a variety of purposes, including wastewater treatment, recycling, and pollution removal.
A conventional water treatment facility’s flotation is a typical and necessary component. Flotation removes suspended particles, greases, oils, biological materials, and other contaminants by attaching them to air or gas [5, 9]. The solids bind to the gas or air and create agglomerates, which float to the water’s surface and can be skimmed off easily. Alum, activated silica, and other substances enhance the flotation process. The flotation process is aided by compressed air flowing through the water. Electro-flotation (electro-flocculation) has been utilized for recycling and water treatment for a long time. This method may remove up to 75% of suspended particles while also eliminating up to 95% of grease and oil. It’s a promising treatment method for paper and refinery sectors [5].
Over the last two decades, as an emerging wastewater treatment approach, membrane technology has evolved into a substantial separation technique. The water world has been looking for new solutions as regulatory limits and esthetic criteria for consumer water quality have continued to progress. Membrane technology is an example of a novel technology. Membranes are employed as filters in separation processes in a variety of applications in this technology. Adsorption, sand filters, and ion exchangers are just a few of the technologies they can replace. Water filtration (covering desalination) and purification (such as groundwater and wastewater) are major applications of this technology, as are sectors such as biotechnology and food & beverage [10, 11]. Table 1 illustrates the pore size different membranes technologies ranges.
Membrane process | Transmembrane pressure (kPa) | Pore size (nm) | Removable components |
---|---|---|---|
Microfiltration | 100–200 | 100–1000 | Suspended solids, bacteria |
Ultrafiltration | 200–1000 | 1–100 | Macromolecules, viruses, proteins |
Nanofiltration | 1000–3000 | 0.5–5 | Micropollutants, bivalent ions |
Reverse-osmosis | 3500–10,000 | <1 | Monovalent ions, hardness |
Pressure-driven membrane process.
Ultrafiltration has been utilized to remediate a wide range of waterways around the world. According to reports, surface waters, including lake waters, rivers, and reservoirs, have been employed in 50% of UF membrane plants. This technology has been used to treat municipal drinking water for over a decade [12]. UF pores are typically between 0.01 and 0.05 mm (roughly 0.01 mm) in diameter or less. Larger organic macromolecules can be retained by UF membranes. They used to be defined by a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) rather than a definite pore size [13]. Since the osmotic pressure of the feed solution is low, hydrostatic pressures in UF are typically in the range of 2–10 bar. The operation of a pressure-driven UF process can be separated into three distinct pressure ranges based on the relationship of permeate flow on applied pressure (i) linearly increasing flux (sufficiently low), (ii) intermediate, (iii) and limiting flux (sufficiently high).
Even though its concentration polarization layer has not formed appreciably in the linearly increasing flux pressure range, the membrane is the only source of permeate flux resistance. Permeate flux in the limiting flux pressure range, on the other hand, is unaffected by the applied pressure. The process performance is primarily determined by these boundary layer phenomena, just as it is in MF [14]. Water and wastewater can be treated in a variety of ways using the UF process, including the manufacture of ultra-pure water for the electronics industry, COD levels are decreasing in maize starch plants, chemical treatment of groundwater combined with selective removal of dissolved hazardous metals, the dairy industry’s whey treatment, wine, or fruit juice clarification.
The UF technology has several benefits such as perfect pore size range thus can be applied for the separation of most of the feed components, low energy usage owing to the unavailability of phase transition during separation, and simple and compact design makes it simple to use. In addition, for temperature-sensitive culinary, biological, and pharmaceutical applications, the most advanced membrane separation technology is UF. However, the application of this technology is faced with some drawbacks including an inability to desalinate saltwater because it cannot isolate dissolved salts or low molecular weight species. UF is ineffective at separating macromolecular mixtures; it can only be efficient if the species have a molecular weight difference of 10 times or more.
Microfiltration is a pressure-driven membrane technology that can retain particles of molecular weight greater than 100 kDa and a diameter smaller than 1000 nm. The membrane pore size determines the separation or retention capacities. MF membrane pore size spans from 100 nm to 10,000 nm. Because the MF pore size is large, the separation pressure is low, ranging from 10 kPa to 300 kPa. Suspended particles, sediments, algae, protozoa, and bacteria are all separated with MF. Furthermore, the separation method is impractical since particles smaller than the pore size pass readily while larger particles are rejected. Darcy’s law describes volume flow through MF membranes, where the applied pressure (Δ
Where permeability is a constant
Microfiltration has shown to be viable due to its low energy consumption, operating pressure, and maintenance which result in low operating cost, fouling is not as bad as it could be because of two factors: larger pore sizes and low pressures. The application of this technology is limited due to its sensitivity to oxidizing agents, bacteria and suspended particles can only be eliminated, particles that are hard and sharp can disrupt the membrane, and cleaning pressures of more than 100 kPa can damage the membrane.
Nanofiltration is a filtration technology that separates different fluids or ions using membranes. Due to its broader membrane hole structure than the membranes used in RO, “Loose” RO is a term used to describe NF. More salt can pass through the membrane as a result of this. NF is employed in conditions where strong moderate inorganic removal and organic removal are sought since it can function at low pressures, typically 7–14 bars, and absorbs some inorganic salts. NF may concentrate proteins, sugars, bacteria, divalent ions, particles, colors, and other compounds with a molecular weight of more than 1,000 [15]. NF membranes are constructed of aromatic polyamide and cellulose acetate, displaying salt rejection rates ranging from 95% for divalent salts to 40% for monovalent salts and a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) for organics of 300 [16]. Organics of low molecular weight, including methanol, are unaffected by NF.
Although NF membranes have strong molecular rejection properties for divalent cations such as magnesium and calcium and may be used instead of traditional chemical softening to effectively remove hardness, they can also be utilized to generate drinking water. Organics with a higher molecular weight that cause odor and taste, or that mix with chlorine to produce trihalomethanes or other particles, can be rejected by NF membranes, boosting the effectiveness of downstream disinfection treatments [17]. Rai and co-workers [18] reported using NF for tertiary treatment of distillery effluent, that the NF membrane had a very high separation efficiency for both inorganic and organic chemicals (around 85–95%, 98–99.5%, 96–99.5% removal of TDS, cooler, and COD, respectively). The advantage of nanofiltration is the lower operating pressure, which results in lower energy costs and potential pump and piping investment savings. The most important drawback of NF membranes is the difficulty in controlling membrane pore size and pore size distribution repeatability. Furthermore, NF membranes are prone to fouling, which could result in significant flow reduction.
Reverse osmosis (RO), in general, is the reverse of the osmosis process. When a semi-permeable barrier is established between two solutions, a solvent flows from lower to higher solute concentrations. Reverse osmosis occurs when an external force causes a solvent to flow from a higher to lower solute concentration. The driving force in the typical osmosis process is a drop in the system’s free energy, which diminishes as the system seeks to achieve equilibrium. When the system reaches equilibrium, the osmosis process comes to a stop. An external force larger than the osmotic pressure of the system drives the RO process. RO is like other pressure-driven membrane processes; however, other processes employ size exclusion or straining as the mode of separation and RO employs diffusion.
RO membranes are usually dense membranes having pore sizes less than 1 nm. They are generally a skin layer in the polymer matrix. The membrane material (polymer) forms a layer and a web-like structure. The water follows a tortuous path to get permeated through the membrane. RO membranes can reject the smallest entities from the feed. These include monovalent ions, dissolved organic content, and viruses, almost everything that other membrane processes are not capable of. RO membranes can also be used in both cross-flow and dead-end configurations, but on the other hand, crossflow is frequently favored due to its low energy usage and low fouling qualities. Spiral wound modules, in which the membrane is wound around the inner tube, are the most prevalent. RO has several applications, of which desalination is the most important and widely used. RO is also used in wastewater treatment, and dairy and food products.
Using RO technology, desalination of the sea and brackish water is possible when compared to other membrane processes where separation occurs without a phase change. In comparison to other desalting systems, it is compact and hence takes up less space while ensuring low maintenance and easy scalability. High-pressure requirements, energy-intensive process, lower flux, fouling, and the need to pre-treat feed before use are some of the shortcomings of RO.
The FO process is a designed osmotic process in which the treated water is on one side of a semi-permeable membrane and a draw solution (DS) is on the other. Even though FO is built on the osmosis principle, the word “forward osmosis” (FO) was most likely coined to differentiate it from “reverse osmosis,” which has been the term for membrane desalination technology for decades. Forward osmosis (FO) employs a concentrated draw solution to create high osmotic pressure, which extracts water from the feed solution across a semi-permeable membrane [19]. As a result, the volume of the feed stream drops, the salt concentration rises, and the permeate flux to the draw solution side reduces [20]. The general equation characterizing water movement over the RO membrane, according to Lee et al. [21], is:
where
Principles of osmotic processes: the initial state of the solutions, forward osmosis (FO), pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) and reverse osmosis (RO), adapted from Rao [
The primary benefit of FO is how little energy is required to extract pure water from wastewater or recycled feed, with just the energy needed to recirculate the draw solution requiring additional energy [18]. The ultimate flux reduction of concentration polarization is a fundamental limiting element impacting the performance of FO systems [25, 26]. Since forward osmosis is gaining attention as a viable method for lowering the cost of wastewater treatment and generating freshwater, many potential applications for FO membranes have been investigated, including desalination, dilute industrial wastewater concentration, direct potable reuse for enhanced life support systems, food processing, landfill leachate concentration, pharmaceutical industry processes, and concentration of digested sludge liquids [26].
Chemical methods employed in waste-water treatment are designed to create change through chemical reactions. They are always combined with physical and biological methods. Chemical methods, in comparison to physical ones, have an inherent disadvantage considering that they are additive processes. That is, the dissolved elements of wastewater usually increase. If the wastewater is to be reused, this is an important consideration. A brief description of chemical methods of wastewater treatment is given below.
The pH value of wastewater is adjusted through neutralization. Acids or alkalis are used to neutralize industrial wastewaters after operations such as precipitation and flocculation. Metal-containing acid wastewaters can be treated by adding an alkaline reagent to the acid waste, forming a precipitate, and collecting the precipitate. As a result, the pH of the input solution is adjusted to the optimal range for metal hydroxide precipitation. To meet the overall wastewater treatment objectives, the step is performed before the major phase of wastewater treatment [27].
By lowering their solubilities, dissolved contaminants become solid precipitates, which can be easily skimmed from the water’s surface during precipitation [27]. While it effectively removes metal ions and organics, the accumulation of oil and grease may produce precipitation issues. Adding chemicals or reducing the temperature of the water reduces the solubility of dissolved pollutants. Adding organic solvents to the water could theoretically decrease the contaminant’s solubility, however, this procedure is costly on a large scale. Precipitates form when these compounds react with soluble contaminants. The most used substances for this function include ferric chloride, lime, ferrous sulphate, sodium bicarbonates, and alum. The most critical moderating parameters for the precipitation process are temperature and pH. Precipitation can eliminate approximately 60% of pollutants [28]. This method can be used to recycle water and remediate wastewater from the chromium and nickel-plating industries. Among the applications are water softening and heavy metal removal and phosphate from water. The handling of the vast amount of sludge produced is the main issue related to precipitation [29, 30].
An ion exchanger, a solid substance, exchanges hazardous ions in wastewater for non-toxic ions [31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. There are two types of ion exchangers: anion and cation exchangers, which can exchange anions and cations, respectively. Ion exchangers are resins with active sites on their surfaces, which might be natural or synthetic. The most used ion exchangers include metha-acrylic resins, zeolites, acrylic, polystyrene sulfonic acid, and sodium silicates. It is a reversible process that utilizes very little energy. Low amounts of inorganics and organics are removed using ion exchange (up to 250 mg l–1). Concentrations of inorganic and organic compounds can be reduced by up to 95%. Potable water production, industrial water, pharmacy, fossil fuels, softening and other sectors are among the applications. It’s also being utilized to cut down on pollution. If there is oil, grease, or large quantities of organics and inorganics in the water, it may be necessary to pre-treat it.
Redox reactions are commonly used in chemical wastewater treatment and potable water treatment. Chlorinated hydrocarbons and pesticides are effectively removed from drinking water using ozone and hydrogen peroxide oxidation methods. Oxidation techniques are utilized in wastewater treatment to remove problematic biodegradable chemicals. Photochemical purification, which uses UV light to create hydroxyl radicals from hydrogen peroxide or ozone, is very effective. These Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) destroy antibiotics, cytostatic medications, hormones, and other anthropogenic trace chemicals. Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) are efficient methods to remove organic contamination not degradable through biological processes in water and wastewater. Ozone also helps with the oxidation of iron and manganese in well water. To convert heavy metal ions, for example, into easily dissolvable sulfides, reduction procedures are necessary [36].
Ion-selective semi-permeable membranes allow water-soluble ions to pass through them when an electric current passes through them [37, 38]. Ion-selective membranes are ion exchange materials that are selective. They can be anion or cation exchangers, allowing anion and cations to flow out of the system. The technique uses two electrodes to which a voltage is supplied in either a continuous or batch mode. The membranes are arranged in a series or parallel pattern, to obtain the required degree of demineralization [39, 40]. Factors such as pH, temperature, the type of contaminants, membrane selectivities, scaling and fouling of wastewater, the wastewater flow rate, and the volume and design of phases all affect dissolved solids removal. The creation of drinkable water from brackish water is one of the applications. Furthermore, this technology has been utilized to reduce water sources. Total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations of up to 200 mg l−1 can be decreased by electrodialysis by up to 90% [41]. Membrane fouling happened in the same way that reverse osmosis does. Carbon nanotubes have been used in composite membranes to alleviate this problem and increase flow.
Disinfection in wastewater treatment aims to limit the number of microorganisms in the water that will be released back into the environment for later use as irrigation water, bathing water, drinking water, and so on. The quality of the treated water (pH, cloudiness, and other parameters), the type of disinfection used, the disinfectant dosage (time and concentration), and other external conditions all influence disinfection efficiency. Due to the obvious nature of wastewater, which contains several human enteric organisms linked to a variety of waterborne diseases, this technique is critical in waste-water treatment [42]. Physical agents such as heat and light, mechanical means such as screening, sedimentation, and filtration, radiation, primarily gamma rays, chemical agents such as chlorine and its compounds, bromine, iodine, ozone, phenol and phenolic compounds, alcohols, heavy metals, dyes, soaps, and synthetic detergents, quaternary ammonium compounds, hydrogen peroxide, and various alkali and acids are among the most used disinfection methods. Oxidizing chemicals are the most frequent chemical disinfectants, and chlorine is the most widely utilized of these.
Biological water treatment technologies are critical components of a wastewater treatment strategy since they are utilized to produce safe drinking water. Aerobic, anaerobic and bioremediation processes are the techniques employed for this. These operations are outlined below.
Aerobic and facultative bacteria cause biodegradable organic matter to break down aerobically when oxygen or air is freely accessible in wastewater in the dissolved form [43, 44]. Temperature, retention time, oxygen availability, and the biological activity of the bacteria all limit the extent of the process. Furthermore, the addition of specific compounds essential for bacterial development may increase the rate at which organic pollutants are biologically oxidized. This approach can remove phosphates, nitrates, volatile organics, dissolved and suspended organics, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and other pollutants. It is possible to reduce the number of biodegradable organics in the environment by up to 90%. The method’s downside is that it produces a huge number of bio-solids, which necessitates additional costly treatment and management. Oxidation ponds, aeration lagoons, and activated sludge processes are used to carry out the aerobic process [44]. The following Eq. (3) gives a simple depiction of aerobic decomposition.
Oxidation ponds are aerobic systems in which the heterotrophic microbes consume oxygen that is supplied by both the atmosphere and photosynthetic algae. In this process, algae utilize the inorganic substances (N, P, CO2) generated by aerobic bacteria to fuel their growth, which is powered by sunlight. They discharge oxygen into the fluid, which the bacteria then use to complete the symbiotic cycle [44].
Aeration lagoons are deeper than oxidation ponds, because aerators supply oxygen rather than algal photosynthetic activity, as in oxidation ponds. The aerators maintain the microbial biomass afloat and supply enough dissolved oxygen for the aerobic process to be maximized. Although there is no deposition or sludge return, this process relies on properly mixed liquor formation in the tank/lagoon. As a result, aeration lagoons are appropriate for effluent that is both strong and biodegradable, such as wastewater from the food industry [44].
The activated sludge method works by suspending a substantial bacterial colony in wastewater under aerobic conditions. Greater levels of bacterial proliferation and respiration can be achieved with limitless nutrients and oxygen, resulting in the conversion of accessible organic compounds to oxidized end-products or the formation of new microbes. The activated sludge system is comprised of five interconnected components: bioreactor, activated sludge, aeration and mixing system, sedimentation tank, and returned sludge [44]. The biological mechanism employing activated sludge is a widely utilized technology for wastewater remediation that has low operating costs.
Anaerobic treatment of waste is a biological process in which microorganisms degrade organic pollutants without oxygen. When there is no free dissolved oxygen in the wastewater, anaerobic breakdown or putrefaction takes place where anaerobic and facultative bacteria break down complex organic substances into sulfur-based organic molecules, carbon, and nitrogen. This sequence of biochemical events produces biogas such as methane, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and nitrogen. This approach minimizes the number of bacteria in wastewater [45, 46, 47]. Anaerobic technologies are generally used before aerobic treatment for streams with high organic material (measured as high BOD, COD, or TSS). Anaerobic treatment is a tried-and-tested low-energy way of treating industrial effluent. The following Eq. (4) represents the anaerobic process.
The anaerobic digestion (AD) approach is appealing because it treats wastewater, provides renewable energy, and generates byproducts that may be utilized as farm fertilizers, making it an environmentally benign process [48]. When compared to the aerobic wastewater treatment process, the AD process offers the following advantages: fewer nutrients required and the creation of less biological sludge, which requires simply drying as further treatment [49]. It also necessitates a small reactor capacity and no oxygen, reducing the power needed to deliver oxygen in the aerobic approach, and the organic loading on the system is not restricted to an oxygen supply. Thus, a higher loading rate can be used in AD, allowing for a faster response to substrate addition after long periods without feeding and semi-feed strategies for a few months. This benefits the system, making AD a viable option for seasonal industrial wastewater treatment and off-gas elimination that causes air pollution. Examples of anaerobic treatment systems are upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) reactor, expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB), anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), anaerobic filter reactors and anaerobic Lagoons
The Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) technology is particularly effective for treating wastewater with a high carbohydrate content. As a result, the UASB reactor has become one of the most common designs for treating wastewater from agro-industrial processing companies because it can endure fluctuations in effluent quality and complete reactor shut down during the season [50]. In addition, wastewater containing carbohydrates are readily degraded by bacteria and acts as a nutrient-rich precursor for the anaerobic process. Because of its minimal sludge production and low energy and space requirements, the UASB technique has become well-known for treating wastewater. However, the most significant benefit of this technology is that it can generate energy rather than consume it while treating wastewater [51].
The treated wastewater enters the reactor from the bottom and runs upward through a blanket of biologically activated sludge, typically in granular aggregates. The anaerobic bacteria digest (degrade) the wastewater as it moves upward through the blanket. Under realistic conditions, the blanket is held by the upward flow coupled with gravity’s settling action with the support of flocculants and does not wash off, resulting in better treatment efficiency. Intrinsic mixing is facilitated by anaerobic gas production, which aids in the creation and enhancement of biological granules. However, because some of the gas created in the sludge blanket is connected to the granules, a gas-liquid-solid separator (GLSS) is added to the reactor’s top for effective gas, liquid, and granule separation. In GLSS, gas-enclosed particles collide with the bottom of degassing baffles, fall back into the sludge blanket, and treated water exits the reactor [52].
An improved anaerobic treatment system based on an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket is the expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB). The differentiating feature is that the wastewater passing through the sludge bed has a faster rate of upward flow velocity. In addition, the enhanced flux allows for partial expansion (fluidisation) of the granular sludge bed, boosting wastewater-sludge interaction and enhancing sludge bed segregation of small inactive, suspended particles
McCarty and colleagues created the anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) at Stanford University in the early 1980s. It is a simple linear reactor with a simple operational design that has widespread use in wastewater treatment. The ABR primarily treats wastewater through sludge and scum retention as well as anaerobic degradation of particulate and dissolvable organic substances. As a result, any factors impacting these processes impact ABR treatment. Baffles guide the flow within the reactor in an ABR reactor under the force of the pressure head at the influent. There is no need for mechanical mixing because the flow directly touches the biomass as it is driven through the sludge bed. As a result, no electricity is required during regular operation for an underground ABR design, while ABR above ground design necessitates pumping energy. In ABR, byproduct sludge is recirculated, discharged, or used as manure.
According to Reynaud and Buckley [53], a long solid retention time is required for anaerobic treatment of low-strength wastewater, and the required reactor capacity is influenced by the hydraulic load instead of the organic load. The upflow velocity of the wastewater inside the reactor compartments containing sludge influences solid retention in the ABR design. Low-strength applications, on the other hand, have negligible solid flotation as well as carry-over due to gas production.
In 1969, Young and McCarty invented the upflow anaerobic filter. An anaerobic filter was the first high-rate bioreactor that excluded the separation and effluent recycling requirement. In addition, it offers the advantages of eliminating the mechanical mixing stage, having improved stability even at loading rates higher than 10 kg/m3 day COD, enduring hazardous shock loads, and being inhibitor-resistant. Because the upflow anaerobic filter is loaded with inert support material such as gravel, pebbles, coke, or plastic media, it works similarly to an aerobic trickling filter. As a result, there is no need for biomass separation or sludge recycling in the system. The reactor’s designation is to trap particles in the wastewater as it runs through it, while active biomass connected to the surface of the filter material degrades the organic matter [43]. The anaerobic filter reactor can be used as a downflow or upflow filter reactor, with an OLR range from 1 kg/m3 to 15 kg/m3 day COD and separation efficiencies ranging from 75 to 95%. The treatment temperature ranges from 20 to 35.8°C, with HRTs varying from 0.2 to 3 days. The main disadvantage of the upflow anaerobic filter is the possibility of blockage due to undegraded sewage sludge, mineral precipitates, or bacterial biomass [43].
An anaerobic lagoon is a deep earthen basin with enough volume to allow sedimentation of sedimentable solids, digestion of residual sludge, and anaerobic reduction of some soluble organic substrate [54]. Anaerobic lagoons are typically designed to store and treat wastewater for 20–150 days. They’re deep (normally 8–15 feet) and function similarly to septic tanks, where anaerobic microorganisms break down contaminants in the absence of oxygen. Solids in wastewater segregate and settle into strata inside an anaerobic lagoon. Grease, scum, and other floating debris make up the top layer. The layer of sludge that settles at the bottom of an anaerobic lagoon gradually accumulates and must be removed if septic tanks are not used first. The effluent from an anaerobic lagoon will need to be treated further [55].
Bioremediation is a biological treatment process that uses biological resources to convert environmental pollutants into less hazardous forms. For example, the innate ability of microorganisms, plants, bacteria, algae or fungi to survive, adapt and thrive in unseemingly harsh conditions has been exploited to treat contaminated water bodies or soils. Like any other biological treatment process, bioremediation is preferred because it does not require chemicals or a lot of energy. This technology can be applied both in-situ (on-site) or ex-situ; for example, the wastewater can be treated on-site where the pollution takes place or transported to an external site for proper manipulation of the operating condition if it cannot be achieved at the contaminated site. Bioremediation can occur in either aerobic or anaerobic environments. Living organisms require ambient oxygen to thrive in aerobic environments. There is no oxygen in anaerobic situations. Microbes in this situation decompose chemical molecules or ions like sulfates in the wastewater to obtain the required energy [56].
Bioremediation is broadly classified into the following;
Microbial bioremediation—employs microorganisms as food sources to break down contaminants.
Mycoremediation—breaks down contaminants using the digestive enzymes of fungi.
Phytoremediation—employs plants to extract, break down and clean up contaminants.
Microbial remediation and mycoremediation can be classified further based on the strategy used as bioattenuation (natural attenuation), biostimulation (use of organic or inorganic nutrients for remediation), and bioaugmentation (use of genetically engineered microbe).
Conventional wastewater treatment methods are currently beset by several issues, including increased chemical usage, sludge disposal, and increased energy and space needs. Furthermore, effective elimination of recalcitrant organic components, the inability to handle more wastewater than the limited design capacity, and a scarcity of experienced labour are all major operational issues in these systems. Because of all of these operational and technological limitations in traditional wastewater treatment methods, researchers are working to establish novel categories of advanced wastewater treatment techniques to address the aforementioned issues. Advanced wastewater techniques must integrate membrane technology, Advanced Oxidation Processes, Less sludge formation and if sludge is formed, how to use the sludge rather than disposing of it at the dumpsite, adsorption materials with a low cost, fewer chemical or bioflocculant usage, a new group of nanoparticles for wastewater treatment. Although there is a large body of study on the aforementioned topics, there are still areas that need improvement in the open literature to tackle the concerns of developments in wastewater treatment methods. The employment of modern wastewater technologies in conjunction with traditional methods may lead to more efficient wastewater treatment as well as increased reuse and recycling of treated water.
Membrane technology has several drawbacks, including greater energy consumption and fouling. Developing novel membrane materials, calculating hydrodynamics, incorporating modules, and exploring innovative modes of operation to reduce energy usage or application parameters to improve the treatment of water or wastewater are all examples of current advancements linked to membrane technology. All membrane processes have a minimal impact on the environment. There are no hazardous chemicals that must be disposed of, and no heat is generated in the operations. Future trends will include the recovery of valuable compounds, utilization of process waters, technological development including forwarding osmosis and pervaporation, real-time fouling monitoring, the advancement of existing fouling analysis techniques, the creation of custom-made novel membranes, and the development of membranes that can be applied in extreme circumstances. As these objectives are met, capacity, selectivity, and cost, as well as environmental effects including chemical consumption and concentrate handling should be addressed.
Membrane processes play an important role as well. As materials and membrane processes advance, new applications such as new MBRs (membrane bioreactor technologies), advanced osmosis, and pervaporation systems will be accessible. Anaerobic MBRs decompose organic compounds using anaerobic bacteria. In this configuration, biogas can replace the air in the submerged reactor. Due to their lower energy use, MBR systems outperform conventional systems. Since anaerobic MBR systems can retain high biomass concentrations, withstand high organic loadings, recover organic and energy acid, and generate little sludge, they are promising. Another promising technique is microbial fuel cells, a new form of MBR. Decentralized treatment systems can be utilized in wastewater systems to reduce costs and promote sanitation and reuse [57, 58].
The biological treatment process is a well-known technique for dealing with problems associated with the treatment of industrial effluents and municipal wastewaters, where conventional technologies have proven to be prohibitively expensive, time-consuming, and ineffective. Though the aerobic technique has been successful in terms of industrial application, there are some drawbacks, such as greater capital costs for aeration facilities, increased operational costs (especially for energy for pumps or aerators), increased maintenance demands, and probably surveillance requirements for detecting the dissolved oxygen content in the liquid. While for the anaerobic treatment post-treatment of wastes generated because treated water does not meet standards, odor generation, fouling/clogging of the membrane, and a slower start-up time are some of the limitations. Bioremediation is only possible with biodegradable chemicals. Not all substances can be completely degraded in a short period. There are concerns that the biodegradation byproducts will be more persistent or dangerous than the main contaminant. Extrapolating some biological technologies from bench and pilot-scale to large scale operations is still challenging. Biological mechanisms are frequently very specialized. The availability of metabolically competent microbial communities, proper environmental growth parameters, and optimum quantities of nutrients and pollutants are all crucial site considerations.
Biological treatment technology is an innovative tool with significant future potential. As scientists understand more about its functionalities, it is possible to become one of the most effective methods for wastewater and environmental remediation. The tremendous improvement of molecular biological technologies has made it possible to analyze the organization of microbial communities without being influenced by cultivation. To achieve effective system operation with diverse functional microorganisms, careful management and modification of environmental parameters are required for system performance. The invention of innovative techniques and new concepts (e.g., new functional components and novel biological metabolism pathways) will facilitate the advancement of biological wastewater remediation systems. The best approach to achieving this goal is interdisciplinary collaboration.
The treatment of wastewater is crucial because of its effect on the environment. Due to increased urbanization and industrialization, wastewater generation and treatment have become a growing concern in the twenty-first century. Wastewater treatment ensures the long-term viability of the ecosystem. Many wastewater treatment options are employed to address the problem of growing environmental pollution, including physical, chemical, and biological (primary to tertiary treatment) technologies. The employment of some treatment strategies has the potential to produce secondary contaminants. The effective implementation of wastewater treatment options in water resource management necessitates planning, activity, design, storage, and operation. Advances in wastewater recycling have made it possible to produce water of virtually any quality. Water recovery systems incorporate a variety of safety precautions to reduce the environmental risks associated with various reuse applications. Continuous advancements have been made in the fundamental science of water treatment methods, as well as the innovation used in the process. However, based on the known treatment methods, attaining considerable wastewater treatment with a single treatment technology is difficult. Under the present conditions, improved or integrated wastewater treatment technologies are critically required to ensure high-quality water, reduce chemical and biological pollutants, and enhance industrial production operations. Integrated approaches, which may overcome the limits of single treatment techniques, seem to be viable options for efficient wastewater remediation. Regrettably, most viable treatment techniques are on the small scale and lack commercial application feasibility.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). 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In this context, this chapter presents key subjects while implementing a quality management system at materials science laboratories and some considerations on strategies for effectively implementing such systems.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Rodrigo S. Neves, Daniel P. Da Silva, Carlos E. C. Galhardo, Erlon H.\nM. Ferreira, Rafael M. Trommer and Jailton C. Damasceno",authors:[{id:"20571",title:"Prof.",name:"Erlon H.",middleName:null,surname:"Martins Ferreira",slug:"erlon-h.-martins-ferreira",fullName:"Erlon H. 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The quality practices or quality management systems adopted by industries will further evolve due to the changes of quality concepts as time goes by. This chapter discusses the change of quality concepts and the related revolution of quality management systems in the past century. The quality concepts were gradually changed from the achievement of quality standards, satisfaction of customer needs, and expectations to customer delight. Since merely satisfying customers is not enough to ensure customer loyalty, the enterprises gradually focus on customers’ emotional responses and their delight in order to pursue their loyalty. The emotion of “delight” is composed of “joy” and “surprise,” which can be achieved as the customers’ latent requirements are satisfied. Thus, the concept of “customer delight” and the means to provide the innovative quality so as to meet the unsatisfied customers’ latent needs are elaborated on. Finally, a framework of innovation creation is developed that is based on the mining of customer's latent requirements. This outline will manifest the essential elements of the related operation steps.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Ching-Chow Yang",authors:[{id:"11862",title:"Prof.",name:"Ching-Chow",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ching-chow-yang",fullName:"Ching-Chow Yang"}]},{id:"62915",title:"Advanced Methods of PID Controller Tuning for Specified Performance",slug:"advanced-methods-of-pid-controller-tuning-for-specified-performance",totalDownloads:3528,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"This chapter provides a concise survey, classification and historical perspective of practice-oriented methods for designing proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers and autotuners showing the persistent demand for PID tuning algorithms that integrate performance requirements into the tuning algorithm. The proposed frequency-domain PID controller design method guarantees closed-loop performance in terms of commonly used time-domain specifications. One of its major benefits is universal applicability for both slow and fast-controlled plants with unknown mathematical model. Special charts called B-parabolas were developed as a practical design tool that enables consistent and systematic shaping of the closed-loop step response with regard to specified performance and dynamics of the uncertain controlled plant.",book:{id:"6323",slug:"pid-control-for-industrial-processes",title:"PID Control for Industrial Processes",fullTitle:"PID Control for Industrial Processes"},signatures:"Štefan Bucz and Alena Kozáková",authors:[{id:"21933",title:"Ms.",name:"Alena",middleName:null,surname:"Kozakova",slug:"alena-kozakova",fullName:"Alena Kozakova"},{id:"213658",title:"Dr.",name:"Štefan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucz",slug:"stefan-bucz",fullName:"Štefan Bucz"}]},{id:"75699",title:"Data Clustering for Fuzzyfier Value Derivation",slug:"data-clustering-for-fuzzyfier-value-derivation",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The fuzzifier value m is improving significant factor for achieving the accuracy of data. Therefore, in this chapter, various clustering method is introduced with the definition of important values for clustering. To adaptively calculate the appropriate purge value of the gap type −2 fuzzy c-means, two fuzzy values m1 and m2 are provided by extracting information from individual data points using a histogram scheme. Most of the clustering in this chapter automatically obtains determination of m1 and m2 values that depended on existent repeated experiments. Also, in order to increase efficiency on deriving valid fuzzifier value, we introduce the Interval type-2 possibilistic fuzzy C-means (IT2PFCM), as one of advanced fuzzy clustering method to classify a fixed pattern. In Efficient IT2PFCM method, proper fuzzifier values for each data is obtained from an algorithm including histogram analysis and Gaussian Curve Fitting method. Using the extracted information form fuzzifier values, two modified fuzzifier value m1 and m2 are determined. These updated fuzzifier values are used to calculated the new membership values. Determining these updated values improve not only the clustering accuracy rate of the measured sensor data, but also can be used without additional procedure such as data labeling. 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