\r\n\t
\r\n\tSince they involve very small amounts of energy, high sound pressure levels are increasingly simpler and cheaper to emit. Noise is everywhere - it can be emitted as an energy waste by traffic or factories, but also by teenagers looking for loneliness in an overpopulated world.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tWhen the noise emission ends, it will not be possible to find its footprint in the environment, hence it is necessary to be in the right place at the right time to measure it. Moreover, having adequate instruments, updated protocols and trained personnel are mandatory to achieve that. Even then, decision makers must clearly understand the reported situation to decide the need and importance of taking further actions.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will address issues of noise in the city, in the neighborhood or at work, aspects about management and consequences of exposure to high sound pressure levels ranging from the auditory, extra-auditory and psychophysics effects to the addiction to noise and the loss of solidarity.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe book aims to provide a various points of view and analysis of cases regarding this omnipresent pollutant.
Mass spectrometry has been widely used for analyses of biomolecules such as proteins. The soft ionization methods available nowadays, the faster and more accurate mass spectrometers, a diversity of protein databases resulting from large scale genome studies and the advances in the bioinformatics field for optimized data mining, altogether significantly contributed to high quality outputs in the proteomics area [1-3].
In order to achieve the higher number of identified proteins (and perhaps quantified), in proteomics studies, some steps are equally important and required: 1) sample preparation; 2) sample pre-fractionation; 3) peptidase digestion; 4) mass spectrometry analysis; 5) data mining. Each of these steps can be extremely challenging and the final conclusions will be based on their success [4-6].
Samples used for proteomics studies are always complex and the abundant proteins mask the low abundance proteins in several cases. Tryptic peptides originated from abundant proteins predominate, no matter what kind of analysis is performed in the mass spectrometer. Highly abundant proteins such as albumin in blood samples, cytoskeleton proteins in pelleted cells, among other examples, need to be removed to allow detection of less abundant ones, and require separate analyses [7]. The same situation happens in plant derived materials, in which the amount of RuBisCO in leaves and of storage proteins in seeds and seedlings mask the non abundant proteins in the samples. To deal with this situation, several approaches can be used. For example, these proteins can be depleted from the source sample by immunoprecipitation. Another strategy used is to create exclusion lists for the mass spectrometer during data analysis. In this case, the selected peptides will be ignored during data acquisition. Another approach widely used is the dynamic exclusion. In this case, according to user definitions, the mass spectrometer will ignore the most abundant peaks in the MS1 (for example, 5), and will analyze the next top 5. However, if the mass spectrometer used is not fast enough during each cycle, important information could be lost [8,9].
A nice example of a proteomic study is the quantification of 1,323 proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplasts, using label-free spectral counting. This was achieved by coupling organelle fractionation (thylakoids and stroma) and different extractions methods, applied to enrich the abundant proteins fraction (ammonium acetate precipitation and alkaline extraction), and analysis of all fraction separately. Protein pre-fractionation using sodium dodecyl sulfate one-dimension polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis performed with two different machines, also contributed to this high number of identified and quantified proteins [10].
The challenge grows even more when the samples to be analyzed consist of membrane proteins [11]. Membrane proteins usually are highly hydrophobic and in this case chaotropic agents combined with high amounts of detergents are employed to make them soluble. However, these additives can interfere in the trypsin digestion process. The concentration of these agents must be reduced in order to maintain the trypsin activity. In case of in solution digestion, besides chaotropes and detergents, reducing and alkylation agents (usually dithiothreitol and iodoacetimide, respectively) must also be removed. These steps, designated as desalting process, can be performed in several ways. Most commonly it involves reverse phase chromatography in which the pH of the digested sample (peptides) is reduced using trifluoroacetic acid, formic acid, or others. The peptides are bound to a C-18 matrix and eluted with increasing concentrations of acetonitrile. After drying the samples under vacuum, they are prepared for mass spectrometry analyses [3,4,12].
The mass spectrometer itself must be correctly chosen to obtain a satisfactory balance between accuracy and speed. Fast scan rates instruments can lose accuracy in their measurements, and vice versa.
Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is a method where the gaseous ions are subjected to two or more sequential stages of mass analysis, which can be separated spatially or temporally, according to their mass to charge ratio, m/z [13,14]. The mass analyzers characterize the ions according to their m/z. The ion selected in the first stage of analysis is subjected to different reactions and charged products from this reaction are analyzed in a second step (a second mass analyzer or other types of analyzers) [15]. The "reaction" step is critical for data quality and performance.
A brief overview of the most used components in a mass spectrometer applied in proteomics research is discussed, specially focused on the newest researchers on the field.
In this section a brief overview of the components of a mass spectrometer used in proteomics will be given.
In order to be analyzed in a mass spectrometer, the sample must be ionized and it is imperative that the ionized molecules (proteins or peptides) turn into a gas phase to allow analysis, fragmentation and detection [14]. The extensive advance of mass spectrometry in protein analyses happened after the advance of the ESI (electrospray ionization) [16], and MALDI (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization) ionization methods, which allowed analysis by mass spectrometry to be extended to non-volatile and thermolabile compounds. In both cases, the production of intact molecular ions is achieved under adequate experimental conditions, with minimal fragmentation. Due to this fact, these two ionization processes are referred as soft ionization methods [13,16-18].
Shortly, in electrospray ionization the sample (proteins or peptides) is nebulized when high voltage is applied. As previously said, this ionization process allowed extensive studies on proteomics field because almost no energy is retained by the analyte and, in general, no fragmentation happens during the ionization process [17,18]. Another important aspect is that it generates multiple charges species (specially for ionized peptides), and the m/z values are detectable in most mass analyzers [13].
The ionization process is based on a liquid dispersion [14] and the process takes place following three main steps: production of charged droplets, the fission of the charged droplets and production of desolvated ions [13,14,19,20]. The production of charged droplets takes place when high-voltage is applied at the capillary tip where the analyte solution is being injected. At this stage, the electric field causes a separation of the positive and negative charges in the solution containing the analyte. In case of operation in positive ion mode (when the capillary is set at positive potential), the positive ions move towards the counter electrode. It causes an accumulation of positive ions at the surface of the liquid in the tip. The reverse polarity will produce negatively charges. There is a deformation of the meniscus of the liquid in the tip at a critical potential forming the Taylor cone [16,17] which is a static description and does not include spraying behavior [14]. The electric potential applied to the liquid at the tip pulls it into an elliptic shape. However, there is an equilibrium between the surface tension trying to pull the liquid back and the electrostatic attraction which pushes the liquid to the counter electrode [13,14].
The capillary tip is under a constant neutral gas flow, such as nitrogen. In this case, the collision of the gas with the droplet from the tip causes the solvent evaporation, a key step in the ESI method. The second step in the electrospray process is the Rayleigh fission of the droplets. The droplets fission happens when the Coulombic repulsion between the charges is stronger than the surface tension of the liquid, due to a constant decrease of the droplet radius. The limit in which this phenomenon happens is called the Rayleigh limit: the balance between the surface tension and electrostatic attraction is lost. At this stage, the droplets decrease considerably in size and charges states [13,14].
The next step is the solvent evaporation process from the charged droplet forming a gas-phase ion-analyte [13]. Two main mechanisms explain the production of desolvated ions in the gas phase: ion evaporation mechanism and charged residue mechanism. The assumption of the ion evaporation mechanism is that, at a specific time, the electric field on the surface of the droplet is sufficiently high, which causes the emission of the solvated ion from the charged droplet [17,21]. The charged residue mechanism assumes that a series of fission events leads to a final droplet, which contains a single analyte molecule completely free of solvating solvent [17,22].
An important advantage of ESI is that it can be easily coupled with liquid chromatography systems, specially those working at nanoflow range. In a bottom up approach, in which the proteins are digested with a peptidase and the resulting peptides are separated in a reverse phase column, the electrospray ionization is widely used. Typical columns used to the separate the complex sample mixture of peptides are made of reverse phase materials (C-18, 3–10 μm diameter) packed into fused silica capillaries (12–100 μm diameter) with sintered silica particles or silicate-polymerized ceramics as frits [5]. The dead volume between the at the end of the column and the ionization region must be as short as possible to avoid peak broadening and mixture of the peptides which were just separated in the reverse phase column. The ESI process is the same when the sample is continuously infused without previous separation in the LC system. In these cases, the flow must be adjusted to higher values to compensate the lack of the packed resin.
A capillary column coupled to a LC system and the ESI process is represented in figure 1A.
In MALDI analyses, the sample must be mixed with matrix and spotted in a stainless steel plate prior the analysis in the mass spectrometer. The sample is co-crystallized with the matrix, which has an essential function in MALDI. The co-crystallized sample is ionized by short laser pulses (Figure 1B). Subsequently, the ions are accelerated and the time that they spend to flight in a vacuum tube to reach the detector is measured in a TOF (time-of-flight) analyzer [23].
The matrix has to absorb the laser energy via electronic or vibrational excitation and it must also isolate the analyte molecules by diluting during preparation/crystallization preventing their aggregation. Finally, it must be able to perform the sample ionization [24]. The ionization method by MALDI can be divided, according to Zenobi and co-workers, into two main categories. In the "primary ionization", the first ions are generated from neutral molecules, mostly matrix-derived ions. In the "secondary" ionization the ions come mostly from the analyte samples, with few contamination from the matrix [24,25]. The disintegration of the condensed phase by the laser energy has to take place without excessive destructive heating of the embedded analyte molecules. The most straightforward explanation for ions formation in MALDI, assumes that ions from primary ionization result from a laser excitation of an absorbing organic material by molecule multiphoton ionization, which leads to a matrix radical cation [25,26]. The secondary ion formation mechanism take place in the MALDI plume, which is a solid-to-gas phase transition state formed, shortly after the laser pulse [25-28]. In case of proteins or peptides, the proton transfer mechanism is probably the most important secondary reaction. In most proteomics approaches, samples are spotted in a MALDI plate with acidic matrixes, and data collected in positive mode. Some analytes do not have a high proton affinity, then negative ions could be collected or the sample could be prepared with a more basic matrix [26]. Other important types of secondary reaction mechanisms that take place in the MALDI plume are the cation transfer, electron transfer and electron capture [26].
Ionization by MALDI can be coupled to a liquid chromatography system similar to ESI, however, since the sample must be mixed with the matrix prior analysis, a spotter must be used. MALDI works with wide dynamic ranges [29], such as 2 kDa up to 7 kDa, or more [30]. The dominance of singly charged ions, specially for proteins or peptides with molecular weighs 20 kDa is a characteristic of MALDI, in contrast with ESI which produces much more species in higher charges states [31].
An important advantage of MALDI is that this ionization process is more tolerant to salts and high concentrations of buffer. However, determination of lower masses can be sometimes difficult. This happens because the matrix is also ionized in the process and “flies" in the same range of low molecular masses molecules [32,33]. Most of the matrices used nowadays are small organic molecules, which absorb UV in the range of 266– 355 nm. Nowadays, the number of choices for matrixes is quite small for proteomics analyses, derived from benzoic or cinnamic acid. It is important to point that not all matrixes are useful only for certain all types of analytes [25], causing different ways to prepare the sample.
Different MALDI matrices that can be used according to the type of analytes [24-26,34]. In case of biological samples, some matrixes can be selected [24,35,36]:
nicotinic acid: absorption at 266 nm and used for proteins and peptides;
2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid: absorption 337-353 nm, and can be used for proteins, peptides, carbohydrates and some synthetic polymers;
sinapinic acid: absorption 337-353 nm and widely used for proteins and peptides;
α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid: absorption 337-353 nm and mostly used for peptides analyses;
3-hydroxy-picolinic acid: absorption 337-353 and it is suitable for nucleic acids;
When the sample solution is mixed with the matrix, placed/spotted in a MALDI plate, and dried without vacuum, the distribution of the sample is the plate can be quite distorted. However, if vacuum is used to help drying the sample, a better chemical distribution can be achieved in each sample spot [37]. In most cases, the sample preparation is done by the “dried droplet" method, which is quite simple. The sample and the matrix are separately dissolved in a common solvent system (such as 0.1 % trifluoroacetic acid), and then mixed either before or on the MALDI plate. After that, the solvent evaporation will take place, helped or not by a gas flow. By the end, the sample will be co-crystallized with the analyte and will be ready for analyses.
A simplified representation of electrospray ionization (ESI) is represented in A. The positively charged droplets and desolvated peptides are represented by the signal +. The superficial tension tends to pull back the charged droplets to the column, while the voltage applied pushes the drop away from the column. The solvent evaporates and the ionized peptides reach the skimmer and go to further analysis. In B, the ionization process by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) is represented. The laser pulse strikes the MALDI plate, in which the sample is (yellow circles) is co-crystallized with the matrix (grey circles). Either matrix or sample can reach the detector.
Once the sample is ionized, it enters the mass spectrometer itself. The mass analyzers explore different characteristics of the parent or fragmented ions. In case of tandem experiments, the parent ion must be selected for further fragmentation, and the generated fragment ions will be detected. The combination of two or more analyzers in the same mass spectrometer yielded the high performance and resolution of the nowadays equipments. These characteristics will be briefly detailed ahead.
The main function of a mass analyzer is to separate the ions according to their m/z ratio [38], basically by their behavior in electric or magnetic fields [39]. Nowadays, there are few types of analyzers widely used analyzers in tandem mass spectrometry experiments, for proteomics analyses: quadrupole, quadrupole ion trap, time of flight and orbitrap. These analyzers vary in terms of size, price, resolution, mass range, and the ability to perform tandem mass spectrometry experiments.
In case the ions are separated "in space" (time of flight, TOF; sector; quadrupoles), the techniques are called beam techniques, because the ions "travel" across the analyzer in a "pulsed beam" mode. In this case, the MS or MS/MS analyses are performed in separated events. The ion trap analyzers, such as quadruploe ion traps and orbitraps characterize ions based on the frequency of their motion in a defined space [15]. Thus MS and MS/MS events can be performed in the same analyzer, being separated by time and not by "space" [15,40]. The analyzers use magnetic or electric fields, or even combinations of both to select ions. To avoid undesired collisions with neutral gases during analyses, the operation is performed under high vacuum [41].
A quadrupole analyzer can work as a linear ion trap, in which ions are confined radially by a two-dimensional (2D) radio frequency field, and axially by stopping potentials applied to end electrodes.
A quadrupole mass analyzer is widely used as a "filter" prior fragmentation of the desired ions. Basically it consists of four roods assembled in two pairs, as shown in figure 2A. The first two opposite roods have the same applied voltage, which is different from that of the second two opposite roods establishing a two dimensional quadrupole field in the x-y plane (Figure 2A) [38]. The mass analysis depends on the radio frequency, and direct current voltages which are applied to the four roods [1]. Due to that reason, ions travelling in the quadrupole during analysis will be, at the same time, attracted by one set of roods and repulsed by the second set of roods. Considering the ion population being injected in a quadrupole analyzer, a selection can be made according to their m/z ratio, making some ions to have a stable trajectory in the analyzer, while a considerable number of other ions will not go all the way through (Figure 2A, arrows). The ion path occurs in the z direction, while the attraction and repulsion are occurring simultaneously in the x and y direction (Figure 2A) [38,42]. If the oscillations of an ion are stable, the ion will continue to drift down the rod assembly and reach the detector. The stable ions which "travel" all the analyzer length will go to the next steps, which can be detection, fragmentation and a second round of analysis.
The above explanation is quite simple for a complex situation. In a quadrupole mass filter ions of a single m/z maintain stable trajectories from the ion source to the detector, whereas ions with different m/z values are unable to maintain stable trajectories and do not reach the detector or collision cell [1]. The quadrupole filter is frequently used as mass filter device prior fragmentation in the collision cell, in the case of MS/MS analysis.
Another largely employed type of analyzers is the quadrupole ion trap. The quadrupole ion trap devices are found as two-dimension (2D) also known as linear traps, or three dimension (3D) assembly. In case of 2D traps, ions are confined radially by a two-dimensional radio frequency field, and axially by stopping potentials applied to end electrodes. It traps the ions in a two dimensional field. When compared to 3D traps [43], linear traps have higher injection efficiencies and higher ion storage capacities [38]. Besides storing ions, they can be combined with other mass analyzers in hybrid instruments and used to isolate ions of selected mass to charge ratios, to perform tandem mass spectrometry experiments [38,44].
In all cases, the ion trap is able to store either positively and negatively charged ions, or ions of one specific polarity [38]. In short words, the operation mode of an ion trap is quite similar to that of a quadrupole mass filter; the key difference is that a linear quadrupole is mainly used as a mass filter while the three-dimensional quadrupole used as an ion trap [38,39,44,45]. As the name says, these analyzers are able to trap ions for a specific period of time or to an "amount" of accumulated ions. The quadrupole ion traps analyzers are the best suitable to miniaturization among all kinds of mass analyzers, mainly because they tolerate higher pressures and can work at lower voltages. However, the extreme precision in manufacturing these devices and the lower trapping capacities, can be pointed as disadvantages [44].
When the voltage is applied to the electrodes in the trap, a "trapping potential" is formed, which keeps the ions inside the trap [38,42]. In a ion trap, the trajectories of trapped ions of consecutive specific m/z rations are affected and become unstable when the field within the trap is changed. The ions leave the trap according to their m/z ratio and reach the detector [45].
In case of 3D traps (also known as 3D Paul traps [43]), three shaped electrodes (two hyperbolic and practically identical) compose the quadrupole ion trap. A simple representation of a 3D ion-trap analyzer is shown in figure 2C. In the case of the regular 3D ion trap shown in figure 2C, the hyperbolic geometry is advantage of the ion traps is that they are used as storage chambers, mass analyzers or both [46]. Each of the end-cap electrodes has holes in the center for transmission of electrons and ions. The electrons and ions "entrance" is found in one of the endcaps, while the other one endap is the exit "electrode" through which ions will pass to a detector. The ring electrode has an internal hyperbolical surface and it is positioned symmetrically between the two end-cap electrodes [38,44,47]. These traps have mass selective detection, storage and ejection capabilities [38].
Another kind of widely used analyzer is the time-of-flight, TOF. Theoretically the mass range in a TOF analyzer is unlimited [48]. However, in practice, the range is limited by the loss of control over the kinetic energy and spatial distributions of the ions with increasing mass as they are injected into the acceleration region of the mass spectrometer. Consequently, the mass accuracy and resolution decrease as the ion mass increases [48,49]. Compared with quadrupole analyzers, the majority of the ions will reach the detector and the lost of ion will not be as expressive as in quadrupole analyzers [39,45].
In TOF analyzers, the desorbed and ionized molecules are accelerated by an electrostatic field and are then ejected through a flight tube under vacuum. In this tube, smaller ions fly faster than larger ions. The detector measures the time of flight for each particular ion. This time to reach the detector depends on the m/z of the molecule being analyzed; theoretically, all ions leave the accelerator chamber with the same kinetic energy, and the time to reach the detector will be dependent on the mass of that particular ion (Figure 2B). The ions separated by their TOF reach the detector, and a spectrum is presented. Since MALDI produces mostly single charged species, the m/z values correspond to the mass of the ion [50].
The TOF analyzer can operate in the linear mode or reflectron mode (presented in Figure 2B). In case of the linear mode, the ions fly in the tube and reach the detector. In case of the reflectron mode, the ions fly towards the reflectron which focuses ions with the same m/z values, making these ions reach the detector at the same time. Also, there is an adjustment of the kinetic energy since the ions decelerate and accelerate again inside the reflectron. The results are considerable more accurate in the reflectron mode than in the linear mode [23,50,51].
A couple of years ago, an orbital analyzer, named as the Orbitrap was introduced [40]. The mechanism of analysis is quite different. In an Orbitrap, quoting Michalski and co-workers [52], "the signal is recorded from the image current produced by ion packets which oscillate around and along the spindle-shaped inner electrode of the trap". An extremely simple representation of this principle is shown in figure 2D. This analyzer traps the ions radially around a central spindle electrode. The ion injection is performed perpendicularly to the longer axis of the trap (z axis) [40].
In an Orbitrap, the potential distribution of the field is a combination of quadrupole and logarithmic potentials. There are no magnetic or radio frequency fields, so ion stability is achieved exclusively due to ions which orbit around an axial electrode and also perform harmonic oscillations along the electrode [40,53].
The necessity of an external ion storage device prior Orbitrap analysis was pointed by Makarov when the analyzer was developed [53]. In recent years, the common feature of commercially available mass spectrometers which use an Orbitrap as analyzer is that the trap is preceded by the C-trap, which is an external injection device [54]. The process of capturing ions in the C-trap following by the injection into the Orbitrap is fast and can be easily interfaced and synchronized to any external device such as a linear ion trap mass spectrometer or directly to an ion source. The process of detection is considerably longer, since the sensitivity is proportional to the square root of number of detected oscillations [40,53,54]. Since the commercial release of the Orbitrap analyzer, there were several changes to the design of the C-trap and the higher-energy collision induced dissociation, which have improved the efficiency and speed of fragmentation [54].
The high resolution achieved by the Orbitrap helped the fast adoption of this kind of analyzer, which is considered easy to use, robust and shows excellent performance capabilities [55].
There is no doubt that the fragmentation step of a precursor ion is a key point in proteomics analyses since it enables analyzes at the MS/MS or MSn levels. In tandem mass spectrometry analyses, the first analyzer selects the ion(s) which proceeds to a subsequent section, where the excitation and dissociation steps will happen. Tandem mass spectrometry analyses are the result of two or more sequential separations of ions usually coupling two or more mass analyzers [1,39].
In A, there is a representation of a quadrupole mass filter. The ions generated in the ion source migrate through the quadrupole in the z direction and at the same time are exposed to simultaneous attraction and repulsion by opposite roods. Ions with stable trajectory are separated in the analyzer and travel all way across (ion 2, green). However, some ions with unstable trajectory are ejected before (ion 1, dark blue). In B, the ionization by electrospray and the quadrupole (two roods are shown) and time of flight analyzer is represented. Products from precursor ions previously analyzed and selected for fragmentation (ion 2, green) are accelerated and analyzed in the TOF analyzer. The analyzer might have the reflectron mode or not. The time that the ions spend to travel all way into the TOF is measured and spectrum is recorded. In C, the quadrupole ion trap is represented. Ions are trapped for a selected period of time or “amount of ions” before being released. A simple representation of the orbitrap analyzer is presented in D in which ions are separated based on their orbital movement around the trap.
A typical workflow for protein identification based on tandem mass spectrometry can be divided in three main steps: reduce sample complexity, perform the mass spectrometry analysis and search the data collected against a protein database. First, it is necessary to reduce complexity of a crude biological sample: several strategies can be used in this step [56]. At the protein level it may include organelle fractionation, protein enrichment by immunopercipitation, removal of abundant proteins and fractionation by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide electrophoresis. Multidimensional chromatography is widely used at the peptide at level [57]. The digestion of the proteins present in the sample by a peptidase can be performed in solution or in gel after SDS-PAGE fractionation. In case of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry approach, the peptides from the digested proteins are separated by reverse phase chromatography, ionized by ESI and analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. Abundant proteins will produce abundant peptides, in most cases. These peptides will be selected for fragmentation regardless the approach, and will mask the low abundant proteins. Besides different strategies used to deal with this situation (exclusion lists, dynamic exclusion, affinity columns), it is still challenging and will not be focused in this chapter. For further reading, please refer to selected references cited ahead [7-10]. The last step is to combine the peptide identification results into a list of proteins that are most likely present in the sample [56,58].
The most used fragmentation methods used in proteomics analyses are briefly discussed ahead.
In collision induced dissociation, also known by collision activated dissociation, the excitation of the precursor ion is achieved by energetic collisions with an inert gas, usually helium or argon [59]. In CID, the ions selected in the first analyzer are focused in a reaction or collision cell, which in several cases is a quadrupole [52,60], prior the reaction in gas phase. In case of peptides, precursor ions are dissociated into fragments along the backbone cleaving at the amide bonds [59,61]. Activation of peptides under low-energy collision conditions happens mainly by charge directed reactions [59].
Generally, collisions between the precursor ion and the target gas are accompanied by an increase in the internal energy, which induces decomposition with high probability of fragmentation [62]. The overall process supplies sufficient internal energy to induce covalent bond breakage, and the preferred sites of protonation are the amide bonds of the peptide backbone [62,63]. The protonated amide linkages are weakened and favored to create a series of homologous products ions upon collision-activation. Fragmentation of peptides by CID creates the complementary b (in case the charge is retained in the C-terminus) and y (in case the charge is retained in the N-terminus) ions [64].
The overall CID process can be divided in two steps: the excitation of the precursor ions and their fragmentation/dissociation. The fragmentation of a precursor ion can occur if the collision energy is sufficiently high that the ion is excited beyond its threshold for dissociation. The CID processes can be separated in low and high energy-collisions. Usually, low energy collisions (1-100 eV) is used for organic compounds of moderate masses (hundreds of daltons), while high energy collision (keV range) are produced in TOF/TOF instruments and the CID spectra resulted from low and high energy collisions are considerably different [62].
There are a number of proteins for which the digestion by trypsin will not be a good choice either because it produces too short or too long peptides. In both cases, CID fragmentation will not be effective for them. Collision-induced dissociation is very effective for short and low charged tryptic peptides, usually less than 20 residues and no more that 4 charges [65,66]. In case of posttranslational modification studies, CID helps mostly to identify the sites and types of the modification (such as phosphorylation, acetylation, etc) in a particular protein [66,67]. Even though the sequence of the protein is known, in complexes samples they are not pure. For this reason, individual digestion of the same by two different peptidases and analyses by different fragmentation methods in tandem mass spectrometry approaches is used.
Electron capture dissociation is based on the dissociative recombination of multiply protonated polypeptide molecules with low-energy electrons [68]. The mechanism of ECD is not completely understood, however, in general terms, can be explained as follow. Polypeptide polycations initially capture an electron in a high orbit, followed by a charge neutralization, which leads to an excited radical species that undergoes bond cleavage [64,68]. The radical species dissociates through N–Cα bond cleavages to produce c- and z-type product ions. The mechanism (s) by which the N–Cα bond cleavages occur is believed that following electron capture, a hydrogen atom is transferred to an amide carbonyl [68-70] or a proton is transferred to an amide anion radical [68,71], both resulting in the formation of an aminoketyl radical intermediate, which dissociates through N–Cα bond cleavages.
Fragmentation in ECD happens at a very high rate, however, the time required for electron capture by precursor ions exceeds the residence time in most mass spectrometers, such as those with TOF and quadrupole analyzers. Another important point is that ECD efficiency is highest for low energy electrons [69], which is difficult to provide in ion traps, for example. For that reason, ECD is mostly used in Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry [68].
Electron capture dissociation has been shown advantageous in sequence characterization, de novo sequencing, disulphide bond analysis [69,71], and posttranslational modification analyses [68]. The information obtained by ECD is complementary to those obtained by CID in traditional MS/MS methods [68-70]. One important advantage of ECD is to promote a lower energy pathway than CID; even though fragmentation happens, fragile posttranslational modifications are preserved [66].
The electron-transfer dissociation (ETD) is based on ion/ion chemistry [66,72,73]. It involves transferring an electron from a radical anion to a protonated peptide [72,73], resulting in cleavages at the N-Cα bond of the peptide backbone and preserving most of the posttranslational modifications [66]. Differently from CID, but similar to ECD, ETD creates the complementary c- and z-type ions. The ETD is widely used for posttranslational modification studies, such as phosphorylation specially because the predominant loss of the phosphate moiety by neutral loss generally precludes further fragmentation.
Different from ECD, in which the primary source of excess energy is the recombination energy released when the electron is captured, in EDT this recombination energy is reduced by the electron binding energy to the anion donor; ETD involves transfer of an electron to the multiply protonated precursor ion from a singly charged radical [64,71]. However, similar to ECD, ETD also induces relatively non-selective cleavage of the N–Cα bond on a peptide’s backbone and will produce the c- and z-product ions [64,66,68]. As ECD, ETD prevents fragile posttranslational modifications from fragmentation [64,66].
The ion/ion chemistry in EDT requires few milliseconds to be completed. Besides that, ETD can be performed with femtomole amount of sample and on a compatible timescale to liquid chromatography and MS analyses. Also, ETD is advantageous in the study of larger peptides, which carry three or more charges. These larger and highly charged peptides offer favorable cleavage conditions during ETD [66]. However, it is important to remember that when working with ETD, a different protease must be used, instead of trypsin, to produce larger peptides (25 aminoacids or more). Longer peptides tend to gain more charges (13 to 16) based on the increased number of basic residues [66]. Endopeptidases Lys-C and Asp-N usually yield longer peptides, and make a good choice with ETD fragmentation [66,73].
The main idea of this chapter was to provide an overview on the most used components/methods in proteomics analyses employing mass spectrometer. A brief overview on the ionization methods, analyzers and fragmentation was given and can be used as a support for new researches on the field.
Since 1950 the world’s urban population has grown from 746 million to 3.9 billion in 2014 [1]. In the global South, most cities, particularly the metropolitan areas are rapidly expanding into large urban and suburban agglomerations, with so called “in-between cities,” where some of the rural characteristics are still mixed into the urban fabric. Cities attract people for many reasons, and most often unemployment and the prospect of a better life with improved and safer living conditions is the key driver to urban growth. Migration, particularly from rural to urban, but also different forms of population movement from other cities, regions and even from other countries are responsible for rapidly changing the urban population [2]. In some parts of the world natural population increase is still on the rise and coupled with higher average life expectancies, population sizes are still becoming bigger. This dynamic urban growth can generate significant stress on city administrations who need to provide the necessary basic infrastructure and public services to expanding neighborhoods and new settlements. As a result of the incapacity to provide these, part of the population lives in extreme poverty and under critically neglected living conditions, often causing sever health challenges to their families and surrounding community [3].
This chapter draws on many years of research and outreach experience with informal and organized waste pickers in different cities of the world. I have learned through participatory action research lenses and in community based research approaches focusing on everyday praxis in the city in the global South, with a particular eye on waste. This reseach practice uncovers post-colonial contexts of waste and value, including gender, class and race perspectives, urban transformation and infrastructure impacts or related challenges in the global South. I am informed by feminist theory, which uncovers power relations and embraces the concepts of equality and equity as crucial in the outcomes of urban development. The research seeks to empower vulnerable populations and value their knowledge grounded in everyday experiences and takes into consideration masculinist power and representation. I acknowledge that the local expertise and understanding cannot be fully realized from the outside [4]. Political Ecology is relevant to urban analysis, because it is inclusive of these multiple layers and actors that shape urban landscapes over time.
Section 1 of the chapter introduces the concept global South and the Urban Political Ecology (UPE) framework. Then, in Section 2 I provide a brief contextualization of waste management in urban agglomerations in the global South, in terms of characteristics of waste and prevailing forms of dealing with waste. I present some of the current social and environmental challenges linked to waste. Section 3 presents the idea of social grassroots innovations, coming from waste pickers. The UPE lens situated in the global South context looks at household waste and some of the grassroots actors, the processes and transformative practices they bring to waste management. There are concrete livelihood opportunities attached to collecting, separating, trading, adding value, and in performing environmental education and technical training in waste management. The final Section 4, highlights some of the insights gained from waste pickers and their organizations that contribute to a place-based understanding of working with waste, grounded in their concrete experiences. The key recommendation in this chapter underlines the important role of public policies in stimulating grassroots development and to address the serious challenges waste and disposal pose in urban agglomerations.
The global South is a spatial and historical concept used to facilitate the understanding of commonalities and differences between countries. However, as a category of places, there is the risk of presenting a rather dualist perspective on development, opposing the South with the North, or even interpreting the term as geographic location, which of course is not the objective. The term recognizes the shared characteristics related to the historical processes experienced under colonialism and imperialism, which have strongly shaped their economies and cultures. The term recognizes situated differences in the multi-scalar processes and transformative practices observed among countries, regions and places. Global South is a term that provides a telling difference from countries we call the global North. Yet, the lived experiences in these locations (both in the North and in the South) are multiple, temporal and place specific. Cities differ immensely from each other and cannot be put together under the same banner. Therefore, a dichotomous division between two worlds would not be tenable empirically and also not desirable politically. It is a contested term, but yet it helps us grasp common causes and consequences of unequal power relations, manifested in everyday urban politics with high levels of inequality and persistent poverty.
Conceptualizing the global South brings to life the specific historical social, economic and political processes unfolding, that find their epicenter in urban experiences in the global South. The bulk of urban growth is now happening in that part of the world and we see urban imaginations, based on processes that are primarily taking place in the global North shifting to patterns that evolve from the global South, as becoming more relevant [5, 6].
With urban growth consumption rates are also on the rise globally. Worldwide cities generate over 720 billion tons of wastes every year [3]. In cities people mostly rely on industrialized and heavily packaged food, significantly adding to the quantity of household waste generated every day. Waste is not yet perceived as a critical challenge, as a socio-ecological issue of highest priority to city administrators nor to the community, and waste is treated mostly with “end of pipe” measures, rather than pro-actively curbing generation and discard of waste, thus reducing the use of virgin resources and stimulating circular resources flows. Yet, in many cities waste is an obvious and visible problem, with uncollected waste amounting in public space, affecting the water quality and environmental health in the city. Waste collection services are often unequally provided within cities, with observable patterns of social and environmental injustices related to waste accumulation and availability of waste infrastructure and services. Those services that are provided usually focus primarily on collection and disposal [3].
Situated Urban Political Ecology (UPE) is a detailed framework to better understand the ways in which society, politics and cultural behavior influence the city’s metabolic processes, such as flows of resources and outputs as well as the related actors in the city [7]. It recognizes the fact that cities are built with resources from nature and that in turn cities also shape nature into urban landscapes. Waste flows and those actors that work with waste and in waste management, for example, bring to life the combination of natural and societal forces involved in urban metabolic processes that create urban landscapes and geographies of inequality in terms of social and environmental justice. In such a framework, the challenges and opportunities that come with the recovery of recyclable materials from waste become obvious. The situated UPE lens helps us understand how the legacies of colonialism have shaped who benefits and in which ways they benefit from the urban environment. Power structures manifest in urban development and urban policies equally define who has access to resources and services. Waste management is increasingly becoming one of the greatest challenges, particularly for a highly urbanizing world. It is closely connected to physical and social processes taking place in the city, but also in the expanding suburbia and in the “in-between city” [8].
UPE sees urbanization as a political process of socio-ecological change, which can also be studied as a process of socio-metabolic transformations [9]. The metaphor of urban metabolism sees the city as a living organism with flows of resources going in and out of the city, actors intervening in the transformation and consumption of these recourses, and with related services and product outputs. This is a systems perspective of the city, where social processes, spatial form, and the material and energy metabolism are equally connected and interwoven [10]. The analogy helps us identify and map waste flows and key actors involved in the collection, transformation and final destination of the resources embedded in waste. We can, for example, recognize social relationships and power relations that underpin activities related to waste under different forms of “waste regimes” and waste management systems. The concept of “waste regime” seeks to understand the economic, political, and material dynamic through which waste is produced, conceptualized, and politicized [11]. Waste regimes are bound to specific historical, cultural and geographic contexts. Waste management systems involve different forms of technology, automatisation and practices in waste collection, transformation and final destination.
How is it, that certain values prevail, whereas others are undermined, and, how do these “value regimes” [12] operate in different ontological, cultural, material, and political settings? Urban metabolism analysis studies the entry, transformation and storage of materials and energy and the discharge of any kind of waste and unwanted products. Here, infrastructures and services play crucial roles in maintaining cities and providing for the residents. Cities surely are complex systems. With a dynamic and cyclical perspective applied to planning and development, this approach shows where cities are not livable, are unhealthy and unsustainable or are unjust and inequitable [13].
The UPE focus directs attention to social power relationships and how these produce historically specific social and physical natures. Related to waste management different actors, with more or less levels of inclusion and power can be mapped. The scope of those dealing with waste is wide, ranging from small to large and even multinational contractors, government officials, recycling businesses, middlemen (scrap dealers), organized recycling cooperatives and associations to informal waste pickers. In addition, there are the everyday experiences with waste of ordinary people, governmental and non-governmental actors, contractors, developers, and so on. What are the values embedded in the roles played by the diverse institutions and actors? Where do they locate and where do they position themselves, in the local and global processes of treating, sorting, trading, and recycling waste? There are apparent and hidden social justice issues related to control, ownership, and appropriation of waste management resources and technologies. As already hinted, there are uneven geographical processes at play, inherent to the production of urban environments. In the formal part of the city waste is regularly collected, while in the informal neighborhoods these services are neglected. Sometimes the infrastructure and service gap is filled by grassroots initiatives. The following section will describe some of the key challenges city dwellers in the global South are currently facing.
Waste constitutes a key developmental and environmental issue. It is an almost unavoidable consequence of human activity. Today humans generate more waste than ever before, not only because of dramatic population increase over the past centuries, but also because of the changed nature of consumption and the different composition of solid waste. A shift toward waste minimization and away from depositing it at landfills is important. Per capita consumption of packaged goods and consumer products has skyrocketed after World War II, with the rapidly expanding adoption of growth and consumption oriented economic development. This is when material consumption gained momentum on a global scale [14]. Waste in the city is a transversal theme; it affects water quality, causes flooding (e.g., urban storm waterlogging due to trapped waste in water drainages), generates public health issues by hosting disease vectors, affects the perception of public space (e.g., as a space of neglect and lack of citizenship) and furthers the sense of exclusion. But waste also has other social, economic and environmental facets, which will be discussed further on.
Post-consumer waste generation has more than doubled worldwide, between 1971 and 2002. In the global South, growth in municipal solid waste generation has become exponential from the 1980s onwards, and it continues to steadily grow in most of the global North, except for Central and Eastern European countries and the Former Soviet Union [15]. While Western Europe and North America on average already experienced municipal solid waste (MSW) rates between 1.4 and 1.8 kg/capita/day over the past decade, the population in many large cities in the global South is now also reaching values between 1 and 1.4 kg/capita/day [16]. The urban lifestyle contributes to higher waste generation not only in people’s homes but also outside. Particularly the food service industry thrives on disposables. Today, people consume more in the streets and their consumption leaves more disposable waste in public waste bins. In 2012, urban residents globally generated about 1.2 kg/capita/day of MSW, compared to 0.64 kg in 2002 [17]. In Brazil, the average daily quantity of MSW generated per person is currently about 1.1 kg. For major cities in Africa MSW generation is estimated to range from 0.3 to 1.4 kg/capita/day [18]. Differences in waste generation can be large, as demonstrated by data for Bamenda and Yaounde (the capital) in Cameroon, which generate 0.5 and 0.8 kg/capita/day, respectively [18]. Population size and growth rates are important factors that influence municipal solid waste management. There is a positive correlation between population size and both, the rate of waste produced and the percentage of households enjoying regular waste collection. Yet, it is clear that rapidly growing cities have a hard time in providing consistent waste collection services.
Under the current era, industrial production of consumer goods is characterized by a reduction in product life spans, growing product variety, material component diversity, and increased packaging. All these characteristics are drivers for increased use of natural resources and are responsible for generating waste and producing water, soil and air contaminants. The rise in solid waste is linked to increased levels of urbanization and wealth. Between 1997 and 2007, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in India has increased by 7%, while estimates indicate a rise in municipal solid waste over these 10 years by 45%, from a total of 48 million to 70 million tons [19]. The figures for Brazil demonstrate a similar correlation between wealth and solid waste generation. From 2009 to 2010, GDP rose by 7.5%, while MSW increased by 6.8%. In the following year, GDP slowed down with an increase of 2.7%, and MSW generation increased only by 1.8% [20].
Population growth comes with an increase in consumption and waste. More affluent segments of the population consume more and generally their consumption also produces a larger environmental impact. China, India and Brazil alone have added another 509 million new consumers between 1990 and 2000, with an average purchasing power of 839 billion US$ [21]. These “new consumers” are defined as “people within typically four member households with purchasing power of at least PPP $10,000 per year, i.e., at least PPP $2,500 per person … (PPP dollars are between 1.3 and 5.3 times higher than conventional dollars in 20 countries - 17 developing and 3 transitional countries)” [21], p. 4963. Increased income enables consumers to purchase household appliances, electronics, cars, and other items that mark affluent lifestyles, including the consumption of more packaged food items and meat. Our current waste regime is characterized by an exponential increase in volume and material diversification of discarded objects and substances, as a consequence of increases in packaging, shorter product durability, programmed obsolescence, economic growth logic, consumerism, and mass consumption [22], p. 58. All these factors are responsible for driving solid waste generation. Consequently, cities have to cope with large quantities of solid waste. This includes household waste, construction waste, industrial waste organic waste (e.g. from public parks and other green spaces), and often also diverse forms of toxic waste produced in the city. Of particular concern is the waste that is not collected and that accumulates in illegal dumps, in streets, riverbeds or unoccupied spaces, often following certain patterns delimiting distinguished formal and informal spaces in the city.x
Waste composition reflects cultural and technological trends and varies greatly between different continents and regions over time. There are many technical aspects involved in creating more sustainable and equitable waste management services. While ashes from heating and cooking, e.g., were reported as large components of household waste in North America until the middle of the last century, plastic appears only since the 1970s as a separately recorded substance [23]. Urban waste in the global North currently contains more recyclable goods and electronics, while municipal waste in the global South still has a larger biodegradable fraction and less recyclable material content. Often these valuable materials have already been reclaimed by the household or by informal recyclers for reuse or trading.
In African cities, the organic content of household waste is still much higher and tops 70% [18]. The household waste composition in Brazil is still typical for the global South, with large fractions of organic (51.4%) and recyclable (31.9%) materials (metals, paper and cardboard, plastics, and glass), and a small proportion classified as other materials (16.7%) [24]. Yet, here the amount of electronic waste is quickly growing, increasing the demand for E-waste recycling.
Most municipal solid waste generated worldwide is still deposited at landfills and waste dumps (70%), while 19% is officially recycled or treated by mechanical or biological treatments and a small proportion is incinerated (11%) [25]. Landfill technologies differ from open dumping to sanitary landfills, with methane capturing. The burning of waste is common, particularly in and around informal settlements and in rural areas. Although worldwide many countries are upgrading their landfills to sanitary landfills, as has happened, for example, in South Africa, Uganda, Ghana and Egypt a decade ago, at the time raised the concern that most landfills in Africa are “owned and operated by the very body that is supposed to enforce standards. The philosophy of getting waste out of sight and consequently out of mind seems to be the overriding consideration of these authorities” [18], p. 17. As a consequence, most resources which are limited are spent only on the removal of waste, particularly in formal neighborhoods, and little investment is done in the infrastructure for more sustainable waste management.
Some cities in the global South also adopt expensive waste management models, e.g., mechanized separation systems for recycling or high tech Waste to Energy incineration. These waste management options generate very little employment and are not financially sustainable; often locking governments into long-term waste management contracts, preventing the use of more appropriate technologies. Yet, policy makers are increasingly interested in the social aspects of waste. They have learned through experience that not considering the social aspect of waste compromises the implementation of their policy goals and often results in detrimental and costly social effects, particularly for vulnerable social groups.
Informal collection of recyclable and reusable materials is widespread in the global South and significant amounts are recovered. At the same time formal recycling programs are still rare and are most often insignificant in terms of the percentage of recovered materials. There are environmental (and health) impacts as well as benefits of various degrees involved in the act of informally collecting, separating, redirecting and recycling materials contained in waste. Organized door-to-door selective collection of recyclable materials, in particular, embodies opportunities for environmental education in the community; helping shift attitudes and values away from current wasteful consumption patterns and habits, toward reuse and informed, educated consumption and disposal.
In the case of Brazil, 80% of the country’s household waste is regularly collected, and the primary final destination for it is sanitary landfills (58.1%) and controlled landfills (24.2%). The rest gets deposited at unprotected waste dumps (17.7%) [24]. In 2016, only 927 municipalities (17%) in Brazil had some sort of official selective waste collection in place [26]. As in most countries in the global South, selective waste collection happens primarily through informal waste collectors. They have historically been stigmatized and denied epistemic agency. It is crucial that research interrogates how shifts in the waste and recycling systems can change how society perceives waste pickers and also how waste pickers construct themselves and their praxis, in order to build up an efficient and inclusive waste management system.
Landfills are still necessary, but when uncontrolled they are a source for environmental impacts on soil, water and air. They are located close to urban agglomerations, sometimes competing with environmentally protected areas. Landfills and dumps generate significant greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily methane (5–10% of global methane is emitted by landfills) and carbon dioxide, as microbial communities decompose the organic matter contained in the waste [27]. Converting open dumping and burning to sanitary landfills implies “control of waste placement, compaction, the use of cover materials, implementation of surface water diversion and drainage, and management of leachate and gas” [15], p. 595, thus improving the carbon footprint of waste disposal. Ironically, the landfill upgrading process now creates a shift from mostly CO2 emissions from aerobic decomposition and burning to CH4 emissions, which continue for several decades after waste disposal. However, methane emissions from landfills can be stabilized with gas recovery technology, as is already widely implemented in the global North and beginning to be adopted in many countries in the global South. Landfills further impact the soil and groundwater with leachate produced as water percolates intermittently through the refuse pile. Leachate can contain high levels of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium) heavy metals, toxins (such as cyanide) and dissolved organic compounds. One of the big challenges in most cities is to ensure that all operating landfills are designed properly and are monitored once they are closed. For that, local governments need to access funding programs that seek to improve the condition of landfills.
Mismanaged and uncollected waste is a public health hazard. Abandoned waste attracts disease vectors (including rats, mosquitoes) and if carried into waterways leads to storm waterlogging, causing inundations [28] and consequent public health hazards. When burned, a number of toxic substances are emitted, impacting local neighborhoods.
Waste incineration (including Waste to Energy) and other thermal processes are local sources of air pollution, constituting additional health risk factors to city dwellers, who often already have to cope with serious air contamination issues. These installations produce CO2 from fossil carbon sources and generate other contaminants such as dioxins, furans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mercury (Hg) and many other GHGs. Particularly, the fly ashes and slags become a hazardous output [16, 29]. Waste to Energy is attractive as a quick solution addressing the growing solid waste generation and increasing energy requirements in the city. It is an expensive technology often only viable through public private partnerships (PPPs). Waste management is a multibillion dollar industry. One of the leading waste technology corporations worldwide is Veolia. This company’s main new activity is Waste to Energy, generating many billion dollars of revenue every year. According to their forecast the global market in this sector will be worth about 30 billion euros in 2020. They already have contracts in 33 countries and are recently expanding in the global South [30]. In many countries waste incineration has become a threat to waste pickers, for whom household waste is a resource. The city’s commons make their livelihoods from collecting recyclable materials and feeding them into the circular economy. Yet, even in cities where organized waste pickers perform this service, waste incineration is under consideration, funded through PPPs.
Morris [31] argues that recycling mixed solid waste saves more energy than generated by Waste to Energy facilities. His findings underline that recycling conserves energy that would be used to extracting natural resources and transforming them to produce goods that can also be manufactured from recycled materials. Mining, extraction, transportation and transformation of natural resources, generates environmental impacts (often in pristine environments) and also emits greenhouse gases (GHG), affecting the global climate. Recycling values the resources and energy incorporated in the making of these products, often allowing for new goods to be manufactured from the recovered materials. It is global consensus that “the climate benefits of waste avoidance [reuse] and recycling far outweigh the benefits from any waste treatment technology, even where energy is recovered during the process” [32], p. 1. Recycling values labour and generates income to the many different actors along the value chain. With well-designed and functioning recycling operations, all resources can be recovered from the waste stream for re-use and often for up-cycling in the generation of new products.
Another urban environmental issue relates to the fact that waste and recyclable materials often travel long distances. De-regulation and globalization re-shape the movements of these materials. Transportation uses energy and adds to air pollution, traffic and noise in large urban agglomerations. Worldwide, half of all plastics, paper and scrap metals are exported to South East Asia. China is leading dealing with recyclable material, with importing over 7.4 million tons of plastic waste, 28 million tons of waste paper and 5.8 million tons of steel scrap; mostly treated in backyard shops or small-scale industries [25]. More recently, particularly the transcontinental shipping of electrical and electronic equipment waste (WEEE) has become a serious challenge, especially as it is shipped to global South cities. 70% of the global WEEE ends up in Chinese cities [33]. While the rough dismantling of E-waste (recovering plastics, copper and other metals, etc.) happens in the global South, reclaiming the high value components (rare earths) happens in the global North, who is in possession of the specific recycling technology. Waste trafficking is often illegal and “has become institutionalized practice among certain corporations that pollute, dump toxic waste and make environmental crime victims of various global minorities” [34], p. 103. This section has outlined a serious of challenges that can be avoided or addressed in good waste governance, as will be discussed further in this chapter.
The bulk of material recovery in the global South is informal, grassroots and involves a wide spectrum of domestic reuse of bottles, cans, plastics, paper, cardboard and many other discarded materials. Yet, its role is largely unrecognized in waste management and by city authorities. In Delhi, India 15–20% of the MSW (daily 1,275 to 1,700 tons) is collected by informal recyclers. The waste pickers also redirect 200 tons per day of separated organic material to a large-scale composting plant. They collect organic waste from households in the affluent neighborhoods, where they compost it in a series of community composting pits [35]. Often, the lack of local markets for recyclables is still a prevailing limitation for the recycling activity to further flourish [18].
A well-known example for informal grassroots recycling is the work of the Zabaleens in Cairo, recovering approximately 6,000 tons of MSW per day (up to 80% of the waste generated in the city) of the material entering the solid waste system, compared to 11% formal recycling [36]. In many cities around the world a large number of workers recover significant quantities of recyclable material from the waste stream, generating savings of around 20% or more to the municipal waste management budget, which in large cities can represent many millions of dollars per year [37]. The city of Lima, Peru has no formal recycling program and relies entirely on the local recicladores, including informal service providers, street collectors and dump pickers, to divert 20% of the MSW into recycling, as a report by GIZ/CWG found [14]. These examples illustrate a common situation in waste management in urban agglomerations in the South.
The study by GIZ/CWG has translated the environmental benefits associated with informal material recovery as reduced negative externality costs, expressed in Euros. According to their studies the informal recyclers generate 97.6% of these externality costs in the case of Lima, Peru and 83.4% in Cairo, Egypt [38], p. 21. There is evidence in most big cities that informal workers perform a service that saves city expenditures.
Innovations in waste management from the grassroots level bring many social and environmental benefits that tackle the UN sustainable development target # 11.6, making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, as well UN sustainable development target # 8, promoting sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all [39].
Several questions remain prominent for a paradigm shift in waste management. One of these questions is how we can get the true recognition for the creation of jobs and improvement of livelihoods from informal and organized recycling. Particularly organized waste pickers are a grassroots source of innovation.
Another question addresses how we can stimulate behavioral change toward prevention, reuse and recycling. Informal sector recycler are those individuals or enterprises that are involved in private sector recycling and waste management activities which are not sponsored, financed, recognized, supported, organized or acknowledged by the formal solid waste authorities, or which operate in violation of or in competition with formal authorities [40]. Waste pickers are carriers of grassroots innovations and have many lessons to share that can help improve municipal waste management systems. In many countries waste pickers have organized in cooperatives, associations, networks or social movements. “Grassroots innovation movements seek innovation processes that are socially inclusive towards local communities in terms of the knowledge, processes and outcomes involved” [41], p. 114.
Amid the pressures of climate change, population growth, industrialization and urbanization, one of the major challenges faced in global communities is the sustainable and equitable access to infrastructures, services and resources. There is usually a complex network of actors in waste governance, including residents, waste pickers, waste managers, engineers, bureaucrats, consultants, businesses, but also activists, journalists and scientists. These actors often do not agree on how waste related problems are defined or get solved, nor do all of these actors unanimously recognize that different sources of knowledge are needed to solve these problems. There might even be divergence on what type of knowledge to use, how it is produced and communicated across different societal sectors and actors.
People’s relationships to waste and the meanings attributed to waste reveal about culture and society. In order to achieve a fundamental shift in how we see, generate and manage material waste we need to involve other stakeholders and their knowledge. Waste pickers contribute to developing, understanding and solving waste management problems. Innovative governance models can potentially emerge from a dialog with organized waste pickers creating collaborative relationships in providing waste services. Transdisciplinary understanding of waste encompasses this collective approach, bringing together the formal and non-formal actors for creation, communication and use of waste-related knowledge.
In this chapter, I have provided diverse examples for informal recycling activities, highlighted within different situated contexts. “Waste picking is a key occupation in solid waste management in most cities in the global South. Waste pickers can range from poor people rummaging through garbage in search of food, clothing and other basic, daily needs to informal private collectors of recyclables for sale to middlemen or businesses, as well as organized collectors/sorters of recyclables linked to unions, cooperatives or associations” [42], p. 6. Waste picker contribute environmentally, by reclaiming resources and channeling these into the circular economy. In their work, they are constantly challenged by everyday life decision-making and the daily challenges shape them as grassroots innovators. They work locally in the community, with high levels of participation in decision-making and flat hierarchies [43]. Despite, often being dismissed, this population hosts key actors in waste management.
Social aspects of waste management, or the socio-economic advantages of recycling, as highlighted by [44, 45, 46], are not yet widely recognized and comprehensive social indicators demonstrating the social contributions of organizing waste pickers are yet to be developed, in order to be able to clearly measure the benefits deriving from that work to society. From practice, we know that inclusive waste management generates positive contributions to democracy. During the negotiation process between recycling cooperative and local government for waste management service contacts, e.g., waste pickers as citizens affirm their rights to have a voice and to participate in these decisions, thus strengthening democracy. Waste governance decisions can also undermine democratic relations between citizens and the state and even further deepen inequality and poverty. In contrast, good waste governance embraces the following building blocks, as shown in Figure 1.
Major components of good waste governance.
Waste constitutes a major challenge to city administrators and urban populations at large. However, waste is not perceived as an “issue” yet. Waste is treated through the engineering lens rather than from an interdisciplinary perspective. We need to move beyond seeing waste as a merely technical issue and move towards a complex socio-environmental-technical understanding of waste. Learning from the praxis of a wider range of stakeholders (including waste pickers, elected officials, waste managers, private companies and middlemen or scrap dealers) is critical to either facilitating or hindering transformations in the waste and recycling systems.
Urban communities have a say in what happens to their waste and who has access to waste. They must have a say in the decision-making whether to invest in expensive waste management technology, without prioritizing job creation or whether to support labor intensive, inclusive forms of waste management and resource reclamation. Cities can promote a shift towards waste minimization and resource recovery. Waste governance decisions need to also be based on “good governance” principles, including democracy and consensus orientation, participation, accountability, transparency, responsiveness, equity and inclusiveness, be effective and efficient and following the rule of law [1]. These guiding principles should also be applied to waste governance and specifically applied in waste management.
When it comes to deciding over which waste management process and technology to favor and the design of specific policies, the following questions are relevant for local governments.
(1) Who should be involved in policy and decision-making (key stakeholder, e.g., waste picker organizations, local business associations, educational sector, NGOs, experts)?
Participation is not without challenge and stakeholders have to ask what is their mandate? What are the local political realities? What is the available budget? What are the priorities within the city? and so on.
(2) What technology is most appropriate in terms of:
environmental concerns (air pollution, water and soil contamination)
poverty reduction and employment generation
economic sustainability (cost – benefit, short to long term)
environmental sustainability (resource savings and reclamation, reduction in GHG emissions, etc.)
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), solid waste and its management are considered key contributors to climate change. Greenhouse gases are emitted or avoided in the upstream and downstream stages in the life cycle of municipal solid waste management systems [47]. Upstream emissions can be avoided when recycled resources replace virgin resources in the fabrication of metal, glass, plastic and paper products. In addition, landfill gas (CH4) and deforestation represent other upstream impacts that are reduced with recycling [48, 49, 50, 51]. Fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions are of course also associated with recycling operations, as energy and some virgin resources are consumed during the collection and transportation of materials, processing, and re-manufacturing [52]. With recycling, however, both methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are avoided through the diversion of resources from landfills, through resource recovery and recycling of paper, cardboards and other biodegradable material [47, 53], and through reducing the amount of waste to be deposited at landfills.
Research underlines the need to redefine clean development mechanisms (CDMs) to allow for the recognition of resource recovery for reuse and recycling as measures to reduce GHG emissions, save natural resources and energy [54]. Recycling has not yet been considered a CDM, while Waste to Energy and Methane to Energy projects, associated to landfills, are already funded under this mechanism [55]. These shortcomings need to be addressed by including a social development agenda within CDM policy frameworks. Taking a social perspective on thermal treatment of solid waste the outcome is aggravated by the fact that this form of waste management destroys the resources in waste and thus, the source of income for waste pickers and recyclers.
There are challenges and limitations related to recycling (down-cycling, up-cycling) which governments should discuss and act on. There are often not enough down-cycling alternatives for many waste materials and waste flows. Here too, cities can become drivers for innovative forms of reuse and recycling. Not to forget is the fact that collection, transportation and processing of waste and recyclables also generate fossil-derived carbon dioxide and other pollutants from the fuel used in transportation, and therefore also needs to enter the equation.
Millions of informal waste pickers collect household waste daily in cities around the globe to earn a living. In doing so they contribute to reducing the carbon footprint of cities, recover resources, improve the environmental conditions and health in the city. The research discussed in this chapter points towards a radical economic and social shift away from growth centered urban development and end of pipe waste management; towards steady state development, embracing de-acceleration, stability, sufficiency and sustainability. Recovering materials for reuse or recycling is a step towards that direction and helps avoid natural resource extraction. Inclusive recycling addresses poverty and unemployment issues. The work of informal recyclers, as resource reclaimers—for recycling and reuse—and the role they play as environmental educators can be extended to gradually recover more of the materials that are still wasted in landfills or incinerators, progressing towards more resilient and healthy communities; this implies a different, participatory waste governance. Waste management is an important field of urban governance. The success or failure of governments is linked to how they deal with waste and with the responses society is already producing. Waste governance is more than just having the right laws and policies in place and having institutions enforce the policies. It is also about levels of democratic participation, recognizing other forms of knowledge, and understanding the links between waste, value and society in order to tackle broader social, political, cultural and economic issues that affect the urban agglomerations. Inclusive waste management has the potential of bridging a social gap. Finally, weak urban governance (government that lacks participation, democracy, transparency, equity and inclusiveness) is probably the major impediment to proper solid waste management.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\n\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5684},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5166},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1682},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10211},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:887},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15616}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{},books:[{type:"book",id:"7724",title:"Climate Issues in Asia and Africa - Examining Climate, Its Flux, the Consequences, and Society's Responses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c1bd1a5a4dba07b95a5ae5ef0ecf9f74",slug:null,bookSignature:" John P. Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7829",title:"Psychosis - Phenomenology, Psychopathology and Pathophysiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a211068a33e47af974e3823f33feaa43",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kenjiro Fukao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7829.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"32519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenjiro",surname:"Fukao",slug:"kenjiro-fukao",fullName:"Kenjiro Fukao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7901",title:"Advances in Germ Cell Biology – New Technologies, Applications and Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4adab31469b82dd5a99eec04dbbe09f2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sonia Oliveira and Prof. Maria De Lourdes Pereira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7901.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"323848",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"sonia-oliveira",fullName:"Sonia Oliveira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7921",title:"Optogenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3ae7e24d8f03ff3932bceee4b8d3e727",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7921.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8485",title:"Weather Forecasting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eadbd6f9c26be844062ce5cd3b3eb573",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Muhammad Saifullah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8485.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"320968",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saifullah",slug:"muhammad-saifullah",fullName:"Muhammad Saifullah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8575",title:"Animal Regeneration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"689b9f46c48cd54a2874b8da7386549d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8575.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8950",title:"Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"404a05af45e47e43871f4a0b1bedc6fd",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Heimo Juhani Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8950.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-juhani-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Juhani Mikkola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications for Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Hiroyuki Kagechika and Dr. Hitoshi Shirakawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9016",title:"Psychoneuroendocrinology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cb4ce09b8e853bef06c572df42933500",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ifigenia Kostoglou-Athanassiou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9016.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"307495",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifigenia",surname:"Kostoglou-Athanassiou",slug:"ifigenia-kostoglou-athanassiou",fullName:"Ifigenia Kostoglou-Athanassiou"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9046",title:"Amyloidosis History and Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"371a4ad514bb6d6703406741702a19d0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jonathan Harrison",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9046.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"340843",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Harrison",slug:"jonathan-harrison",fullName:"Jonathan Harrison"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:307},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5131},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"38",title:"Horticulture",slug:"horticulture",parent:{title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:19,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:560,numberOfWosCitations:561,numberOfCrossrefCitations:424,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1043,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"horticulture",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10165",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Prospects, Production and Uses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ce648cbd64755df57dd7c67c9b17f18",slug:"legume-crops-prospects-production-and-uses",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10165.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8152",title:"Modern Fruit Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ea4aff1aa2988e552a7a8ff3384c59a",slug:"modern-fruit-industry",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Kahramanoglu, Nesibe Ebru Kafkas, Ayzin Küden and Songül Çömlekçioğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8152.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178185",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kahramanoglu",slug:"ibrahim-kahramanoglu",fullName:"Ibrahim Kahramanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7014",title:"Horticultural Crops",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"62d269dbecb5881a63b040c9ec933e9d",slug:"horticultural-crops",bookSignature:"Hugues Kossi Baimey, Noureddine Hamamouch and Yao Adjiguita Kolombia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7014.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201690",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugues",middleName:null,surname:"Kossi Baimey",slug:"hugues-kossi-baimey",fullName:"Hugues Kossi Baimey"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6996",title:"Strawberry",subtitle:"Pre- and Post-Harvest Management Techniques for Higher Fruit Quality",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dc740162f400a4dd3e9377a140424917",slug:"strawberry-pre-and-post-harvest-management-techniques-for-higher-fruit-quality",bookSignature:"Toshiki Asao and Md Asaduzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6996.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106510",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Asao",slug:"toshiki-asao",fullName:"Toshiki Asao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6492",title:"Vegetables",subtitle:"Importance of Quality Vegetables to Human Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9b3988b64bc40ab0eb650fe8a2b2493",slug:"vegetables-importance-of-quality-vegetables-to-human-health",bookSignature:"Md. Asaduzzaman and Toshiki Asao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6492.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171564",title:"Dr.",name:"Md",middleName:null,surname:"Asaduzzaman",slug:"md-asaduzzaman",fullName:"Md Asaduzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6203",title:"Potassium",subtitle:"Improvement of Quality in Fruits and Vegetables Through Hydroponic Nutrient Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b4208bd87e8d6c2569ebdda0e4868ad2",slug:"potassium-improvement-of-quality-in-fruits-and-vegetables-through-hydroponic-nutrient-management",bookSignature:"Md Asaduzzaman and Toshiki Asao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6203.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171564",title:"Dr.",name:"Md",middleName:null,surname:"Asaduzzaman",slug:"md-asaduzzaman",fullName:"Md Asaduzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5972",title:"Postharvest Handling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"68eb74526fe2b5a328ad537425137a0d",slug:"postharvest-handling",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Kahramanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5972.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178185",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kahramanoglu",slug:"ibrahim-kahramanoglu",fullName:"Ibrahim Kahramanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6026",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f5988dd981b01f4497052300329105b2",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6026.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5286",title:"Products from Olive Tree",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b1c4ed3e0237d388a235b51b1b415886",slug:"products-from-olive-tree",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Boskou and Maria Lisa Clodoveo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5286.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77212",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Boskou",slug:"dimitrios-boskou",fullName:"Dimitrios Boskou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5253",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5626f83050894f6dfc5640fa908dc920",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata and Iris Loira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5253.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5218",title:"New Challenges in Seed Biology",subtitle:"Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbdf379c83007e5a7341c51bcd02db9a",slug:"new-challenges-in-seed-biology-basic-and-translational-research-driving-seed-technology",bookSignature:"Susana Araujo and Alma Balestrazzi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5218.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156799",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Araújo",slug:"susana-araujo",fullName:"Susana Araújo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5179",title:"Organic Fertilizers",subtitle:"From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93748f3bd6a9c0240d71ffd350d624b1",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5179.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:19,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"43317",doi:"10.5772/54833",title:"Extreme Temperature Responses, Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense in Plants",slug:"extreme-temperature-responses-oxidative-stress-and-antioxidant-defense-in-plants",totalDownloads:10639,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:92,book:{slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture",title:"Abiotic Stress",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress - Plant Responses and Applications in Agriculture"},signatures:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Kamrun Nahar and Masayuki Fujita",authors:[{id:"47687",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",slug:"masayuki-fujita",fullName:"Masayuki Fujita"},{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"},{id:"166818",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamrun",middleName:null,surname:"Nahar",slug:"kamrun-nahar",fullName:"Kamrun Nahar"}]},{id:"51934",doi:"10.5772/64420",title:"Seed Priming: New Comprehensive Approaches for an Old Empirical Technique",slug:"seed-priming-new-comprehensive-approaches-for-an-old-empirical-technique",totalDownloads:6094,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:53,book:{slug:"new-challenges-in-seed-biology-basic-and-translational-research-driving-seed-technology",title:"New Challenges in Seed Biology",fullTitle:"New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology"},signatures:"Stanley Lutts, Paolo Benincasa, Lukasz Wojtyla, Szymon Kubala S,\nRoberta Pace, Katzarina Lechowska, Muriel Quinet and Malgorzata\nGarnczarska",authors:[{id:"94090",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",middleName:null,surname:"Lutts",slug:"stanley-lutts",fullName:"Stanley Lutts"},{id:"181730",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Benincasa",slug:"paolo-benincasa",fullName:"Paolo Benincasa"},{id:"181732",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukasz",middleName:null,surname:"Wojtyla",slug:"lukasz-wojtyla",fullName:"Lukasz Wojtyla"},{id:"181733",title:"Dr.",name:"Szymon",middleName:null,surname:"Kubala",slug:"szymon-kubala",fullName:"Szymon Kubala"},{id:"181734",title:"Mrs.",name:"Katzzarina",middleName:null,surname:"Lechowska",slug:"katzzarina-lechowska",fullName:"Katzzarina Lechowska"},{id:"181735",title:"Dr.",name:"Muriel",middleName:null,surname:"Quinet",slug:"muriel-quinet",fullName:"Muriel Quinet"},{id:"181736",title:"Prof.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Garnczarska",slug:"malgorzata-garnczarska",fullName:"Malgorzata Garnczarska"}]},{id:"44143",doi:"10.5772/54592",title:"Production of Anthocyanins in Grape Cell Cultures: A Potential Source of Raw Material for Pharmaceutical, Food, and Cosmetic Industries",slug:"production-of-anthocyanins-in-grape-cell-cultures-a-potential-source-of-raw-material-for-pharmaceuti",totalDownloads:7177,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:53,book:{slug:"the-mediterranean-genetic-code-grapevine-and-olive",title:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code",fullTitle:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code - Grapevine and Olive"},signatures:"Anthony Ananga, Vasil Georgiev, Joel Ochieng, Bobby Phills and Violeta Tsolova",authors:[{id:"74792",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel W.",middleName:null,surname:"Ochieng",slug:"joel-w.-ochieng",fullName:"Joel W. Ochieng"},{id:"126149",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Ananga",slug:"anthony-ananga",fullName:"Anthony Ananga"},{id:"136830",title:"Dr.",name:"Devaiah",middleName:null,surname:"Kambiranda",slug:"devaiah-kambiranda",fullName:"Devaiah Kambiranda"},{id:"137412",title:"Dr.",name:"Violetka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsolova",slug:"violetka-tsolova",fullName:"Violetka Tsolova"},{id:"165414",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasil",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiev",slug:"vasil-georgiev",fullName:"Vasil Georgiev"},{id:"165415",title:"Dr.",name:"Bobby",middleName:null,surname:"Phills",slug:"bobby-phills",fullName:"Bobby Phills"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56159",title:"Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products",slug:"processing-and-preservation-of-fresh-cut-fruit-and-vegetable-products",totalDownloads:4307,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"postharvest-handling",title:"Postharvest Handling",fullTitle:"Postharvest Handling"},signatures:"Afam I.O. Jideani, Tonna A. Anyasi, Godwin R.A. Mchau, Elohor O.\nUdoro and Oluwatoyin O. Onipe",authors:[{id:"169352",title:"Dr.",name:"Tonna",middleName:"Ashim",surname:"Anyasi",slug:"tonna-anyasi",fullName:"Tonna Anyasi"},{id:"200822",title:"Prof.",name:"Afam I. O.",middleName:null,surname:"Jideani",slug:"afam-i.-o.-jideani",fullName:"Afam I. O. Jideani"},{id:"204522",title:"Prof.",name:"Godwin R.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mchau",slug:"godwin-r.a.-mchau",fullName:"Godwin R.A. Mchau"},{id:"204523",title:"Ms.",name:"Elohor O.",middleName:null,surname:"Udoro",slug:"elohor-o.-udoro",fullName:"Elohor O. Udoro"},{id:"205968",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin O.",middleName:null,surname:"Onipe",slug:"toyin-o.-onipe",fullName:"Toyin O. Onipe"}]},{id:"51934",title:"Seed Priming: New Comprehensive Approaches for an Old Empirical Technique",slug:"seed-priming-new-comprehensive-approaches-for-an-old-empirical-technique",totalDownloads:6094,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:53,book:{slug:"new-challenges-in-seed-biology-basic-and-translational-research-driving-seed-technology",title:"New Challenges in Seed Biology",fullTitle:"New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology"},signatures:"Stanley Lutts, Paolo Benincasa, Lukasz Wojtyla, Szymon Kubala S,\nRoberta Pace, Katzarina Lechowska, Muriel Quinet and Malgorzata\nGarnczarska",authors:[{id:"94090",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",middleName:null,surname:"Lutts",slug:"stanley-lutts",fullName:"Stanley Lutts"},{id:"181730",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Benincasa",slug:"paolo-benincasa",fullName:"Paolo Benincasa"},{id:"181732",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukasz",middleName:null,surname:"Wojtyla",slug:"lukasz-wojtyla",fullName:"Lukasz Wojtyla"},{id:"181733",title:"Dr.",name:"Szymon",middleName:null,surname:"Kubala",slug:"szymon-kubala",fullName:"Szymon Kubala"},{id:"181734",title:"Mrs.",name:"Katzzarina",middleName:null,surname:"Lechowska",slug:"katzzarina-lechowska",fullName:"Katzzarina Lechowska"},{id:"181735",title:"Dr.",name:"Muriel",middleName:null,surname:"Quinet",slug:"muriel-quinet",fullName:"Muriel Quinet"},{id:"181736",title:"Prof.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Garnczarska",slug:"malgorzata-garnczarska",fullName:"Malgorzata Garnczarska"}]},{id:"58261",title:"Software for Calculation of Nutrient Solution for Fruits and Leafy Vegetables in NFT Hydroponic System",slug:"software-for-calculation-of-nutrient-solution-for-fruits-and-leafy-vegetables-in-nft-hydroponic-syst",totalDownloads:3903,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"potassium-improvement-of-quality-in-fruits-and-vegetables-through-hydroponic-nutrient-management",title:"Potassium",fullTitle:"Potassium - Improvement of Quality in Fruits and Vegetables Through Hydroponic Nutrient Management"},signatures:"Douglas José Marques, Francisco Donizeti Vieira Luz, Rogério\nWilliam Fernandes Barroso and Hudson Carvalho Bianchini",authors:[{id:"208047",title:"Prof.",name:"Hudson Carvalho",middleName:null,surname:"Bianchini",slug:"hudson-carvalho-bianchini",fullName:"Hudson Carvalho Bianchini"},{id:"215944",title:"Dr.",name:"Douglas José",middleName:"José",surname:"Marques",slug:"douglas-jose-marques",fullName:"Douglas José Marques"},{id:"215945",title:"MSc.",name:"Francisco Donizete Vieira",middleName:null,surname:"Luz",slug:"francisco-donizete-vieira-luz",fullName:"Francisco Donizete Vieira Luz"},{id:"215946",title:"MSc.",name:"Rogério William Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Barroso",slug:"rogerio-william-fernandes-barroso",fullName:"Rogério William Fernandes Barroso"}]},{id:"61691",title:"Role of Vegetables in Human Nutrition and Disease Prevention",slug:"role-of-vegetables-in-human-nutrition-and-disease-prevention",totalDownloads:1782,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"vegetables-importance-of-quality-vegetables-to-human-health",title:"Vegetables",fullTitle:"Vegetables - Importance of Quality Vegetables to Human Health"},signatures:"Taha Gökmen Ülger, Ayşe Nur Songur, Onur Çırak and Funda Pınar\nÇakıroğlu",authors:[{id:"176588",title:"Prof.",name:"Funda Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Çakıroğlu",slug:"funda-pinar-cakiroglu",fullName:"Funda Pınar Çakıroğlu"},{id:"244239",title:"Dr.",name:"Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Çırak",slug:"onur-cirak",fullName:"Onur Çırak"},{id:"251662",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayşe Nur",middleName:null,surname:"Songür",slug:"ayse-nur-songur",fullName:"Ayşe Nur Songür"},{id:"251663",title:"MSc.",name:"Taha Gökmen",middleName:null,surname:"Ülger",slug:"taha-gokmen-ulger",fullName:"Taha Gökmen Ülger"}]},{id:"55697",title:"Introductory Chapter: Postharvest Physiology and Technology of Horticultural Crops",slug:"introductory-chapter-postharvest-physiology-and-technology-of-horticultural-crops",totalDownloads:2547,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"postharvest-handling",title:"Postharvest Handling",fullTitle:"Postharvest Handling"},signatures:"İbrahim Kahramanoğlu",authors:[{id:"178185",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kahramanoglu",slug:"ibrahim-kahramanoglu",fullName:"Ibrahim Kahramanoglu"}]},{id:"53418",title:"Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.): An Important Medicinal and Aromatic Crop",slug:"fenugreek-trigonella-foenum-graecum-l-an-important-medicinal-and-aromatic-crop",totalDownloads:2624,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Peiman Zandi, Saikat Kumar Basu, William Cetzal-Ix, Mojtaba\nKordrostami, Shahram Khademi Chalaras and Leila Bazrkar Khatibai",authors:[{id:"193070",title:"Dr.",name:"Peiman",middleName:null,surname:"Zandi",slug:"peiman-zandi",fullName:"Peiman Zandi"},{id:"196977",title:"Dr.",name:"Saikat",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Basu",slug:"saikat-kumar-basu",fullName:"Saikat Kumar Basu"},{id:"196978",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Cetzal-Ix",slug:"william-cetzal-ix",fullName:"William Cetzal-Ix"},{id:"196979",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kordrostami",slug:"mojtaba-kordrostami",fullName:"Mojtaba Kordrostami"},{id:"196980",title:"MSc.",name:"Shahram",middleName:null,surname:"Khademi Chalaras",slug:"shahram-khademi-chalaras",fullName:"Shahram Khademi Chalaras"},{id:"196981",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Bazrkar Khatibai",slug:"leila-bazrkar-khatibai",fullName:"Leila Bazrkar Khatibai"}]},{id:"51881",title:"Recent Advances in Seed Enhancements",slug:"recent-advances-in-seed-enhancements",totalDownloads:3707,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"new-challenges-in-seed-biology-basic-and-translational-research-driving-seed-technology",title:"New Challenges in Seed Biology",fullTitle:"New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology"},signatures:"Irfan Afzal, Hafeez Ur Rehman, Muhammad Naveed and Shahzad\nMaqsood Ahmed Basra",authors:[{id:"180245",title:"Dr.",name:"Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Afzal",slug:"irfan-afzal",fullName:"Irfan Afzal"}]},{id:"43317",title:"Extreme Temperature Responses, Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense in Plants",slug:"extreme-temperature-responses-oxidative-stress-and-antioxidant-defense-in-plants",totalDownloads:10639,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:92,book:{slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture",title:"Abiotic Stress",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress - Plant Responses and Applications in Agriculture"},signatures:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Kamrun Nahar and Masayuki Fujita",authors:[{id:"47687",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",slug:"masayuki-fujita",fullName:"Masayuki Fujita"},{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"},{id:"166818",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamrun",middleName:null,surname:"Nahar",slug:"kamrun-nahar",fullName:"Kamrun Nahar"}]},{id:"53045",title:"Chemical Structure, Quality Indices and Bioactivity of Essential Oil Constituents",slug:"chemical-structure-quality-indices-and-bioactivity-of-essential-oil-constituents",totalDownloads:3339,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy",authors:[{id:"193168",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nashwa",middleName:null,surname:"Morsy",slug:"nashwa-morsy",fullName:"Nashwa Morsy"}]},{id:"54951",title:"Modified Atmosphere Packaging: Design and Optimization Strategies for Fresh Produce",slug:"modified-atmosphere-packaging-design-and-optimization-strategies-for-fresh-produce",totalDownloads:1495,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"postharvest-handling",title:"Postharvest Handling",fullTitle:"Postharvest Handling"},signatures:"Diego A. Castellanos and Aníbal O. Herrera",authors:[{id:"203128",title:"Dr.",name:"Aníbal",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera",slug:"anibal-herrera",fullName:"Aníbal Herrera"},{id:"203129",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Alberto",surname:"Castellanos",slug:"diego-castellanos",fullName:"Diego Castellanos"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"horticulture",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/189741/kuo-ting-wang",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"189741",slug:"kuo-ting-wang"},fullPath:"/profiles/189741/kuo-ting-wang",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()