Iptv - success critical stakeholders.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6534",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Heavy Metals",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Fundamental societal changes resulted from the necessity of people to get organized in mining, transporting, processing, and circulating the heavy metals and their follow-up products, which in consequence resulted in a differentiation of society into diversified professions and even societal strata. Heavy metals are highly demanded technological materials, which drive welfare and progress of the human society, and often play essential metabolic roles. However, their eminent toxicity challenges the field of chemistry, physics, engineering, cleaner production, electronics, metabolomics, botany, biotechnology, and microbiology in an interdisciplinary and cross-sectorial manner. Today, all these scientific disciplines are called to dedicate their efforts in a synergistic way to avoid exposure of heavy metals into the eco- and biosphere, to reliably monitor and quantify heavy metal contamination, and to foster the development of novel strategies to remediate damage caused by heavy metals.",isbn:"978-1-78923-361-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-360-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-533-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71185",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"heavy-metals",numberOfPages:412,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a7573426a162c18f39acc575c1e69f67",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Refaat F. Aglan",publishedDate:"June 27th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6534.jpg",numberOfDownloads:48235,numberOfWosCitations:277,numberOfCrossrefCitations:261,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:558,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:9,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1096,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 19th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 8th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 7th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.png",biography:"Hosam M. Saleh is a Professor of Radioactive Waste Management in the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He obtained an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University, Egypt. He has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environmentally friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He has authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. He was selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"15",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"14",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"234567",title:"Dr.",name:"Refaat",middleName:"Fekry Eid Sayed",surname:"Aglan",slug:"refaat-aglan",fullName:"Refaat Aglan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/234567/images/7517_n.png",biography:"Refaat F. Aglan is an associate professor of Analytical Chemistry at the Atomic Energy Authority of Egypt. He received his MSc degree from the Cairo University and his PhD degree from the Ain Shams University. He authored more than 25 peer-reviewed scientific papers. He is interested in the development of chemical sensors based on inorganic and organic ligands for determination of toxic and industrially important metals and synthesis of inorganic ion exchanger.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"942",title:"Environmental Engineering",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-environmental-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"59857",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introducing Heavy Metals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74783",slug:"introductory-chapter-introducing-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:5801,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:35,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Martin Koller and Hosam M. Saleh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59857",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59857",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],corrections:null},{id:"59343",title:"Cadmium Iodate Syntheses and Characterization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73866",slug:"cadmium-iodate-syntheses-and-characterization",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Six polymorphs of anhydrous cadmium iodate are characterized, three of which showing second harmonic generation activity (SHG). Single crystals of Cd(IO3)2·H2O are obtained by slow evaporation of aqueous solutions of CdCl2 and KIO3. This compound crystallizes in the triclinic space group P1¯, a = 7.119(2), b = 7.952(2), c = 6.646(2)Å, α = 102.17(2)°, β = 114.13(2)°, and γ = 66.78(4)°. Three chemical routes of preparation of chloro cadmium iodate CdIO3Cl are given. The prepared material was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The crystal structure has been determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction methods; the unit cell is orthorhombic with a = 7.270(0) Å, b = 15.995 (0) Å, c = 7.1980 (0) Å V = 837.009(1) Å3, and Z = 8. The space group is CmCa. The cadmium hydroxy-iodate CdIO3OH is synthesized in the form of transparent platelets in the same way as CdIO3Cl; the unit cell is orthorhombic with a = 11.5245(11) Å, b = 6.7985 (7) Å, c = 4.7303 (4) Å, V = 304.31(1) Å3, and Z = 4.",signatures:"Zoulikha Hebboul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59343",authors:[{id:"223608",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hebboul",surname:"Zoulikha",slug:"hebboul-zoulikha",fullName:"Hebboul Zoulikha"}],corrections:null},{id:"61406",title:"Removal of Heavy Metals Using Bentonite Clay and Inorganic Coagulants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76380",slug:"removal-of-heavy-metals-using-bentonite-clay-and-inorganic-coagulants",totalDownloads:1507,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Heavy metals have always been defined as elements with a density higher than 5 g/cm3. They are regarded as serious wastewater contaminants with detrimental effect to human and environment. Their removal from wastewater poses a serious challenge as they require cost-effective reagent and treatment technique. About 200 mL solution of acid mine drainage (AMD) collected from the Western decant in Krugersdorp, South Africa was poured into five 500 mL glass beakers. Three different sets of experiments (employing mixing, shaking and no mixing) were conducted using a jar test and a shaker with 1.5 g bentonite clay, 20–60 mL of 0.043 M FeCl3 and Al2(SO4)3 and a flocculent of bentonite clay and FeCl3 dosage, respectively. The experiments were conducted without pH adjustment. The samples settled for 1 hour after which the pH, conductivity and turbidity were measured. The results show that a combination of bentonite clay and FeCl3 exhibits a better turbidity removal efficiency compared to the samples with bentonite clay, FeCl3 and AlCl3 respectively. The variation of the turbidity removal in the samples with mixing shaking and without mixing is insignificant, showing that destabilization-hydrolysis depends upon the strength of the reagent and the physicochemical properties of the solution. The results also show that hydrolysis occurs at low pH, indicating that it plays an insignificant role in destabilization. The SEM micrographs show that turbidity removal is a physical phenomenon.",signatures:"Oupa I. Ntwampe and Kapil Moothi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61406",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61406",authors:[{id:"220207",title:"Dr.",name:"Oupa",surname:"Ntwampe",slug:"oupa-ntwampe",fullName:"Oupa Ntwampe"}],corrections:null},{id:"59219",title:"Strategic Design of Heavy Metals Removal Agents through Zeta Potential Measurements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74053",slug:"strategic-design-of-heavy-metals-removal-agents-through-zeta-potential-measurements",totalDownloads:1144,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Industrial wastewater generally contains significant amounts of toxic heavy metals that cause a problem of contamination to the environment. In this chapter, the use of polyelectrolytic waste as new coagulant-flocculating-chelating agents in the separation of Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr by a coagulation-flocculation process is discussed. The isoelectric point (ζ = 0) of the residual water was reached with a dose of 2.5 mg chitosan and observed a clarification kinetics = 187.49% T/h, sediment kinetics = 93.96 mm/h and an efficiency of 85% in the removal of heavy metals. With the SEM-EDS analysis and the determination of heavy metals in the treated water, it is shown that the functional groups that chitosan has in its structure have the following order of affinity for the removal of heavy metals from the wastewater model: Cr = 27.64% > Ni = 21.96% > Pb = 21.28% > Zn = 14.68% > Cu = 10.96% > Cd = 3.35% > Ca = 0.12%.",signatures:"Eduardo Alberto López-Maldonado and Mercedes Teresita\nOropeza-Guzmán",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59219",authors:[{id:"221925",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo A.",surname:"López-Maldonado",slug:"eduardo-a.-lopez-maldonado",fullName:"Eduardo A. López-Maldonado"},{id:"224294",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes T.",surname:"Oropeza-Guzman",slug:"mercedes-t.-oropeza-guzman",fullName:"Mercedes T. Oropeza-Guzman"}],corrections:null},{id:"60214",title:"Short-Term Response of Plants Grown under Heavy Metal Toxicity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75722",slug:"short-term-response-of-plants-grown-under-heavy-metal-toxicity",totalDownloads:1306,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Sorghum vulgare L. plants when exposed to cadmium nitrate with the concentrations of 70 and 150 ppm per kg of soil for 90 days exhibited phytotoxic responses. The observations of specific responses were dependent on treatment combinations. The significant hazardous effects and oxidative damage of cadmium nitrate (70 and 150 ppm) were evident by increased MDA content and hydrogen peroxide content. However, these responses were reversed by exogenous application of putrescine (2.5 and 5.0 mM) and mycorrhiza (Glomus; 150 inoculants per kg of soil), more so, in their combined treatment, at different DAS. But combined treatment of putrescine and mycorrhiza enhanced the stability of sorghum by reducing the ROS production in plant cells. On the basis of the data obtained, it is concluded that plants responded up to 70 ppm cadmium nitrate with stress-induced responses, which were ameliorated by combined application of putrescine and Glomus mycorrhiza.",signatures:"Prasann Kumar and Shweta Pathak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60214",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60214",authors:[{id:"223510",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasann",surname:"Kumar",slug:"prasann-kumar",fullName:"Prasann Kumar"},{id:"241113",title:"Ms.",name:"Shweta",surname:"Pathak",slug:"shweta-pathak",fullName:"Shweta Pathak"}],corrections:null},{id:"59116",title:"Impact of Heavy Metals on Forest Ecosystems of the European North of Russia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73323",slug:"impact-of-heavy-metals-on-forest-ecosystems-of-the-european-north-of-russia",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The article presents the results of long-term monitoring of the state of boreal forest ecosystems (Kola Peninsula, European North of Russia) experiencing industrial pollution. The general regularities and distinctive features of the reaction of various components of pine forest ecosystems to joint action of gaseous and solid pollutants and contamination of albic rustic podzols by heavy metals under field experiment are characterized. A dynamic trend in soil and plant contamination levels has been identified, a vitality structure and growth rates of stands have been compared, as well as the state of undergrowth under airborne and soil pollution, the dynamics of the ground cover under soil pollution by heavy metals is characterized. Based on a comparative analysis of the level of soil contamination and the state of the components of pine forest communities, the limits of their tolerance to the toxic effect of heavy metals have been established.",signatures:"Irina Lyanguzova, Vasily Yarmishko, Vadim Gorshkov, Natalie\nStavrova and Irina Bakkal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59116",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59116",authors:[{id:"228425",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Irina",surname:"Lyanguzova",slug:"irina-lyanguzova",fullName:"Irina Lyanguzova"},{id:"228429",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasily",surname:"Yarmishko",slug:"vasily-yarmishko",fullName:"Vasily Yarmishko"},{id:"238519",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadim",surname:"Gorshkov",slug:"vadim-gorshkov",fullName:"Vadim Gorshkov"},{id:"238521",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalie",surname:"Stavrova",slug:"natalie-stavrova",fullName:"Natalie Stavrova"},{id:"238523",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Bakkal",slug:"irina-bakkal",fullName:"Irina Bakkal"}],corrections:null},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76082",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16255,totalCrossrefCites:188,totalDimensionsCites:408,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60680",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60680",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}],corrections:null},{id:"59299",title:"Estimate of Heavy Metals in Soil Using Combined Geochemistry and Field Spectroscopy in Miyi Mining Area",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73663",slug:"estimate-of-heavy-metals-in-soil-using-combined-geochemistry-and-field-spectroscopy-in-miyi-mining-a",totalDownloads:1048,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Heavy metal-contaminated soil and water is a major environmental issue in the mining areas. However, as the heavy metals migrate frequently, the traditional method of estimating the soil’s heavy metal content by field sampling and laboratory chemical analysis followed by interpolation is time-consuming and expensive. This chapter intends to use field hyperspectra to estimate the heavy metals in the soil in Bai-ma, De-sheng and YuanBaoshan mining areas, Miyi County, Sichuan Province. By analyzing the spectra of soil, the spectral features derived from the spectra of the soils can be found to build the models between these features and the contents of Mn and Co in the soil by using the linear regression method. The spectral features of Mn are 2142 and 2296 nm. The spectral features of Co are 1918, 1922 and 2205 nm. With these feature spectra, the best models to estimate the heavy metals in the study area can be built according to the maximal determination coefficients (R2). The determination coefficients (R2) of the models of retrieving Mn and Co in the soil are 0.645 and 0.8, respectively. The model significant indexes of Mn and Co are 2.04507E-05 and 7.73E-06. These results show that it is feasible to predict contaminated heavy metals in the soils during mining activities for soil remediation and ecological restoration by using the rapid and cost-effective field spectroscopy.",signatures:"Jian Ji, Fang Yao, Chen Qian-Yu and Tian Heng-Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59299",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59299",authors:[{id:"226846",title:"Prof.",name:"Ji",surname:"Jian",slug:"ji-jian",fullName:"Ji Jian"},{id:"240204",title:"MSc.",name:"Yao",surname:"Fang",slug:"yao-fang",fullName:"Yao Fang"},{id:"240205",title:"MSc.",name:"Qianyu",surname:"Chen",slug:"qianyu-chen",fullName:"Qianyu Chen"},{id:"240206",title:"MSc.",name:"Hengyu",surname:"Tian",slug:"hengyu-tian",fullName:"Hengyu Tian"}],corrections:null},{id:"61476",title:"Tempospatial Distribution, Gas: Solid Partition, and Long- Range Transportation of Atmospheric Mercury at an Industrial City and Offshore Islands",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74051",slug:"tempospatial-distribution-gas-solid-partition-and-long-range-transportation-of-atmospheric-mercury-a",totalDownloads:1015,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter measured atmospheric mercury from two cases of small-scale regions to large-scale regions, and further investigated the tempospatial variation of atmospheric mercury, gas-particulate partition, the transportation routes of mercury, and the comparison of mercury concentration in urban areas and stationary sources. In a heavily polluted industrial city, Kaohsiung, field measurement results showed that total gaseous mercury (TGM) and Hgp concentrations were in the range of 2.38–9.41 and 0.02–0.59 ng/m3 with the highest concentrations of 9.41 and 0.59 ng/m3, respectively. Moreover, the partition of atmospheric mercury was apportioned as 92.71–99.17% TGM and 0.83–7.29% Hgp. The hot spots of atmospheric mercury were allocated at two regions in Kaohsiung City, including a steel industrial complex in the south and a petrochemical industrial complex in the north. In a coastal site of the Penghu Islands, the field measurement results showed that the average TGM concentration during the monitoring periods was 3.17 ± 1.17 ng/m3 with the range of 1.17–8.63 ng/m3, as the highest concentration being observed in spring, while the average TGM concentrations in the daytime were typically higher than that at nighttime. Therefore, prevailing wind direction and air mass transportation routes potentially played critical roles on the variation of TGM concentration at the Penghu Islands.",signatures:"Yi-Hsiu Jen and Chung-Shin Yuan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61476",authors:[{id:"227323",title:"Dr.",name:"YiHsiu",surname:"Jen",slug:"yihsiu-jen",fullName:"YiHsiu Jen"},{id:"227324",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Shin",surname:"Yuan",slug:"chung-shin-yuan",fullName:"Chung-Shin Yuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"57972",title:"Phytoremediation of Arsenic Contaminated Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72238",slug:"phytoremediation-of-arsenic-contaminated-water",totalDownloads:1233,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present investigation deals with the detoxification of arsenic contaminated water using phytoremediation technique. Three macrophytes Azolla pinnata, Lemna minor, and Hydrilla verticillata were exposed to 1.0 ppm of an arsenic salt (sodium arsenite) separately as well as in combination (ALH) for 10 days. The concentration of arsenic in control (wild) macrophytes was below detectable limit. Following exposure, the concentration of arsenic increased steadily in all the plants, and after 10 days, the efficacy of arsenic depletion in phytoremediated media was in the order: A. pinnata (88.06%) > L. minor (82.56%) > H. verticillata (77.53%) and 85.50% when applied in combination (ALH). It was found that A. pinnata can detoxify the arsenic contaminated water most efficiently.",signatures:"Randhir Kumar and Tarun Kumar Banerjee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57972",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57972",authors:[{id:"220765",title:"Dr.",name:"Randhir",surname:"Kumar",slug:"randhir-kumar",fullName:"Randhir Kumar"},{id:"221411",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarun",surname:"Banerjee",slug:"tarun-banerjee",fullName:"Tarun Banerjee"}],corrections:null},{id:"60715",title:"Phytoremediation and Physiological Effects of Mixed Heavy Metals on Poplar Hybrids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76348",slug:"phytoremediation-and-physiological-effects-of-mixed-heavy-metals-on-poplar-hybrids",totalDownloads:1376,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The effects of mixed heavy metals differ not only in different plants but also on the hybrids exposed. In this chapter, we focus on phytoremediation and the physiological effects of mixed heavy metals on four poplar hybrids. According to the results obtained from greenhouse pot experiments with mixed heavy metals, the photosynthetic and transpiration rates were affected by increased heavy metal concentrations. The concentration of heavy metals copper, chromium, cadmium, and zinc in the plant roots, stem and leaves varied with the concentration of mixed heavy metal as well as individual heavy metals. Based on the phytoextraction potential; hybrid 1 (Eco 28) was deduced as the best candidate for phytoremediation in mixed heavy metal contamination treatment. The results obtained are valuable in understanding how specific hybrids respond to mixed heavy metal stress especially when using them as bioindicators for phytoremediation experiments in multi-metal contaminated sites. Selection of new plants along with field trials over extended periods will increase the possibility of further enhancing and establishing phytoremediation technology in the future.",signatures:"Romika Chandra and Kang Hoduck",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60715",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60715",authors:[{id:"226785",title:"Prof.",name:"Hoduck",surname:"Kang",slug:"hoduck-kang",fullName:"Hoduck Kang"},{id:"226786",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",surname:"Romika",slug:"chandra-romika",fullName:"Chandra Romika"}],corrections:null},{id:"59441",title:"Phytoremediation: Halophytes as Promising Heavy Metal Hyperaccumulators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73879",slug:"phytoremediation-halophytes-as-promising-heavy-metal-hyperaccumulators",totalDownloads:1728,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The continued accumulation of trace and heavy metals in the environment presents a significant danger to biota health, including humans, which is undoubtedly undermining global environmental sustainability initiatives. Consequently, the need for efficient remediation technologies becomes imperative. Phytoremediation is one of the most viable options in this regard. Hundreds of plants in laboratory experiments demonstrate the potential to remediate varying concentrations of heavy metals; however, the remediation capacity of most of these plants proved unsatisfactory under field conditions. The identification and selection of plants with higher metal uptake capacity or hyperaccumulators are one of the limitations of this technology. Additionally, the mechanism of heavy metal uptake by plants remains to be sufficiently documented. The halophyte plants are famous for their adaptation to harsh environmental conditions, and hence could be the most suitable candidates for heavy metal hyperaccumulation. The state of Qatar in the Gulf region encompasses rich resources of halophytes that have the potential for future investment toward human and environmental health. This chapter, therefore, gives an overview of phytoremediation, with emphasis on halophytes as suitable heavy metal hyperaccumulators for improved remediation of heavy metal–contaminated areas.",signatures:"Kamal Usman, Mohammad A. Al-Ghouti and Mohammed H. Abu-\nDieyeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59441",authors:[{id:"235281",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Abu-Dieyeh",slug:"mohammed-abu-dieyeh",fullName:"Mohammed Abu-Dieyeh"},{id:"235285",title:"Mr.",name:"Kamal",surname:"Usman",slug:"kamal-usman",fullName:"Kamal Usman"},{id:"235286",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Al-Ghouti",slug:"mohammad-al-ghouti",fullName:"Mohammad Al-Ghouti"}],corrections:null},{id:"59339",title:"Assessment of Heavy Metals in Landfill Leachate: A Case Study of Thohoyandou Landfill, Limpopo Province, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74009",slug:"assessment-of-heavy-metals-in-landfill-leachate-a-case-study-of-thohoyandou-landfill-limpopo-provinc",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Landfilling of solid wastes has gained increasing acceptance due to the ease of disposal. However, such activity has consequences if the landfill site is not designed according to specification or does not have a leachate liner and collection system. Leachate possesses potential risk to surface and groundwater aquifer within the area surrounding the landfill site. The aim of this chapter is to assess the physicochemical parameters and heavy metal levels in leachate generated from a periurban landfill site situated in Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Physicochemical parameters were measured onsite using standard methods, while heavy metals were analyzed with flame atomic absorption spectrometer (FAAS) after nitric acid digestion. pH, conductivity and turbidity values ranged from 6.97 to 7.68, 426 to 2288 μS/cm and 12.78 to 295.5 NTU, respectively. Most levels of the determined heavy metals exceeded the effluent discharge guideline limit of South African Department of Water Affairs. This could potentially spike their levels in surface and groundwater. Adequate measures should be put in place to manage the leachate generated from landfill sites.",signatures:"Joshua N. Edokpayi, Olatunde S. Durowoju and John O. Odiyo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59339",authors:[{id:"187867",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",surname:"Edokpayi",slug:"joshua-edokpayi",fullName:"Joshua Edokpayi"},{id:"189690",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Odiyo",slug:"john-odiyo",fullName:"John Odiyo"},{id:"194678",title:"Dr.",name:"Olatunde",surname:"Durowoju",slug:"olatunde-durowoju",fullName:"Olatunde Durowoju"}],corrections:null},{id:"59390",title:"The Thermodynamics of Heavy Metal Sorption onto Lignocellulosic Biomass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74260",slug:"the-thermodynamics-of-heavy-metal-sorption-onto-lignocellulosic-biomass",totalDownloads:1298,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The sorption equilibrium and thermodynamics of Cu(II), Ni(II), Pb(II), and Cd(II) onto grape stalks (GS), a lignocellulosic waste from wine production industries, have been investigated. Different equilibrium models have been assessed to describe the experimental sorption equilibrium profile in the range of 5–60°C. Maximum sorption capacities have been calculated by means of Langmuir equilibrium model and mean free sorption energies through the Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) model. Mean free energies suggest that metal sorption takes place mainly through an ion exchange mechanism, except for Pb(II), where an additional contribution connected to a stronger bond might take place. The calculation of thermodynamic parameters, ΔG0, ΔH0 and ΔS0, puts into evidence that the sorption of all the metals onto GS is a spontaneous and exothermic process that occurs with an increase of randomness at the solid/liquid interface.",signatures:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate and Isabel Villaescusa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59390",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59390",authors:[{id:"188725",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Escudero-Oñate",slug:"carlos-escudero-onate",fullName:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate"},{id:"188731",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabel",surname:"Villaescusa",slug:"isabel-villaescusa",fullName:"Isabel Villaescusa"}],corrections:null},{id:"60021",title:"Removal of Heavy Metals Using Adsorption Processes Subject to an External Magnetic Field",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74050",slug:"removal-of-heavy-metals-using-adsorption-processes-subject-to-an-external-magnetic-field",totalDownloads:2079,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Adsorption is a broadly used process for the removal of heavy metals and the world trend is directed to the application of new technologies to intensify existing processes. The properties of the magnetic field (intensity and arrangement) and the intrinsic magnetic properties of the adsorbent and the adsorbate are decisive for satisfactory results. The intensity of the magnetic field is important, because this implies that the greater number of spins present will align with the magnetic field according to the magnetic nature present, allowing the mobility of the adsorbate and generating heterogeneity on the surface of the adsorbent. Similarly, the arrangement of the magnetic field will determine the direction of the magnetic field lines. The application of a magnetic field as an alternative for the intensification of the adsorption process based on the consideration that the magnetic field is safe, environmentally friendly and economic.",signatures:"Ma. del Rosario Moreno Virgen, Omar Francisco González Vázquez,\nVirginia Hernández Montoya and Rigoberto Tovar Gómez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60021",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60021",authors:[{id:"224528",title:"Dr.",name:"Ma. Del Rosario",surname:"Moreno Virgen",slug:"ma.-del-rosario-moreno-virgen",fullName:"Ma. Del Rosario Moreno Virgen"},{id:"238665",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginia",surname:"Hernández Montoya",slug:"virginia-hernandez-montoya",fullName:"Virginia Hernández Montoya"},{id:"238666",title:"Dr.",name:"Rigoberto",surname:"Tovar Gómez",slug:"rigoberto-tovar-gomez",fullName:"Rigoberto Tovar Gómez"},{id:"238667",title:"Prof.",name:"Omar Francisco",surname:"González Vázquez",slug:"omar-francisco-gonzalez-vazquez",fullName:"Omar Francisco González Vázquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"61612",title:"Biosorbents in the Metallic Ions Determination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76081",slug:"biosorbents-in-the-metallic-ions-determination",totalDownloads:1098,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides an overview and discusses analytical strategies for metallic ions determination using solid phase extraction. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is a much-used technique for extraction and/or concentration of complex samples, so that the analytes present in low concentration were detected mainly using chromatographic methods. However, in recent years, this technique has been widely used in the development of methodologies for metallic ions determination in the deferential samples. This technique shows simplicity and rapidity comparing with other conventional techniques, liquid–liquid extraction, cloud point extraction and others. Solid phase extraction procedures become even more interesting when commercial adsorbents are exchanged for others with higher adsorptive capacity, selectivity, flexibility, economy and low environmental impacts. For this purpose, some inorganic, organic and several natural adsorbents are used. New approaches to obtain adsorbent materials from natural sources such as fungi, bacteria, industrial residues and composting materials have received attention. These materials have been used in the development of analytical methods with varied proposals, such as preconcentration or speciation of metal ions.",signatures:"Absolon C. da Silva Júnior, Alessa G. Siqueira, Carolina A. de Sousa e\nSilva, Jordana de Assis N. Oliveira, Nívia M.M. Coelho and Vanessa\nNunes Alves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61612",authors:[{id:"225065",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vanessa",surname:"Alves",slug:"vanessa-alves",fullName:"Vanessa Alves"},{id:"240715",title:"Dr.",name:"Absolon C.",surname:"Da Silva Junior",slug:"absolon-c.-da-silva-junior",fullName:"Absolon C. Da Silva Junior"},{id:"240716",title:"Ms.",name:"Alessa G.",surname:"Siqueira",slug:"alessa-g.-siqueira",fullName:"Alessa G. Siqueira"},{id:"240718",title:"Ms.",name:"Carolina A. De Sousa E",surname:"Silva",slug:"carolina-a.-de-sousa-e-silva",fullName:"Carolina A. De Sousa E Silva"},{id:"240719",title:"Ms.",name:"Jordana De Assis N.",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"jordana-de-assis-n.-oliveira",fullName:"Jordana De Assis N. Oliveira"},{id:"240720",title:"Dr.",name:"Nívia Maria M.",surname:"Coelho",slug:"nivia-maria-m.-coelho",fullName:"Nívia Maria M. Coelho"}],corrections:null},{id:"59415",title:"Heavy Metals in Urban Dust",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74205",slug:"heavy-metals-in-urban-dust",totalDownloads:1674,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Urban dust is contaminated by pollutants from various diffused sources and is often difficult to be controlled. It elevates the background heavy metal exposure level to humans and ecosystems in and around urban area and may give an apparent or hidden impact. In this chapter, the recent studies on heavy metals in the urban dust are summarized. First, the heavy metal pollution of the dust in the atmosphere and on the road surface is described. Then, the process of road runoff and subsequent infiltration to the soil is discussed from the viewpoint of heavy metal mobility. Finally, the ecotoxicity of road dust is shown, and the causal pollutants in the dust are discussed.",signatures:"Fumiyuki Nakajima and Rupak Aryal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59415",authors:[{id:"228158",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumiyuki",surname:"Nakajima",slug:"fumiyuki-nakajima",fullName:"Fumiyuki Nakajima"},{id:"228170",title:"Dr.",name:"Rupak",surname:"Aryal",slug:"rupak-aryal",fullName:"Rupak Aryal"}],corrections:null},{id:"59843",title:"Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals on Primary School Learners from Dust and Soil within School Premises in Lagos State, Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74741",slug:"health-risk-assessment-of-heavy-metals-on-primary-school-learners-from-dust-and-soil-within-school-p",totalDownloads:1681,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is aimed at evaluating learner’s health risk based on the concentration of toxic metals (Pb, Cr, Cd and Mn) in soil/dust from playgrounds/classrooms in selected primary schools in Lagos State. Samples were divided into four groups based on the density of the locations. Concentration of toxic metals in samples were determined by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (GFA-EX7) technique after microwave digestion. The result showed that some of the heavy metals in the soil were higher than permissible limits set by DPR, FEPA and WHO. The soil/dust were contaminated with Cr, Cd and Pb but Mn was within permissible limit. Due to exposure to playground soil and classroom dust, hazardous index (HI) for non-carcinogenic/carcinogenic risk in children was estimated. HI value indicated that the heavy metal pollution may pose no obvious non-cancer health risk to children learning in such schools. However, children via ingestion pathway are exposed to the greatest carcinogenic risk followed by the inhalation pathway. The cancer risk for learners was found to be 3.2 × 10−2 (1 in 31 individuals). Hence, there is need for local environmental authorities to be warned about the potential health risks caused by heavy metals in playground/classroom.",signatures:"Olatunde S. Durowoju, Joshua N. Edokpayi, Oluseun E. Popoola and\nJohn O. Odiyo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59843",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59843",authors:[{id:"187867",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",surname:"Edokpayi",slug:"joshua-edokpayi",fullName:"Joshua Edokpayi"},{id:"189690",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Odiyo",slug:"john-odiyo",fullName:"John Odiyo"},{id:"194678",title:"Dr.",name:"Olatunde",surname:"Durowoju",slug:"olatunde-durowoju",fullName:"Olatunde Durowoju"},{id:"226179",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluseun",surname:"Popoola",slug:"oluseun-popoola",fullName:"Oluseun Popoola"}],corrections:null},{id:"58942",title:"Heavy Metal in Urban Soil: Health Risk Assessment and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73256",slug:"heavy-metal-in-urban-soil-health-risk-assessment-and-management",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the rapid development of industrialization and urbanization in the developing country, quite a few pollutants produced by anthropological activities enter into urban soil. A large area of urban soil was polluted by different kinds of pollutants. There have been many pollution events like itai-itai disease in the whole world, and many people suffered from urban soil pollution. As the place where people are highly concentrated, urban soil has a great deal with human health. Research has shown that the current soil environmental management and control system may be unable to adapt to changes of the current complex environment. In order to protect urban residents’ health, the scientific and reasonable environmental health risk assessment and management system of environmental pollutants in urban soil have strong scientific, realistic, and strategic significances. Soil pollution including its characteristics, resources, and pollutant types were introduced. The definition of urban soil, current situation of urban soil pollutant, and assessment methods of urban soil were also introduced. Also, this chapter introduces main contents of health risk assessment and management on heavy metals in urban soil, and pointed out existing issues and possible research directions in this field, with the aim of offering references.",signatures:"Fei Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58942",authors:[{id:"227325",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fei",surname:"Li",slug:"fei-li",fullName:"Fei Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"59718",title:"Heavy Metal Pollution of Ecosystem in an Industrialized and Urbanized Region of the Republic of Azerbaijan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74600",slug:"heavy-metal-pollution-of-ecosystem-in-an-industrialized-and-urbanized-region-of-the-republic-of-azer",totalDownloads:1200,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Along with other oil-producing regions of the world, environmental pollution is characteristic also for the Absheron Peninsula of Azerbaijan, which has long been subject to the impact of various anthropogenic factors. A large amount of such toxic substances as heavy metals, hydrocarbons and surface-active agents, and so on were released into soil and water basins leading to the change of natural ecosystem throughout the region. A primary goal of this chapter was to study the level of heavy metal pollution in the Absheron industrial region, while evaluating the potential ecological risk posed by each toxic metal including Hg, Cd, As, Cr, Pb, Cu, Ni, and Zn. Analysis of the calculated values of pollution index (PI), enrichment factor (EF), geoaccumulation index (Igeo), and ecological risk factor (Ei) indicates the contribution of anthropogenic sources to heavy metal accumulation in soils and sediments of the study area.",signatures:"Fagan Aliyev, Hadiya Khalilova and Farhad Aliyev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59718",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59718",authors:[{id:"224977",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hadiya",surname:"Khalilova",slug:"hadiya-khalilova",fullName:"Hadiya Khalilova"}],corrections:null},{id:"59225",title:"Heavy Metal Pollution as a Biodiversity Threat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74052",slug:"heavy-metal-pollution-as-a-biodiversity-threat",totalDownloads:1561,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Heavy metals exert their toxic effects through different mechanisms. Lately, increasing attention has been focused on understanding the long-term ecological effects of chronically exposed populations and communities and their consequences to the ecosystem. The long-term exposure to heavy metals in the environment represents a threat to wild populations, affecting communities and putting ecosystem integrity at risk. Therefore, this type of exposure represents a threat to biodiversity. In the field, metal exposure is generally characterized by low doses and chronic exposures. This type of exposure exerts alterations across levels of biological organization. Distribution and abundance of populations, the community structure and the ecosystem dynamics may be altered. This chapter will focus on how chronically metal exposures in the field affect negatively populations and communities becoming a threat to biodiversity. Also, attention is put on the tools that enable to characterize and analyze the detrimental effects of heavy metal exposure on wild populations. Hence, the use and development of biomarkers in ecotoxicology will be discussed.",signatures:"Efraín Tovar-Sánchez, Isela Hernández-Plata, Miguel Santoyo\nMartínez, Leticia Valencia-Cuevas and Patricia Mussali Galante",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59225",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59225",authors:[{id:"227977",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Mussali-Galante",slug:"patricia-mussali-galante",fullName:"Patricia Mussali-Galante"},{id:"240012",title:"Dr.",name:"Efraín",surname:"Tovar-Sánchez",slug:"efrain-tovar-sanchez",fullName:"Efraín Tovar-Sánchez"},{id:"240013",title:"Dr.",name:"Isela",surname:"Hernández-Plata",slug:"isela-hernandez-plata",fullName:"Isela Hernández-Plata"},{id:"240014",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Santoyo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-santoyo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Santoyo-Martínez"},{id:"240015",title:"Dr.",name:"Leticia",surname:"Valencia-Cuevas",slug:"leticia-valencia-cuevas",fullName:"Leticia Valencia-Cuevas"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2383",title:"Polyester",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79fd9d6314f8e1abd60d7e21896ce878",slug:"polyester",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2383.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5242",title:"Management of Hazardous Wastes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc1f32b478098cdda6b946d14a02ad81",slug:"management-of-hazardous-wastes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6513",title:"Cement Based Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c92db3d5c64117861b425cb692b5695",slug:"cement-based-materials",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6513.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7640",title:"Perspective of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b85a9957fad5206369eadf0c1ffa27d",slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh and Said Moawad Mohamed El-Sheikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7640.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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Saleh and Martin Koller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6067.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6728",title:"Trace Elements",subtitle:"Human Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e1144832b71a4ffcabc7cc31ce911b2",slug:"trace-elements-human-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Eithar El-Adham",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6728.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6847",title:"Characterizations of Some Composite Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0869b3bb91cf9acb7e69004b1bd17ec",slug:"characterizations-of-some-composite-materials",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Martin Koller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6847.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9873",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59b5ceeeedaf7449a30629923569388c",slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9873.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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Avila Bernal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7253.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193020",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Perez Taborda",slug:"jaime-andres-perez-taborda",fullName:"Jaime Andres Perez Taborda"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"33329",title:"Prof.",name:"guifu",middleName:null,surname:"Ding",fullName:"guifu Ding",slug:"guifu-ding",email:"gfding@sjtu.edu.cn",position:null,institution:{name:"Shanghai Jiao Tong University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"244624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Congchun",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Congchun Zhang",slug:"congchun-zhang",email:"zhcc@sjtu.edu.cn",position:null,institution:null},{id:"255541",title:"Mr.",name:"Jianze",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Jianze Huang",slug:"jianze-huang",email:"huangjz420@sjtu.edu.cn",position:null,institution:null},{id:"255547",title:"Mr.",name:"Chunsheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Chunsheng Yang",slug:"chunsheng-yang",email:"csyang@sjtu.edu.cn",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"62285",slug:"textured-bst-thin-film-on-silicon-substrate-preparation-and-its-applications-for-high-frequency-tuna",signatures:"Congchun Zhang, Jianze Huang, Chunsheng Yang and Guifu Ding",dateSubmitted:"February 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 3rd 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7253",title:"Coatings and Thin-Film Technologies",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coatings and Thin-Film Technologies",slug:"coatings-and-thin-film-technologies",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Jaime Andres Perez-Taborda and Alba G. 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\r\n\tHyperspectral imaging is a spectroscopic imaging technique, which can generate either single or a time series of data cubes to yield insight into the spatial distribution of constitutive components in a spatial domain. Hence, the methodology can be used in multiple applications such as probing cellular processes in live cells, developing multiple biomedical imaging modalities, material characterizations, remote sensing, etc. Hyperspectral imaging can also take advantage of deep learning algorithms to retrieve valuable information from high-dimensional data in real-time. It is worth emphasizing that hyperspectral imaging is not limited to visible light. With other available excitation sources such as X-ray, electrons, etc. new hyperspectral imaging modalities can be extended to nanometer scales.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to bring together diverse research areas of hyperspectral imaging. We hope to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in this fascinating and important field and make this book project a useful platform to allow all those working in hyperspectral imaging to be benefited from the knowledge of widely different fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-094-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-093-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-113-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b95808f12e716f6494aaedba4d67d98d",bookSignature:"Dr. Jung Y. 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In Standish Group CHAOS report (The-Standish-Group, 1995) value-oriented shortfalls such as lack of user input, changing requirements, lack of resources and unrealistic time frames etc., are described as common causes of most software project failures. A value-based software engineering (VBSE) agenda has emerged (Boehm, 2003; Boehm & Jain, 2005). The focus is to integrate value considerations into current and emerging software engineering principles and practices. In traditional SE the whole development exercise focuses primarily on successful development and delivery of final product with lesser attention to the fulfillment of the values of stakeholders. On the other hand, in VBSE the focus is shifted beyond just the development of software product and consequently importance is given to the value that the software has added or it will be adding to the system. To understand the value concepts in detail, it is important first to understand what value itself is? And who are the generators of value? And how they value things?
\n\t\t\tValue: According to the Theory of Value (economics), value is economic worth of goods and services and it tries to explain the worth of goods and services provided by some entity from different angles (Wikipedia, 2007). This theory tries to answer the questions that how values of goods and services come about and how to calculate the ‘correct’ value of these goods and services. The Theory of Value suggests that the value of some entity can be seen in different perspectives. For example, it can be seen from intrinsic, subjective or objective angle. Besides the above mentioned concept of value, the Theory W of Boehm (Boehm, 1989) also makes the foundation for VBSE. The principle of this theory is to make everyone a winner. This theory also utilizes Enterprise Success Theorem. According to that theorem, enterprise will succeed if and only if it makes winners of their success critical stakeholders.
\n\t\t\tValue Holders and Propositions: It is very important to see that where does value come from? Stakeholder class is generally used for all value holders who generate value. Stakeholder is a general term that represents everyone having a stake in system e.g., developer, project manager, consumer or customer etc (Heindel & Biffl, 2005; Khalifa, 2004). We can say that all value-holders are in fact stakeholders, having some kind of value propositions from their respective perspectives.
\n\t\t\tValue-Dimensions and Perspectives: Literature describes (Heindel & Biffl, 2005);(Simmons, 1996) different value dimensions like for instance financial value, whose focus is purely on monetary elements. Similarly few other reported dimensions are economic value, business value, organizational value, technical value, end-system value, personal value and environmental value. Now the stakeholders can view these values from different perspectives. There are three different perspectives from which the stakeholders can view their values. These are Technical, Organizational and People (Simmons, 1996). Stakeholders have some value propositions and the value can be viewed from different perspectives in different dimensions.
\n\t\tExisting risk management processes do not fulfill the requirements of IEEE Standard for Risk Management (IEEE Std. 1540-2001) (Samad & Ikram, 2006).While designing the Value-based Requirements’ Risk Management (VRRM) process, it was ensured that the process overcomes as many weaknesses of the existing processes as possible, while still conforming to the IEEE standard and CMMI model requirements. The VRRM process has been designed at two levels of abstraction. The first abstraction level gives a good overview of the main activities carried out during VRRM. The second abstraction is designed at a more detailed level and presents all the activities of VRRM. The VRRM process consists of two major parts: A) Management, and B) Assessment & Mitigation.
\n\t\t\tThe VRRM process is based on a few assumptions which are listed down before process description itself.
\n\t\t\t\t1. Policies for risk management process are already defined and stored in ‘Data Store-RM Policies’. These policies can be used for various software projects to be developed by same organization or under same authorities. However if the process is being implemented for first time and if no such policies exist, it is advisable to define the RM policies during planning phase of the project for which risk management will be performed. For later projects these can be used as required.
2. The categories for risks are also defined before hand, at least in planning phase of the project. However as this process is designed to focus mainly on requirements risks, the categories should be defined accordingly.
3. It is assumed that the process evaluation results from previous implementations of the VRRM process are recorded and available for reference. However in first time implementation, the respective data store will be empty and will continue to grow with results from further implementations the process.
4. All the data stores and artifacts produced should preferably be according to the format given by IEEE Standard for Risk Management (IEEE Std. 1540-2001).
5. The organizational and business objectives are clear and available for reference if and when required.
Level one description of the process consists of the six main activities. These six activities are arranged in two blocks as shown in figure 1. The activities in the Management Block are umbrella activities and are carried throughout the VRRM process. Whereas the activities in Assessment and Mitigation block are started only with/after risk identification. Relevant artifacts are produced at all steps and can be used by other subsequent activities as inputs. The activities are described hereunder:
\n\t\t\t\t1. The VRRM process starts with Plan activity. The risk management plan is part of the project plan and it gives the overall risk management process overview that how will it be implemented? How the activities will be carried out? Who will be responsible for the activities? And how will the process be evaluated for improvement purposes? Planning is also done (as sub-activity) for the identified risk items individually, but than its scope is limited only for the specific risk item; whereas the scope of risk management plan is spanned all over the whole process. The planning activity uses pre-defined organizational risk management policies as input. The planned information is also passed on to data stores, Risk Profile and Risk Categories.
2. The risks are identified in Identify Risk activity which uses the organizational risk management policies and risk management plan from 1 as input. The identified risks are than passed on to analyze activity.
3. In Analyze Activity, the risks are first categorized according to the pre-defined categories and afterwards the likelihoods and consequences of the identified risk items are calculated. On the basis of all this information and threshold values, the acceptance of the risk item is calculated in a value based manner and risks are prioritized in the order of treatment.
4. After analysis the risk items are passed on for treatment. The Treat activity is also made value based.
5. Monitor and Control is a continuous activity and is performed in parallel with all other activities.
6. For future improvements in the process, VRRM process is evaluated in Evaluate RM Process activity using information from all other activities. The evaluation results from previous implementation of the process can be used by subsequent implementations.
All these activities are iterative in nature especially those belonging to management block.
\n\t\t\t\tVRRM-abstraction level 1.
Abstraction level 2 is the detailed representation of abstraction level 1. The sub-activities are represented as divided into six blocks representing the six activities from level 1: Plan, Identify, Analyze, Treat, Monitor & Control, and Evaluate. All the artifacts, data stores and major interactions among six blocks are similar to those at level 1. See figure 2.
\n\t\t\t\t1. The process starts with planning. The input to Plan RM Process is the organizational risk management policies and the process evaluation results from past. This past analogy is useful in making the VRRM process more effective and efficient while incorporating the results from previous usage of the process. The output of this activity is Risk Management Plan which is then further used as input to many succeeding activities.
2. Using this plan, roles & responsible parties are defined and resources are planned. The criteria for risk attributes, scales and measures, thresholds and risk categories is also planned and defined here. All this information is stored in their respective data stores. Data store Risk Profile acts as a basic database for keeping all the information about all risks generally as well as for each of individual risk items. The only artifact produced here at this stage is risk management plan.
3. Process evaluation is done in Evaluate RM Process activity. This evaluation is performed according to the strategy planned in Define Evaluation Process activity. All the evaluation results will be captured in data store Evaluation Results. This data store will have the evaluation results and the lessons learned from previous projects too for reference for current projects.
4. The risks are identified in Identify Risk activity. This activity is put under continuous Monitor and Control as risk identification is a continuous process and risks can occur at any time. Also some entity can be a risk at some times but cannot be the risk at some other time.
5. The identified risks (from 4) are then categorized according to the criteria set during planning activity. The categorization of risk activity can also point-out some other risks that have not been identified yet.
6. The likelihood and consequences of each risk item is then calculated.
7. As VRRM Process is focused on requirement risks, the respective requirement is linked with the business objective that it is assumed to fulfill.
8. Afterwards the success-critical-stakeholders SCSs are identified.
9. These SCSs then assess the value of the subject requirement and the value of risk identified w.r.t. that requirement. The SCSs assess the value in all three perspectives TOP individually (-these perspectives were identified while studying value-based concepts and relevant information can be seen in literature review part-3). The net value for that particular risk item is than calculated by taking aggregate of values of all stakeholders in TOP perspectives.
10. This net value plus the thresholds and consequences of the risk item are then used to evaluate the risk against thresholds defined during planning.
11. Risks that are below threshold are continuously Monitored and Controlled as some risk item that is below threshold at some time can exceed the threshold at some other moment.
12. For risks that are above threshold, the contingency plan is developed.
13. These risks are then put in priority list for treatment. The priority ordering of the risk items is done on basis of SCSs value-assessments; done in same manner as for risk acceptance. The highest valued risk items will be placed on top priority. This value assessment for priority ordering is also done in TOP perspectives and net value is calculated as aggregate of values of all SCSs in all three perspectives. The prioritized risk items are continuously Monitored & Controlled because the priority of certain risks can change at any time during the project. It can be either because of change in value propositions of the SCSs or some unavoidable circumstances.
14. The top-prioritized risk item is then passed on for treatment.
15. The treatment alternatives for top-priority risk item are defined and made available to the relevant parties in Define Treatment Alternatives activity. These treatment alternatives are then evaluated for each risk item and the value for each alternative is calculated in same way as for risk acceptance and prioritization in TOP perspectives. The final selection is made on the basis of net-value of SCSs evaluated with the help of negotiations, either against some pre-defined or on-spot criteria.
16. If the treatment alternative(s) is selected, it will be implemented according to the planned implementation process for selected treatment.
17. If the treatment alternative is not acceptable, more treatment alternatives will be defined.
18. The overall information after implementing treatment alternative is recorded and passed on to Identify Risk activity as implementing one treatment alternative can produce new risks.
19. During whole process, all the artifacts and information in respective data stores is updated when and where required.
20. As mentioned previously, Monitoring & Control will be a continuous activity covering all the activities all through the project.
Vrrm-abstraction level 2.
VRRM process has been implemented on multiple projects (Samad et al., 2008). In this section, we will describe one successful implementation of VRRM process in a large organization.
\n\t\t\tThe project is carried out by a multinational company “Company-A” which provides software solutions to telecommunication operators across the world. The project is referred to as IPTV. As a whole, the Company-A has the strength of 50,000 employees and 8,000 of them are working in about 100 representative offices around the world. Also, it has established joint laboratory partnerships with world’s leading technology providing companies and universities. The Company-A is holding the CMMI level-II.
\n\t\t\t\tThe IPTV project is executed for a largest telecommunication company providing most reliable and largest converged services from basic voice telephony to data, internet, video conferencing and carrier services to consumers and businesses all over the country (Pakistan). It has employee’s strength of more than 25,000 employees with more than 4 million subscribers of basic telephony services. This telecom company entered into the broadband market in 2004 and now having the subscribers of data services more than 130,000.
\n\t\t\t\tThe IPTV project intends to provide the various modern services to its subscribers like controlling the TV channels interactively. The responsibility of Company-A includes to provide real-time or near real-time Billing and Customer Care functions for IPTV Project. The deliverables should have a best-fit with the existing Billing and Customer Care System (B&CCS). The project has special focus on the Customer Care System (CCS) including revamping of new connection services and post installation services of Triple Play Products. The scope further covers the interfaces of CCS Module with OSS via MS SP (Mediation Service Provisioning) for services according to the North Bound Interface (NBI) shared by the OSS. However, the scope of work does not include separate Billing and Receivable Module and shall not generate Customer Invoices. The developed software shall be deployed on the existing hardware of B&CCS for quick delivery of services.
\n\t\t\t\tThe main components of the IPTV project are:
\n\t\t\t\t1. New PSTN, New Broadband, New IPTV
2. Existing PSTN, New Broadband, New IPTV
3. Existing PSTN, Existing Broadband, New IPTV
4. Post Installation Services
4.1. Change of package
4.2. Permanent close
4.3. Temporary close due to no payment
4.4. Temporary close on customer request
4.5. Restore due to payment
4.6. Change of ownership
4.7. Change of password
4.8. Shift of IPTV service
4.9. Change/Replacement of CA Card
4.10. Change of modem
4.11. Change of STB
4.12. Credit control procedure
5. New packages
6. Withdrawal
7. Management of pending orders
8. Inventory management
8.1. CA inventory
8.2. Modem inventory
8.3. STB inventory
9. B&CCS-OSS External Interface
9.1. North Bond Interface (NBI)
9.2. Electronic Programmable Interface (EPI)
9.3. File Interface of Billing with AAA for Video on Demand (VOD)
VRRM process implementation is described in a step wise manner now.
\n\t\t\t\tThe VRRM process starts with the Plan activity. There are total number of 8 activities in this group that are performed in order to produce 3 deliverables; Risk Management Plan, Risk Categories and Risk Assessment Register. The risk management plan is part of the project plan and it gives the overall risk management process overview that how it will be implemented, how the activities will be carried out, who will be responsible for which activities and how will be the process evaluated for improvement purposes. The planned information is also passed on to data stores of Risk Profile and Risk Categories.
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In IPTV project the VRRM Process was planned along with the project team and responsible parties. Company-A considers Risk Management as an important factor to improve its business, products, services, solution and eventual satisfaction of the customers. As per Company-A risk management policy, the management aims to achieve best practices in managing all risks. To achieve this objective and aim, risk management standards involving risk identification and risk evaluation linked to practical and cost-effective risk control measures. All the planning was done by keeping in view the VRRM process model guidelines. The collected information was documented in “IPTV - Risk Management Plan”.
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In IPTV project a dedicated risk management team was established for execution and management of VRRM process model. After negotiations with Project Managers of both sides (Company-A and Telecom Company) the Risk Manager (Company-A) was heading the team of three members including the following individuals:
\n\t\t\t\t\t1. Software Engineer, Company-A
2. Manager B&CCS, Telecom Company
3. Manager Multimedia & Broadband, Telecom Company
Risk management team was properly trained for the execution and management of VRRM process model. In addition to the dedicated risk management team one of the authors was actively monitoring the whole process. All the necessary material resources were also provided to the subject team.
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The Risk management is a continuous process which requires risk awareness and proactive measures by all the resources and the partners who actively participate to eliminate the occurrence and impact of risk events.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn IPTV project, responsible parties for managing the risks were the Project Manager, Risk Management Team and the author himself. The management of both companies (Company-A & Telecom Company) was regularly evaluating and reviewing the measures for the best fit for achieving business objectives. Keeping in view the complexity lies in the volume and spread of geography, the team comprises of two members from Telecom Company for coordinating the risk management activities within itself.
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As mentioned above, at IPTV the risk management team was responsible to conduct the risk management along with the participation of one of the authors. The team was focusing on the implementation activities of risk management process and its monitoring and controlling. The risk management team worked in close coordination with project management team under the leadership of a dedicated Project Manager. Further, the Risk Manager was attending all the meetings with regards to the requirements and status reviews. Apart from the regular feedback, the project manager may ask for instant feedback as and when required depending upon the situation. The risk management team was also having a mandate to coordinate with all success critical stakeholders to ensure the effective mitigation of the risks. Risk information was regularly communicated among all relevant project members according to the schedule (time-periods) set by project manager and risk manager. The Risk Manager was also entrusted with the responsibility to disseminate the risk related information to all concerns. The risk management team ensured the effective management of data stores for VRRM Process Model. The risk mitigation strategies were formulated after deliberations and discussions among risk management team and with the help of executive management of Telecom Company and success critical stakeholders.
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Following scales and measures were used:
\n\t\t\t\t\t1. Likelihood of each risk item was assessed on scale of 1-10
2. Impact of each risk item was classified on scale of Low, Medium and High. In quantifiable terms it will be measured on the scale of 0-1 where “0 - 0.3 = Low, 0.4 – 0.6 = Medium and 0.7 – 1 = High”.
3. Magnitude of each risk item was calculated on basis of probability and impact.
4. Value assessment of requirements and risks from success critical stakeholder was done on the scale of 1-10 in all three perspectives of Technical, Organizational and People (TOP).
5. Net value was calculated by aggregating the value of all stakeholders.
6. Threshold for acceptance of risk item was decided to be 5. Only the risk entities with aggregate value greater than 5 (calculated on basis of magnitude and net stakeholder value), were accepted as risk and treatment activities were planned accordingly for them.
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The objectives for VRRM Process Model are to:
\n\t\t\t\t\t1. Identification of the risks and their mitigation in value based manner
2. The requirements and allied risks are valued by the success critical stakeholders instead of the project or risk management teams
3. The success critical stakeholders are valuing the identified alternate treatments for successful mitigation of the identified risks
4. The companies executing the projects are willing to employ the value based risk management process model to ensure successful delivery of the software projects
5. The development companies are more concerned about their processes related to the risk management
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The risk categories were defined as Product and Process risks as given in the description of VRRM Process Model. There were some other suggestions too but it looked feasible to categorize them in this manner as they can easily be mapped for requirements risks specifically to fulfill the mandatory requirements of VRRM Process Model. Focusing strictly on VRRM Process Model, the product risks include only the risks related to end-product itself and the process risks include all the other risks that are related to development process or team involved.
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Implementation of VRRM process requires the organization’s business objectives and organizational risk management policies to be documented during project planning phase. The implementation was done in continuous coordination with all project team members to keep low the chance of biasness. During the implementation process, all the artifacts were produced more or less according to the templates suggested by IEEE Standard for Risk Management (IEEE Std. 1540-2001) except for contingency plan as this Standard doesn’t provide any template specifically for contingency plan. The Standard template was used according to description given in VRRM Process.
\n\t\t\t\t\tA master list containing all risks “Risk List” is maintained throughout the lifecycles of project. The other artifacts of Risk Management Plan (RMP), Risk Assessment Register (RAR), Risk Treatment Plan (RTP) and Risk Contingency Plan (RCP) were produced during the process of risk management. These artifacts were updated continuously as new risks are uncovered and existing risks are mitigated or retired. During the implementation of VRRM Process Model, the data stores to be maintained are Risk policies, Risk Management Plan, Risk categories, Business Objective Document, Requirement Document, Risk Assessment Register, Value Assessment Register, Risk Treatment Register.
\n\t\t\t\t\tAll the above artifacts were developed. These data stores may contain the information and data from previous projects, if any. However, these data stores shall be empty in first implementation of VRRM process. These data stores shall provide a comprehensive repository for future implementations.
\n\t\t\t\tIn this activity group, risks were identified according to the companies’ risk management policies and risk management plans. As VRRM Process model does not recommend any specific technique for identification of risks, best practices from risk management literature (project information, brainstorming, interviews, analysis of historical data and cause & effect analysis) were used for risk identification. 24 risks were identified for IPTV project. The risk identification exercise was done by risk management teams in close coordination with one of the authors. All the information is recorded in the Risk Assessment Register.
\n\t\t\t\tRisk analysis is the third group of activity in the VRRM process model. It starts immediately after the identification of risks. The core activities of value-based requirements’ risk management process model belong to this activity group. During the risk analysis, the success critical stakeholders were involved actively as they assess the requirements’ and risk’s value for the acceptance of risk. The complete analysis process was performed as under:
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The categorization of risks into products and process risks is made for separate purposes. The process related risks will be helpful in the process evaluation and improvement which is an integral part of VRRM. Also, the risks related to products will lessen the chances of failure of delivered product. Jointly, these categories will be helpful in improving overall quality of the product and process ensuring successful product development in terms of cost, time, quality and value. Categorization of risks was done by risk management teams with consultation of relevant stakeholders. The information is recorded in the data stores of Risk Assessment Registers.
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Likelihood of the risk is its probability to occur during the project lifecycle and consequences is the expected impact of the risk, if it occurs. The values of Likelihood and consequences to the risks are assigned by risk management team in close coordination with project management team on the scales defined during the planning phase. Net magnitude is calculated by taking product of likelihood and consequences. This information is recorded in Risk Assessment Register data store.
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From this step to onward the core activities of VRRM Process model start. As VRRM process model deals only with requirements related risks, we need to clearly identify that what are the risk(s) associated with a particular requirement or vice versa. This association is done by risk management team by conducting in depth analysis and consultation with success critical stakeholders. In IPTV project this exercise was done in a very good manner because most of the success critical stakeholders were available for face to face meetings and a proper risk management tame was working for the coordination and management of the process. The results were recorded in Risk Assessment Register.
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At this stage, we need to identify that what are the business objectives which can be affected as a result of risk occurrence. All the risks are indirectly linked with the business objectives through means of requirements. Only those business objectives and requirements were recorded that have some risks associated with them. This exercise was also done by risk management team and Requirements Document and Business Objective Document were maintained for project.
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As VRRM process model brings the concept of value in risk management process and the values are assessed by success critical stakeholders. So, it is very much critical to identify success critical stakeholder in order to complete the process of VRRM. The Theory of Salience applied in order to identify the Success Critical Stakeholders in IPTV project. Only definitive and discretionary types of stakeholders are considered as success critical stakeholder and consulted for the process of valuation due to the possessed attributes of power and legitimacy. The identification and categorization of stakeholders was done by project management team in close coordination with risk management team and one of the authors. The following is the list of stakeholders.
\n\t\t\t\t\tStakeholders | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tType | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAttributes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Power | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLegitimacy | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUrgency | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Board Members | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDominant | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
President & Chief Executive Officer | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDominant | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Senior Executive Vice President (Finance) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (Finance) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (Revenue Accounts) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
General Manager (Revenues) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
General Manager (Cost Accounts) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Senior Executive Vice President (Commercial) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President Multimedia & Broadband | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Manager PMO Multimedia & Broadband | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Chief Information Officer | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (Information Systems) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
General Manager (Billing Solution) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
General Manager (Customer Care and Supported Solutions) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Senior Executive Vice President (Operations) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Senior Executive Vice President (Business Zones) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (Business Zone North) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (Special Projects) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (Business Zone Central) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (Business Zone North-II) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Regional General Manager (Central-I) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Regional General Manager (Central-II) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Senior Executive Vice President (Business Zone South) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (South) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Executive Vice President (West) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Regional General Manager(s) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Senior Member Advisory Team | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Member Advisory Team (Finance) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Member Advisory Team (Operations) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Member Advisory Team (Finance) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Member Advisory Team (Information Systems) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Member Advisory Team (Billing and Customer Care System) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Member Advisory Team (Multimedia and Broadband) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiscretionary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Company-A, Company-B | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Other solution providers | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDefinitive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Iptv - success critical stakeholders.
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As per VRRM Process Model, requirements’ value is assessed by success critical stakeholders in all three perspectives (Technical, Organizational & People). The stakeholders were given necessary overview and practice sessions prior to the execution value assessment exercise, in order to make the value assessments more appropriate. Net value for each requirement is calculated by aggregating the values of all success critical stakeholders. Subsequent to the requirements’ value assessment, risks’ values are also assessed in the same manner. The results of value assessment exercise are recorded in “Value Assessment Register”.
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The calculation of net value is done by risk management teams. In previous activity, values of requirements and their associated risks are assessed by success critical stakeholders and net values for requirements and risks are calculated separately for requirements and their associated risks. As per recommendation of VRRM process model, here both values are aggregated in order to get a single value for each requirement’s risk to evaluate them against the agreed threshold. The results are recorded in “Value Assessment Register”.
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During this step, net requirements’ risk values are evaluated against the agreed threshold of 5. In individual value assessment risk no. 5 and 18 of IPTV project were having values lower than the agreed threshold, hence; not qualifying for the treatments. But after aggregating the requirements’ value, the net value of both risks crossed the threshold level. As result of this activity all 24 risks were qualified for the treatment and their treatment planning was started.
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The commercial and operations departments were negotiated to provide the kind of contingency required for the mitigation of the risks.
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This activity is a simple re-order of the risks on the basis of calculated net requirement’s risk value. This was done by risk management team. Risk Assessment Registers was reordered accordingly.
\n\t\t\t\tAfter completion of the analysis stage, all the accepted risks were passed on to the treatment. In this group of activities, the mitigation strategies for the accepted risks were defined and executed in value based manner. This stage of implementation of VRRM process model is very crucial, as it needed too many resources and extra efforts to mitigate the risks before their occurrence. At this stage many problems were faced due to the reluctance of companies in putting extra human and material resources.
\n\t\t\t\t\tManagement was reluctant to put extra resources on the process but minimum required resources were provided by the company to mitigate the risks. The complete task of risk treatment was performed as under:
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Treatment alternatives for all risks were defined by risk management teams in close coordination with success critical stakeholders. The defined alternatives were then discussed with project management team for their consent. After approval and recommendation of project manager, the alternatives were presented to success critical stakeholders for value assessments. The identified treatment alternatives are recorded in “Risk Treatment Register”.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The measures for effectiveness are established in terms of reaching to logical conclusion of execution of selected treatments from the defined alternatives. It is notable that the alternates are valued by the success critical stakeholders and their priorities were defined accordingly.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Similar to the value assessment of requirements and risks during analysis activity, values of treatment alternatives were also assessed by success critical stakeholders in Technical, Organizational and People (TOP) perspectives. Same process of value assessment was followed. Interviews and meetings with success critical stakeholders were conducted, in order to complete the activity. Same scales and measures were used and results were recorded separately in Risk Treatment Registers.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Net values of treatment alternatives were calculated by aggregating the values of all success critical stakeholders for each treatment alternative. This exercise was done by risk management team at IPTV project. The results were recorded in Risk Treatment Register.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
This activity is simple comparison of net values of treatment alternatives against the threshold of 5 agreed during the planning activity. It was analyzed that more than one alternative for a risk were qualified for the treatment of risk. In that situation the matter was discussed with the project management team and success critical stakeholders and maximum valued treatment alternative was adopted and implemented for risk mitigation and treatment. However, all the results of evaluation were recorded in data store of Risk Treatment Register.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
This step is about planning for the treatment actions. In this activity, the steps for each selected treatment activity were defined and resources were planned for the implementation of to selected treatments. This activity was successfully performed by risk management team in coordination with the both project managers.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Implementation of treatment alternatives was found to be a difficult activity in the implementation of the VRRM process model. As this activity requires putting extra efforts and resources, the companies and the risk management teams were reluctant to perform this activity despite agreeing to it. Non cooperation and lukewarm gesture from management was observed during the execution of this activity.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe risks related to hardware sizing, integration with billing as one package and workflow for manual monitoring of new subscription cases were highlighted during early stage by the risk management team. Also, the alternate treatments were monitored rigorously for these risks in order to mitigate them. However, less importance were given by the TELECOM COMPANY for timely mitigation of these risks which resulted into their occurrence during transition phase. The business decisions were required with continuous will to execute mitigation strategies.
\n\t\t\t\tMonitoring of the VRRM process model was done on weekly basis. Regular meetings were conducted with risk and project management teams and status of each risk treatment was tracked and monitored in order to ensure the proper execution of the mitigation strategy. It was observed that some of the risks identified during the identification phase did not occur due to the timely execution of mitigation strategy. The effective monitoring was also useful in order to identify the residual risks and coming up new risks into the risk register.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The quality assurance team was involved in order to ensure the execution of each and every activity of VRRM Process Model with necessary order and process flow. The process execution was monitored for appropriate recording and updates in the artifacts and data stores.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The quality assurance team was having the mandate to monitor the activities in order to evaluate the risk management process on IPTV Project. The QA team engaged at various stages of execution of the VRRM Process model keeping in view the CMMI quality standards. The periodic reviews, meetings and interviews conducted to find out the variations from the VRRM process model. The variations were noted down and presented in the conclusion section along with the other results.
\n\t\t\t\tFollowing are the results of VRRM implementation.
\n\t\t\t\t\t1. The VRRM Process Model provides the improved risk management which is utmost important in terms of successful delivery of software projects.
2. The concept of success critical stakeholders to value the requirements were greatly welcomed on IPTV Project. In fact, the success critical stakeholders never took risk management for software projects in value based manner before this project.
3. The real problems were faced in creating the awareness regarding the value based risk management process.
4. The management was convinced to employ VRRM Process Model and dedicate their resources to participate in the activities of implementation process.
5. The people engaged in the implementation process were given formal training sessions.
6. It was observed that the software developers were having very little understanding about the general risk management process and especially for the concept of value in the overall software engineering.
7. The alternate treatments could not be executed for three risks in IPTV project despite repeated efforts due to cumbersome negotiations in terms of bringing the whole management to consensus.
The overall implementation of VRRM Process Model was successful as all potential risks were identified and analyzed during early stages of the project lifecycle and no surprises were recorded at later stages. However; some risks occurred due to the non implementation of the suggested treatment alternatives. This was lack of cooperation from top management rather than process failure. Table 2 presents the summary of the data recoded during the course of project.
\n\t\t\t\t\tItems | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNumber | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Identified Risks | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Process Related Risk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Product Related Risk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of Requirements related to Risks | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of Business Objectives Related to Requirements | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Total Success Critical Stakeholder | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t31 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Minimum Value assessed for a risk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Maximum Value assessed for risk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t7.19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Average Value assessed | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of risks qualified for treatment | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Total No of treatment alternatives identified | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of risks mitigated | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Risks occurred | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Overall success rate of Risk Management | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.50% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
VRRM Case Study Result Summary.
Value-based Requirements’ Risk Management Process Model brings the innovation to the traditional risk management process, by introducing the concept of value into it. The value based management of the risks is introduced in this process model at two stages. Firstly, the risks are selected and prioritized in a value-based manner by keeping in focus all success critical stakeholders during the analysis phase. Secondly, the treatment of risks is also made value-based. During the selection of treatment alternatives, success critical stakeholders are consulted for there assessment about the treatment alternatives so that treatments having high values should be executed.
\n\t\t\tIn the light of the feedback from VRRM implementation, we intend to further elaborate Monitoring and Control activity to make it more robust and having controls at each stage of the abstract level-1 of the VRRM Process Model. The connections of “Estimate Likelihood” and “Estimate Consequences” activities with other other activities of the process need to be updated to link them properly with other activities. These revisions shall be incorporated in next version of VRRM.
\n\t\t\tLack of management support for implementation of proper risk management (RM) is usually because of the effort and resources required by RM. VRRM process model consists of many activities. Different data stores and artifacts are also associated with different activities. VRRM implementers have to make certain decisions well. In future, we plan to develop an electronic process guide (EPG) for practitioners. EPG will not only guide the practitioners during VRRM implementation, it will also provide templates and samples of different artifacts required. Further, we also intend to launch a project to develop VRRM tool support. We will integrate EPG in the tool. Tool support will reduce the effort and resources required during VRRM implementation. Project data will be easily maintained in the tool and will be available for reference for future implementations. Successive implementations of VRRM by one company will yield useful historical data related to risk management.
\n\t\tVitamin A deficiency is almost non-existent in high-income country populations. Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) occurs in human populations of low- and middle-income countries and is associated with lack of dietary diversity, often associated with poverty. Staple food grains, such as rice, are readily available, easy to prepare and tasty, and an excellent source of energy, but polished white rice contains no micronutrients. Conversely, animal products (many of which contain vitamin A) and colored fruits and vegetables (which contain beta-carotene, which the human body converts to vitamin A) foods are expensive or unavailable.
From 1991 to 2013, the VAD rate among children in low- and middle-income countries declined from 39 to 29%, with notable improvements among children in East and Southeast Asia [1]. Children in sub-Saharan Africa and South and Southeast Asia continue to suffer disproportionately from VAD and its associated risks: infectious and diarrheal diseases, irreversible blindness and other sensory losses, and premature death [2, 3].
Golden Rice is any variety of rice containing the GR2E1 genetics [4]. In addition to the carbohydrate of white rice, Golden Rice also contains organically produced beta-carotene, imparting its color, which, following its consumption, the human body converts to vitamin A. The beta-carotene content is the only difference from white rice [5].
Beta-carotene is ubiquitous in nature—all colored plant parts contain it—and in a varied human diet. Vitamin A is not found in plants, but is present in animal products. Beta-carotene from food is non-toxic [6] and the human body excretes what it does not need. It is, therefore, impossible to induce vitamin A toxicity by consuming beta-carotene, so overdosing with Golden Rice is impossible [7].
On January 25, 2001 Professor Ingo Potrykus, one of the co-creators of Golden Rice, signed a license agreement with the Philippines Rice Research Institute (“Phil Rice”) to develop Golden Rice. Twenty years later, on July 21, 2021 Phil Rice received the Philippine Governments final regulatory clearance allowing cultivation and consumption of Golden Rice in the Philippines [8].
The causes of the long delay are described elsewhere [7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Undoubtedly, the delay has caused unnecessary human suffering and lost lives, mostly of young children and mothers.
The latest figures available estimate that of the world’s population about 2 billion people are macronutrient deficient, and about 800 million people suffer from “hidden hunger” another name for micronutrient deficiency [18]. Iron, vitamin A and zinc deficiencies are the most common micronutrient deficiencies. Folate deficiencies are also widespread. Where all these deficiencies occur is strongly correlated with the global burden of poverty and disease [19], and so the distribution of them is remarkably similar to the vitamin A deficiency map (Figure 1).
Public health importance for vitamin A deficiency, by country. Source [
For many years, VAD was principally associated with childhood blindness. During the early 1970s, programs of vitamin A supplementation were started in India, Indonesia and Bangladesh. In Indonesia, a development specialist with Helen Keller International noted that the true public health weight of the problem is obscured because its victims often die before they can be reported as blind [21]. Indonesian data analysis demonstrated that children with “mild” vitamin A deficiency were at a high risk of dying [22]. Subsequently, a series of seminal studies demonstrated that a universal source of vitamin A would save 23–34% of global under 5 years, child mortality [23, 24] and also, later, [2, 25, 26, 27].
These findings [23, 24] gave huge impetus to expanding vitamin A supplementation programs from the 1990s [28], which involved significant costs [29] and at the time was highly controversial [21]. The Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals made significant progress from the base year of 1990, including in combatting VAD, and with major advances in vitamin A supplementation, as well as vaccination programs against measles and other diseases, and improved sanitation and clean water access, in turn reducing diarrhea incidence.
Thus, from 1990 simultaneous progress was made in reducing VAD, thereby improving the immunity of populations of vulnerable children to common diseases, and at the same time reducing the incidence of those diseases.
Nevertheless, macronutrient deficiency is being reduced at a faster rate than micronutrient deficiency (Figure 2).
DALYs lost due to chronic hunger and hidden hunger between 1990 and 2010 (part of
If greater attention is not paid to reducing micronutrient deficiencies, they will have a bigger impact on productive human life than macronutrient deficiencies [7].
Bangladesh and the Philippines are so far the only two countries where regulatory applications been made to cultivate and consume GR. It is clear that progress in combatting VAD has been significant, a reduction from 23 to 34% of under-five child deaths in the 1990s to
In any event, a 2019 publication, reporting pre-Covid-19 pandemic data, determined that large-scale food fortification against VAD could protect nearly three million children annually [19].
In July 2021, Golden Rice was approved for cultivation and, previously for consumption, in the Philippines. Golden Rice is now awaiting final approval in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Rice Research Institute submitted an application for consumption and cultivation in Bangladesh in 2017, which has stalled in the Department of Environment [33]; hence, no regulatory decision has been taken.
It was estimated that 3.08% of children of the 14.3 million children under age 5 in Bangladesh will die in 2019 [34, 35]. Two percent of these deaths may be attributable to VAD [31], resulting in an estimated 8826 deaths in 2019. The modified version of Golden Rice was available in 2004, and regulatory delay is the main reason why only one country as of now, The Philippines, has approved Golden Rice for cultivation. Every year of delay of approval of Golden Rice may cause at least 8500 child deaths in Bangladesh. Ten years of delay will result in over 85,000 deaths, at least some of which might have been avoided.
A recent study has estimated that substituting Golden Rice for white rice could provide 57–99% and 89–113% and of the recommended vitamin A requirement for preschool children in the Philippines and Bangladesh, respectively [5]. Such a boost to dietary beta-carotene could do much to combat VAD and is highly sustainable especially when the Golden Rice is grown by the communities which need it.
Currently, Bangladesh spends annually between USD24 million and USD47 million (a 5–6 percent increase in the cost of rice at US$480–US$783 per metric ton), on chemically fortifying 1 million metric tonnes (4% of the country’s annual rice production) with at least vitamin A and zinc [36, 37]. This is sufficient rice to feed about 7% of Bangladesh’s population of 163 million people. The aim of the Bangladesh Department of Woman’s Affairs is to “make fortified rice available to all” [36]. The 2020 Bangladesh rice harvest was 25 million metric tonnes. The fortification program is presumably limited by the budget available.
Large-scale food fortification with chemicals represents an unusual confluence of commercial and public health interests, with useful focus on inputs and outcomes arising [19, 36, 38]. Similar focus needs to be applied to integrate public sector developed, and free, biofortified crops—conventionally bred and genetically engineered—for the same purpose, and integrates all approaches—chemical, biological, educational and cultural—to alleviate micronutrient deficiencies in populations, for least cost and maximum coverage.
In 2013, when the Bangladesh program started, there were no alternatives to industrial fortification with chemicals. Since then, high-zinc rices have been introduced by Bangladeshi rice breeders as part of the Harvest Plus program [39]. In November 2017, Golden Rice registration was applied for by the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) and they have been multiplying different varieties of Golden Rice seed since then. Adoption of both high-zinc rice and Golden Rice would reward Bangladesh science investment, save foreign exchange currently being spent on importing chemical fortificants, and allow the reach of biofortified rice to a greater proportion of Bangladesh society than the currently industrial fortification alone, which depends on distributive infrastructure.
The above can be achieved in steps; initially, the high-zinc rice varieties could be chemically fortified with vitamin A. Subsequently, now or after registration of Golden Rice, this and the high-zinc varieties could be introgressed (bred together) in two to three rice-growing seasons by Bangladesh’s public sector rice breeders. It is very curious to understand, in light of the Bangladesh regulatory data submitted for official consideration in November 2017, 47 months ago at the time of writing, why very few regulatory meetings have been called and no regulatory decision about Golden Rice has been taken. Particularly curious, in light of the recent Philippine cultivation decision (taken 10 months after data submission) when the agro-environmental conditions for rice cultivation are so similar between the two countries. (Governments have approved Golden Rice as safe for consumption in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Philippines and USA [40]. Cultivation permission has not been sought in these countries, except for the Philippines, where it has been granted.)
Registration of Golden Rice for cultivation in Bangladesh would allow a refocus of the huge cost of chemical fortification of rice (currently USD24–48 m annually to chemically fortify only 4% of Bangladesh’s rice production) by the Department of Women’s Affairs to allow a much greater proportion of Bangladesh’s population to be reached than will ever be possible if dependent on industrial fortification only. The Golden Rice option has zero cost increment, compared with white rice, to governments, growers or consumers.
What could be standing in the way of the Bangladesh’s National Committee on Biosafety under the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change, meeting and taking a positive decision, to benefit hugely VAD intervention in Bangladesh?
Delay is expensive: Delay of the use of Golden Rice in India cost USD199 per annum for the decade preceding 2014 [41, 42]. Even if all 25 million metric tonnes of Bangladesh’s 2020 rice production were Golden Rice, the extra beta-carotene nutrition is free, saving a large proportion of USD600 million to USD1.17 billion if the same was achieved by chemical fortification with zinc and vitamin A. In practical terms, it appears that the Bangladesh Governments objective “to make fortified rice available to all” is unobtainable without fully embracing the results of the work of the Bangladesh governments own rice breeders, in producing high zinc as well as Golden Rice varieties.
Chemical food fortification has been used to combat micronutrient deficiencies for 100 years in high-income countries and there are good data on positive impact. Conversely, there are few data, except for iodine fortification, concerning large-scale food fortification (LSFF) with vitamin A, iodine, iron and folic acid in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), but what data there are is positive [19].
LSFF, with chemicals, is especially useful in LMIC where micronutrient deficiency is evidenced at a population level, and where rapid urbanization is accompanied by increased household purchasing power, leading to reliance on centrally processed foods [19]. One of the complex of issues in such settings, however, is to ensure that chemical fortification of different processed foods does not result in excessive intake, resulting in delivery of a tolerable upper intake level for the population (which is acceptable) and not toxicity (which is unacceptable) [19].
The Golden Rice project has been designed from its initiation principally to assist resource-poor growers and communities who do not rely on processed foods, but largely grow their own. And that remains the objective. Regarding toxicity, Golden Rice provides beta-carotene a non-toxic source of vitamin A, and not vitamin A itself (which is toxic when consumed in excess.)
A 1992 UN Conference on Nutrition confirmed that for VAD alleviation, locally available food-based strategies are the first priority, with vitamin A capsules only an interim measure [43]. However, the bioavailability of beta-carotene from commonly available fruits and vegetables is very low. Even when they are available, a young child between ages 1 year and 3 would need to eat eight servings of dark green leafy vegetables per day in order to meet the Recommended Dietary Allowance for vitamin A. This results in “the virtual impossibility for most poor, young children to meet their vitamin A requirements through vegetable and fruit intake alone” [21]. The low bioavailability of vitamin A from plant foods explains, in part, the presence of vitamin A deficiency among children living amid ample supplies of dark green leafy vegetables and other plant sources of vitamin A [21]. Conversely, a recent study has estimated that substituting Golden Rice for white rice could provide 57–99% and 89–113% of the recommended vitamin A requirement for preschool children in the Philippines and Bangladesh, respectively [5]. Such a boost to dietary beta-carotene could do much to combat VAD and is highly sustainable.
A perfect food fortificant has been described [21] as one which exhibits the following characteristics:
It must be a dietary staple eaten daily, with little or no variation.
The fortified food must reach the whole population.
There must be minimal effect on the cost of the staple food.
The micronutrient must be chemically stable.
The micronutrient must be undetectable by the consumers.
Golden Rice, being consumed as a staple food, matches the requirements perfectly, except for the color imparted by the beta-carotene content.
However, the golden color imparts advantages. Golden Rice is easily recognizable, so consumers—even illiterate consumers—can exercise choice. And the color is also advantageous for government programs: Each grain is naturally labeled, so “passing off”2 as biofortified rice is not possible. With the golden color as a marker, Golden Rice can also be used—after the traits are introgressed (e.g., bred together into one variety) as a carrier for invisible micronutrient traits of rice, such as high zinc, high iron and high folate (the natural form of the folic acid used for chemical food fortification.)
Multifunctional cooperation, including between different government departments not used to working together, will be beneficial for effective use of Golden Rice [44]. (This is also the case for LSFF with chemicals [19].)
Within this requirement for multifunctional cooperation, there is clearly a role for synergistic reinforcement of what may be termed urban and rural improvement of staple foods with additional micronutrients. Social marketing research has determined that consumers of rice growing communities are interested to try Golden Rice if they can afford it and if it is good for their family’s health [45], both being applicable to Golden Rice. However, although a small cultural change, changing from eating white rice to Golden Rice, even partially, is significant and will benefit from encouragement. There is an additional challenge to be overcome. The agronomic characteristics, such as yield, pest resistance and days to maturation, of any variety of Golden Rice are determined by the isogenic variety the beta-carotene-generating genetics have been bred into. So, there is little, except consumer demand, to encourage a grower to plant Golden Rice seed, rather than the isogenic variety. Demand may arise from the local community, if they know of the potential health benefits.
Another, more concrete demand generation, requiring cooperation between sectors, is for Government departments responsible for providing biofortified rice to urban populations to establish and communicate a buying price for Golden Rice sufficient to encourage growers to grow Golden Rice.
Another attractive program of demand generation is for school feeding programs to specify that Golden Rice must be used: simultaneously creating demand so that growers grow Golden Rice, children benefit from it nutritionally and learn about it, and inform their parents of it, generating demand also at home.
Such programs can assist Golden Rice’s adoption in rural areas, as well as in urban areas, and save money compared with alternatives, at the same time as transferring wealth to growers for productive work. Such programs require cooperation between agriculture, education, women and children’s affairs and public health functions of government with their own accountabilities, and should not be held back by narrow, unsubstantiated technology suspicions, which have been disproved [46, 47, 48] or for any other reason: the available health, welfare and economic benefits are too great.
Large-scale food fortification against VAD could protect nearly three million children annually by only a minimal 0.5% reduction in VAD prevalence, in a little over a year, “an effect that, importantly, would plausibly be compounded with increasing program maturity, and better intervention coverage and reach” [19].
Vitamin A capsules are only recommended for children of 6 months and older [49], and very young children do not consume solid food. These children are the most vulnerable to vitamin A deficiency: Neonate deaths in 2011 accounted for 43 percent (increased from 36 percent in 1990) of all deaths among under 5-year-olds [50]. Can a good source of vitamin A, such as Golden Rice, when part of the staple diet, improve the mother’s vitamin A status, benefiting her health, and simultaneously
For the first time since the UN’s International Conference on Nutrition three decades ago [43], there is a beta-carotene-rich staple food—Golden Rice—with excellent bioavailability [51], and at no greater cost than white rice, capable of delivering a significant improvement, 57–99% and 89–113% of the recommended vitamin A requirement for preschool children in the Philippines and Bangladesh, respectively, when substituted for white rice [5]. Even partial substitution, for example, through school lunches, would contribute positively to health outcomes, especially for children from more disadvantaged households.
The discovery of the huge hidden mortality due to VAD, from the 1990s, focused the attention of international communities, and national governments, on the excellent cost benefit of avoiding the preventable deaths and other morbidities associated with the deficiency. This included UN meetings in 1990, 1992 and 2004 [43, 52, 53], as well as prominence in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 1990–20153. The huge benefit of addressing micronutrient deficiencies, compared with costs involved, was also endorsed by four rounds of the Copenhagen Consensus [54, 55, 56, 57]. Good progress was made, although several MDG goals were missed [28]. The direction has been maintained by the sustainable development goals (SDGs) 2015–2030: It has been argued that staple biofortification with micronutrients can benefit SDGs: 1 (no poverty), 2 (zero hunger), 3 (good health), 4 (quality education), 5 (gender equality), and 7 (decent work and economic growth) [7].
Given the progress achieved in combatting VAD reducing from in excess of 23–34% of child mortality (“in excess of” because these are global percentages but VAD does not occur in industrialized countries) to circa 2% in Bangladesh and the Philippines, it is perhaps unsurprising that relatively little attention is given to VAD caused mortality currently. Much of the reduction is due to annual cycles of costly vaccination programs, including against measles, and expensive vitamin A supplementation, and community health and education as well as general economic development together allowing more food security. However, the sustainability of the reduction in VAD has to be questionable when it requires repeat annual expenditures on materials and labor. Additionally, vitamin A supplementation is not only about preventing mortality [58].
The year before the Covid-19 pandemic struck in Bangladesh and the Philippines was probably the year when child mortality due to VAD was at its lowest, as a result of the community health programs in place. Nevertheless, in 2019 nearly 15,000 children died from VAD-related illness (Table 1).
Bangladesh | Philippines | Source | |
---|---|---|---|
Number of children age 5 years and under (millions) | 14.3 | 10.6 | UNICEF [34] & PSA [59] |
Child mortality rate under age 5 years (per 1000) | 30.8 | 27.3 | UNICEF [60, 61] |
Child mortality under age 5 years | 441,302 | 301,256 | Calculated from above |
VAD-attributed deaths in 2013 (% of child deaths) | 2.0 | 1.8 | Stevens et al., supplementary information [31] |
Estimated VAD-related child mortality cases in 2019 | 8826 | 5886 | Calculated from above |
Statistics on vitamin a deficiency (VAD) among children age 5 years and under, and child mortality in Bangladesh and the Philippines in 2019.
Table 1 provides estimates of VAD, and all-cause and VAD-related mortality rates, among children age 5 years and under in Bangladesh and the Philippines in 2019. Despite a decrease in VAD in some parts of the world [31], child VAD rates in both Bangladesh and the Philippines remain high, leading to preventable mortalities due to diarrheal and infectious diseases, among other sequelae. Hence, despite VAD interventions such as food fortification and vitamin A supplementation, additional public health interventions to combat VAD are needed, even in normal, pre-pandemic, circumstances. We estimate that in 2019, VAD led to 8826 preventable deaths in Bangladesh and 5886 preventable deaths in the Philippines of children age five and under a total of 14,712.
For comparison, all ages COVID-19 deaths in calendar year 2020 in these two countries are recorded as nearly 19,000 (Bangladesh: 8127 and Philippines: 10,749) [62].
Thus, the scale of annual child deaths from VAD, pre-pandemic in 2019 and all-ages deaths from COVID-19 in 2020, the first calendar year of the pandemic, are of the same order of magnitude.
Even, at the time of writing4, in the two countries, the cumulative total of Covid-19 all-age deaths 41,585 (the Philippines), and 27,814 (Bangladesh), in total 69,299, is of the same order of magnitude as VAD child-deaths circa 19,000 pre-pandemic in 2019 [63].
Each death, from whatever cause is a family tragedy. And all these numbers are a vulnerable to reporting errors and therefore approximate. What is important it that whereas no political interest was expressed in the 2019 VAD deaths, all politicians in both countries, as in all other countries in the world, were totally focused on Covid-19, and all economies of the world were brought to a stop by the arrival of the pandemic.
The Covid-19 pandemic has, severely, impacted the social structure and economies of all countries, including, directly and indirectly, low- and middle-income nations. In stark contrast to the global media interest in Covid-19 in all countries, the VAD deaths, which only occur in developing countries, have been seldom reported for the previous 30 years and were probably the lowest ever in 2019, pre-pandemic.
Regretfully, the Covid-19 pandemic has increased poverty and increased food insecurity through job losses and food price increases [64, 65]. Covid-19 has also decreased the effectiveness of community health programs, including reducing dramatically the number of measle vaccinations [66, 67]. It is to be expected that vitamin A supplementation programs have also been negatively affected: they often share resources with measle vaccination programs. Indeed, in 2020, in the first year of the Covid-19 pandemic, despite the potential benefits of this key child survival intervention, vitamin A supplementation programs only reached 41% of the target child population globally, and below 50% in all regions [68], compared with much higher coverage previously: circa 70% [69] to higher than 90% [68].
Often food price shocks lead to social instability, including riots, in LMICs [70] where food costs can be as high as 70% of family income. Such effects would further exacerbate delivery of community health programs.
As a result of the Covid-19-induced disruption of health service provision in South Asia, child mortality could potentially increase by 18–40% and maternal mortality by 14–52% over the next year [71]. Globally, the effect will be an additional 1,157,000 child deaths, and 12,200–56,700 maternal deaths [71]. As an indirect result of the pandemic, a reversal of the progress against the Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals from 1990 to 2019 reported above is to be expected.
Pre-Covid from the 1990s, simultaneous progress was made in reducing VAD, thereby improving the immunity of populations of vulnerable children to common diseases, and at the same time reducing the incidence of those diseases.
Post-Covid from 2020, simultaneously the immunity of populations of vulnerable children to common diseases could well decrease, at the same time as the incidence of those diseases increases.
Thus, it is likely VAD child deaths will increase, in Bangladesh and the Philippines only, as a result of Covid-19-induced conditions, from 2% of all <5-y child deaths (~15,000 annually) in the direction of the previously normal 23–34% of all <5-y child deaths (170,000–250,000 annually).
We cannot know how long these second-order effects of the Covid-19 pandemic will continue, so cannot know how bad it will get. At the time of writing, 12.43% of the Bangladesh population are fully vaccinated against SARS-Cov-2 and 23.22% of the Philippine population [63], which are not indicative of a rapid return to pre-Covid normality. The VAD death figures could be even more startlingly bad if the post-Covid annual all causes child deaths in these two countries increases from the 2019 figure of 742,558 (Table 1).
The sustainability of VAD mitigation would be increased, and the dangers of the explosion of VAD child deaths could be significantly avoided if effective interventions appropriate to the current circumstances are quickly adopted in all relevant countries.
Practically speaking, Golden Rice is an excellent fit to the circumstances and is available.
The creation of what became known as Golden Rice was announced by Ingo Potrykus at the XVI International Botanical Congress in St. Louis in early August 1999, a very large meeting involving 20,000 room nights and 4700 delegates from 85 countries [72], and published in “Science” in January 14, 2000 [73]. Golden Rice was widely reported, including on the front covers of the American and Asian (but not European) editions of Time Magazine on July 31, 2000.
The Second CGIAR-wide conference on Nutrition was held at the International Rice Research Institute in October 1999, organized by Howarth Bouis. On January 1, 2000 “Food and Nutrition Bulletin” (“intended for healthcare professionals”) published 41 papers of this conference: “Improving human nutrition through agriculture: the role of international agricultural research”, many of them anticipating feeding trials to be started soon [74].
The conference summary and recommendations were written by Dr. Bouis, subsequently Director, and then Emeritus Fellow, of Harvest Plus and a World Food Prize Laureate 2016. In his Abstract of the conference proceedings, Dr. Bouis recorded “The need for a shift in emphasis from protein-energy malnutrition to micronutrient malnutrition was recognized” [75].
The summary included comments by the then First Lady of the Philippines (a medical doctor), reporting her, and President Estrada’s commitment to medical and relief missions, particularly to poor communities that are not reached by regular public health and medical centers. The “Wheat flour Fortification with vitamin A Project” was one of the first major activities of the Estrada administration in its first 100 days. She encouraged the development of more nutrient-dense crops especially rice, corn and root crops. She also encouraged the production of micronutrient-rich food products, including livestock, poultry, fish and certain vegetables and fruits, especially those that can be easily raised in backyards and community gardens [75].
Also included in the summary were comments by Muhiuddin Khan Alamgir, the then State Minister for Planning, Bangladesh. He commented that Bangladesh’s Constitution recognizes “raising the level of nutrition and improvement of public health” as “among primary duties” of the state. He called for improvement in food grain quality and listed genetic engineering and technology as of special importance [75].
In 2002, the term “Biofortification” was first used [76] and in 2004, it was first defined as “a word coined to refer to increasing the bioavailable micronutrient content of food crops through genetic selection via plant breeding” [77]. In the 2004 paper, it is made clear that the human nutrition definition of “micronutrients” will apply encompassing both minerals and vitamins.
Incidentally, in crop breeding for minerals such as “high iron” or “high-zinc” varieties, what is selected are plants that have the capacity to accumulate these minerals from suitable soils. The crop varieties cannot synthesize the minerals. In the case of Golden Rice, beta-carotene is organically synthesized within the plant, independent of the soil type. The same is true of folate rice [78].
It is clear that a lot of thinking was being applied to nutritional improvement of crops at the beginning of this century, and the high public profile of Golden Rice put staple crop biofortification with micronutrients on the donor map in 2000. Harvest Plus, starting in 2003, has now tested or released 400 biofortified staple crop varieties in 63 countries as a result. They are being grown by more than 10 million households globally [79]. All have been produced through conventional, selective breeding improving existing crop varieties.
For those crops where conventional breeding cannot biofortify sufficiently, genetic engineering is necessary, and progress has been slower. Not only Golden Rice, but GMO-biofortified rice with iron and zinc [80], and with folate [78] (eventually it is hoped they will be combined in one multi-biofortified Golden Rice). In 2005, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation created Grand Challenge #9 and, following competitive grant allocation, funded further research into genetically engineered biofortified rice (with Peter Beyer—Golden Rice’s co-creator—as Principal Investigator) as well as genetically engineered biofortified plantain/banana and cassava, and sorghum. All or some will be successfully and beneficially adopted with huge welfare and economic benefits to poor societies.
All of the successes of Harvest Plus are with single nutrients in each case—all so far conventionally bred. In the case of iron and zinc, biofortification of rice Harvest Plus has found that genetic engineering can achieve levels unattainable by conventional breeding [80]. As proposed above already for Bangladesh, the combination of delivery mechanisms—conventional and existing transgenic crops being conventionally bred together—can quite easily produce, for example, “High Zinc Golden Rice” identified by its color.
Genetic engineering can also produce combination traits: rice with beta-carotene, and simultaneously, the ability to accumulate high iron and high zinc has been developed experimentally [81]. However, with current regulatory constraints and costs it would be preferable to first register and then introgress, the different traits individually.
Gene editing has been used to construct beta-carotene rice [82], but as the construct introduced foreign genes, it was anyway a “GMO.” As Beyer and Potrykus have commented, gene editing may be useful to delete function in crop plants, but with current levels of genetic knowledge, to add function requires adding genes, which makes GMO crops [83], with associated regulatory challenges under current rules.
The safety for consumption of Golden Rice has been confirmed by the regulatory authorities of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Philippines and the USA [40]. That cultivation is also safe has received official endorsement by regulators in the Philippines. On a separate occasion, the Philippine Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. William D Dar said of Golden Rice: “It smells and tastes the same as ordinary rice, except it is colored yellow. But I will choose ‘Golden Rice’ over white rice, because it has more health benefits.” The Golden Rice-tasting event was part of the inauguration of the Philippines Department of Agriculture Crops and Biotechnology Center, and launch of Golden Rice, on September 30, 2021 ([84], Video 1). In an accompanying press release, Dr. Dar commented that “The recent
GMO-produced insulin was commercialized from 1979 with no opposition, and genetic modification techniques are commonly employed in discovery and manufacture of pharmaceuticals, and beer, wine, cheese and bread are manufactured using genetically modified enzymes. Hundreds of millions of people in the United States and elsewhere and billions of farm animals have been consuming since 1997 products from genetically modified crops using the same techniques employed by Beyer and Potrykus to create Golden Rice. The European production of pork and chicken, the whole market in Europe, would collapse if it were not for imported GMO-maize and GMO-soy meal. Imported because, with very small exceptions, the Europeans will not allow cultivation. Yet, not a single case of any disease or other difficulty associated with genetically modified crops has been verifiably recorded in any human or other animal.
Every single academy of science in the world has attested to the fact that there is no scientifically valid reason for assuming that GMOs could cause harm [47]. Additionally, the European Food Safety Authority, stated, in 2010, that “The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than, for example, conventional plant breeding technologies” [86].
The technology—of conventionally bred as well as genetically engineered biofortified crops—is in the seed and breeds true season to season. The biofortified traits are only introduced into modern, high-yielding crop varieties and can be easily transferred by plant breeders to new varieties as they become popular.
It is time to embrace all available tools, both forms of biofortification as well as chemical fortification, to improve the nutritional quality of staple foods by the incorporation of micronutrients, together with the macronutrients that have been the focus of plant breeding for the previous millennia since humans stopped being hunter gatherers.
These tools are complementary to other public health interventions, education, vaccination, supplementation, home gardens, breast feeding and economic development all important to population welfare.
Not only are all these tools required. Also required are all functions of the private, public, NGO and especially government sectors, working across silos of expertise to support each other’s objective of improving societal public health.
Other countries should follow the Philippines example. Bangladesh is poised to do so. India has a huge VAD problem [2], equivalent to the total of the VAD of the 28 sub-Saharan African countries [21]. India has been held back from vitamin A supplementation, because “the issue of vitamin A has commercial overtones”: “[W]e must look to our farmers, not to pharmaceutical companies, to protect the health of our children. The main solution to vitamin A deficiency should not be drug-based, but food-based.” [21].
Golden Rice is “food based” and there are no “commercial overtones.” Golden Rice does depend on farmers, first and foremost to grow it before it can be consumed, especially by their communities, as an additional intervention for vitamin A deficiency.
All the biofortification tools, and related biofortified crops described here and developed by the public sector are available without cost for use of governments, growers and consumers, as by the time of introduction the development costs have been paid.
On World Food Day, October 16, 2020—during the Covid-19 pandemic—Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi gave a strong endorsement to staple crop biofortification as a sustainable and cost-effective solution to alleviate malnutrition [87].
The World Bank has recommended that micronutrient biofortification of staple crops, including specifically Golden Rice, should be the norm and not the exception in crop breeding [88].
The movement to common sense and reality has now become unstoppable.
In the 1990’s, when vitamin A deficiency’s importance was recognized not only as the principal cause of irreversible blindness in children, but also the principal cause of child mortality, VAD killed in excess of 2.0 million young children and mothers annually. At that time, VAD was responsible for between 23 and 34% of all deaths of young children globally (and a greater proportion in developing countries), and a greater cause of mortality globally than HIV or TB or Malaria [7].
A combination of successful community health programs, including vaccinations and vitamin A supplementation, as well as economic development resulting
The Covid pandemic, which started in 2020, has reversed the progress of community health programs achieved during the past three decades. Covid has also increased food insecurity. We cannot know for how long these conditions will last. There is an acute danger that they will result also in a reversal of VAD induced mortality from circa 2% toward in excess of 23–34% of child deaths in all LMICs.
In Bangladesh and the Philippines, in 2020 the first year of the pandemic, Covid killed as many people as VAD killed children only, in the previous year, 2019. Yet far greater attention was paid to Covid’s arrival than children’s deaths from VAD, which had been continuing for decades. It is long past time to pay more attention to alleviating VAD.
In 2021, for the first time since the 1992 UN International Conference on Nutrition, which recommended locally available food-based strategies are the first priority to combat vitamin A deficiency, such a staple food source with sufficient quantity and bioavailability of beta-carotene (a human source of vitamin A) is available: Golden Rice.
Golden Rice has been proven as safe to consume by Government regulators of four high-income countries and as safe to consume and cultivate in the Philippines. In only one other country has registration for Golden Rice on the same basis as in the Philippines been applied for, in late 2017, and with, at the time of writing5, no regulatory decision: Bangladesh.
As the technology is in the seed, Golden Rice adoption requires no use of foreign exchange or industrial infrastructure. It is designed to be useful to resource poor rural communities that grow their own rice staple for consumption. And governments can pay growers to grow the Golden Rice supply necessary for urban use. The color of Golden Rice reduces the opportunities for “passing off” of normal white rice, as micronutrient-fortified rice. And Golden Rice introgressed with, for example, high-zinc and or high-iron rice and or folate rice, using conventional plant breeding will be a multi-micronutrient rice and a golden color.
All departments of government have a responsibility to work together, also with those supranational institutions supporting government public health programs, to use newly available Golden Rice.
There is a huge potential for saving lives and money—multi-millions of US dollars annually—by adopting Golden Rice, not only in the Philippines, but also Bangladesh and other countries where VAD continues to be problematic.
What support is available to countries which are interested in introducing Golden Rice as an additional intervention for vitamin A deficiency?
Especially as most rice is consumed close to where it is grown, and Golden Rice will cost no more than white rice, Golden Rice should be increasingly useful, including in post pandemic circumstances, as an additional intervention to combat VAD, in all countries where rice is the staple crop of the resource poor and VAD endemic.
For such countries, and where a public sector rice breeding institute is available (in the country or a neighbouring country) to introgress the GR2E transformation event into locally adapted and preferred rice varieties, the following is required and available without cost:
A Golden Rice license defining responsibilities and obligations, for humanitarian development of the technology in locally adapted and preferred rice varieties, including the obligation not to charge for the extra beta-carotene in Golden Rice.
Breeding parent physical rice seed containing the GR2E trait from another Golden Rice Licensee.
Advice on establishing analytical procedures for monitoring the progress of the introgression of GR2E trait.
Membership of the Golden Rice licensee network for ongoing support.
The regulatory data package for event GR2E. Locally generated environmental impact data may be required, or regulators may agree to use data from a similar agro-ecological habitat. (The ‘food, feed and processing’ data package alone developed for Golden Rice GR2E is extensive, 42 megabytes of data). In due course, these regulatory studies may be published, as for example in a series of papers with Golden Rice data [5, 89, 90, 91].
Most countries make their regulatory deliberations and decisions publicly available, for example Australia and New Zealand, Canada and USA. Included in this openness are inputs from the various Government department involved, including in the Philippines.
It is a pity that In the case of Golden Rice this is all necessary even though the only difference in comparison with white rice is that the normally white endosperm, contains beta-carotene [5], a source of vitamin A for the human body [51].
Finance is not available, and must be sought by the potential new, or new licensee from normal sources.
It is normally a requirement that a Golden Rice licensee country has relevant laws in place governing the development and deployment of transgenic crops. If this is not the case, nevertheless discussion is encouraged.
It is to be expected that national rice breeding institutions can introgress the GR2E beta-carotene inducing trait into any public sector owned rice variety, within 2 to 4 growing seasons taking perhaps two or three years.
Other crops than rice, are also potentially able to benefit from the same technology to introduce beta-carotene synthesis to the edible parts. (Peter Beyer has already advised on this for a number of crops.)
https://www.facebook.com/DAPhilRice/videos/6274026146003384/
(You can skip to minute 3:08 to see the dignitaries and congresspersons eating Golden Rice and the Philippine Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. William Dar, saying Golden Rice should be favored over white rice. Or look at 2:02 for Philippines President Duterte’s address in favor of agricultural biotechnology.)
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Various technical variants of this test can detect antigen (native or foreign) or antibody, determine the intensity of the immune response whether pathological or not; the type of induced immune response as well as the innate immunity potential; and much more. These capabilities, as well as the high sensitivity and robustness of the test and a small price, make it possible to quickly and reliably diagnose diseases in most laboratories. Besides, ELISA is a test that is also used in veterinary medicine, toxicology, allergology, food industry, etc. Despite the fact that it has existed for almost 50 years, different ELISA tests with different technical solutions are still being developed, which improves and expands the application of the this exceptional test. The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. We expect that this review will provide guidance to clinicians with findings and laboratory tests that can be followed from the initial stage in the anemia search.",book:{id:"5942",slug:"current-topics-in-anemia",title:"Current Topics in Anemia",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Anemia"},signatures:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez and Abdullah Tuli",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"209103",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"33133",title:"Waist Circumference in Children and Adolescents from Different Ethnicities",slug:"waist-circumference-in-children-and-adolescents-from-different-ethnicities",totalDownloads:8023,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"642",slug:"childhood-obesity",title:"Childhood Obesity",fullTitle:"Childhood Obesity"},signatures:"Peter Schwandt and Gerda-Maria Haas",authors:[{id:"29867",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Schwandt",slug:"peter-schwandt",fullName:"Peter Schwandt"}]},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6182,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. Appropriate research design is required not only to achieve valid desired outcome but also to minimize the use of resources, including time to outcome and intervention. This chapter outlines basics of Escherichia coli isolation and characterization strategies that can assist in research designing that matches the set objectives. Types of samples to be collected, collection and storage strategies, and processing of samples are described. Different approaches to isolation, confirmation and concentration of various E. coli strains are summarized in this chapter. Characterization and typing of E. coli isolates by biochemical, serological, and molecular methods have been explained so that an appropriate choice is made to suite a specific E. coli strain/pathotype. Some clues on sample and isolate preservation for future use are outlined, and general precautions regarding E. coli handling are also presented to the researcher to avoid improper planning and execution of E. coli-related research. 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A pregnant woman has an increased risk (up to four times) of getting malaria and twice the chances of dying from malaria, compared to a non‐pregnant adult, becuase the immune system is partially suppressed during pregnancy. Malaria in pregnancy not only affects the mother but also has a dangerous sequel for the developing foetus, resulting in premature delivery or intrauterine growth retardation. Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy remains a challenge due to the low parasite density and placental sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, there is an urgent need for new diagnostic methods to detect malarial parasites in the pregnant women. Though antimalarial drugs are available, which can be safely given in the pregnancy, increasing drug resistance of malarial parasite may pose a big problem in the future. In this chapter, we review the burden of pregnancy‐associated malaria (PAM), its pathogenesis, diagnostic issues during pregnancy and recent guidelines for chemoprophylaxsis and treatment.",book:{id:"5270",slug:"current-topics-in-malaria",title:"Current Topics in Malaria",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Malaria"},signatures:"Kapil Goyal, Alka Sehgal, Chander S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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