Comparison of average lateral resolution and surface roughness of AM technologies for polymers and of soft lithography.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",keywords:"Water Budget, Ground Measurement, Satellite Data, Empirical Models, Physical Models, Data-Driven Models, Artificial Neural Network, Neuro-Fuzzy Systems, Genetic Programming, Irrigation Management, Drought, Aquifer Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in developing hydrological models using adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems, a pioneering researcher in tropical biofiltration systems, appointed head of the Civil Engineering Discipline in Monash University Malaysia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335732/images/system/335732.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amin Talei joined Monash University Malaysia in January 2013 and currently is the head of Civil Engineering discipline. His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. He has absorbed over AUD370,000 research funding from industry and international/national funding agencies since 2014 and is a chartered professional engineer of the Engineers Australia.",institutionString:"Monash University Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61889",title:"Stereolithography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78147",slug:"stereolithography",body:'\nAs the oldest additive manufacturing (AM) technology, stereolithography (SLA) was first developed by Dr. Hideo Kodama in 1981. He saw it as a fast and low-cost method of reconstructing models in 3D space as an alternative to holographic techniques [1]. The first commercially available SLA printer was patented in 1986 by Charles W. Hull, who founded 3D Systems Inc. Their aim was to facilitate rapid prototyping of plastic parts [2]. With the development of a variety of processes, SLA has far surpassed its initial applications in modeling and prototyping and can be utilized to manufacture highly complex and individually designed geometries. The material is also no longer limited to conventional polymers, but the fabrication of composites [3] and even metallic [4] or ceramic [5] specimens is possible. However, to date, SLA is only being utilized to structure one material at a time, and when comparing to other additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, typical SLA processes exhibit superior resolution and better surface qualities (see Table 1) but at slower printing times and higher cost.
\n\n | Resolution (μm) | \nSurface roughness (μm) | \nSources | \n
---|---|---|---|
SLA | \n10–150 | \n0.38–0.61 | \n[6, 7, 8] | \n
Material jetting | \n25–100 | \n0.47–8.44 | \n[6, 9] | \n
Material extrusion | \n100–400 | \n3.24–42.97 | \n[6, 9] | \n
Powder bed fusion | \n50–100 | \n17–105 | \n[7, 10] | \n
Soft lithography | \n<0.01 | \n<0.001 | \n[9, 11] | \n
Comparison of average lateral resolution and surface roughness of AM technologies for polymers and of soft lithography.
While soft lithography is not an AM technology, it merits mentioning as a competing method due to its superior resolution to most SLA systems. It utilizes elastomeric stamps or molds to fabricate 3D structures and consequently does not have the characteristic advantages of 3D printing such as the ability of direct and rapid fabrication from a computer-aided design (CAD) model [12]. Nevertheless, it is often employed as an alternative to SLA in for example microfluidic applications [6].
\nSLA is a vat polymerization method [13], where layers of the liquid precursor in a vat are sequentially exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light and thereby selectively solidified. A photoinitiator (PI) molecule in the resin responds to incoming light and upon irradiation, locally activates the chemical polymerization reaction, which leads to curing only in the exposed areas. After developing the first layer in that manner, a fresh resin film is applied, irradiated, and cured. Thus, the part incrementally grows layer-after-layer [1]. This principle spans all SLA processes, which can be classified according to the direction of incident light or irradiation method, see Figure 1.
\nClassification of SLA according to irradiation method (left) and direction of incident light (right).
The required light for solidification of the resin can be applied in two distinct manners; either from above in the free surface approach, or from below through a transparent vat in the constrained surface approach. Irradiation can either be implemented by scanning of each point of the desired cross-section with a laser in laser-SLA or by projecting the entire pixelated image onto the layer in digital light processing (DLP) SLA. A more uncommon method is illumination through an liquid crystal display (LCD) photomask.
\nThese systems and some of their adaptations will be explained in detail in the following sections.
\nIn the free surface approach, the building platform on which the printed part grows is situated in a tank of resin and coated with a liquid resin film. Illumination of the desired cross-section, which happens from above the resin bath, cures the first layer. After each layer, the platform with the growing part (i.e. the z-stage), is lowered further into the tank, and new resin is coated on top with a mechanical sweeper. This sets the stage for the subsequent layer [14].
\nThe constrained surface approach or bottom-exposure approach has a building platform, which can be suspended above the resin bath. Illumination from below, through the transparent floor, cures a layer of resin between building platform and vat floor. This layer adheres to the platform, as the z-stage is raised by a defined distance. As each layer is cured, the building platform with the adhered part is elevated, and the part grows suspended from the platform downward [6]. As with the free surface setup, support structures made from the same printing material are needed in case of overhangs and undercuts to ensure adequate adhesion to the platform.
\nRecently, there has been a trend toward the bottom-exposure approach, as it has certain advantages [6, 15, 16]. The smooth surface, which is created with a narrowly defined layer height due to the precise movement of the z-stage at an accuracy of down to 0.1–1 μm [17, 18], is the main benefit in the constrained surface setup. Without the need for a mechanical sweeper, this layer can be created faster than in the free surface approach, reducing the printing time [15]. Another advantage, which decreases cost, is the lower amount of resin that is needed because the specimen does not have to be completely submerged in the vat [14].
\nA main disadvantage of the bottom-exposure setup, however, is that attractive forces between printed part and vat floor need to be overcome for each layer [19]. When pulling up the z-stage, the newly cured layer needs to adhere to the layers above, and may not stick to the vat surface. Attempts to reduce this unwanted interaction include the application of hydrophobic coatings of the material tray [15, 18, 19, 20] and modification of the mechanical separation mechanism with tilting steps [21] or application of shear forces [20].
\nIn Laser-SLA, also known as vector-based SLA, or often simply referred to as SLA, each layer is cured by scanning of a UV laser onto the resin film. This x-y motion of the laser is implemented by two galvanometers in combination with a dedicated optical system. An example of setup is given schematically in Figure 2. These conventional SLA devices, although more expensive than other AM technologies such as their extrusion-based counterparts, can reach resolutions of 5–10 μm [8].
\nSchematic setup of a laser-SLA printer (A), adapted, and modified from [22]. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of a bioreactor with capillaries fabricated with laser-SLA (B), reprinted from [23] by permission of springer nature.
In order to attain these resolutions, a number of parameters need to be considered. Besides accuracy of the z-stage and optimized resin composition (see Section 3.3), which are important factors especially in z-resolution, the manner in which the UV laser is scanned across the desired layer is decisive. The geometry of the precisely defined laser lines, which illuminate the entire cross-section [24] and their accuracy, given by movement of the galvano-mirror, determine lateral resolution. Furthermore, the scanning speed and diameter of the laser spot need to be considered. They, respectively, influence the cure depth and width of the exposed laser lines and thereby affect vertical and lateral resolution [25]. Methods to further improve the resolution to sub-micron regions include two-photon polymerization (TPP) and pinpoint solidification.
\nTPP was first proposed as an AM method by Strickler et al. [26]. As resolutions superior to 100 nm with surface roughness below 10 nm are attainable [27], it has been extensively studied since then [28], and despite its high-cost, TPP was even commercialized by Nanoscribe GmbH in 2007 [29].
\nIn TPP, excitation of the PI in the resin, and thereby activation of the curing reaction, does not occur in the entire illumination path of the laser, as in conventional SLA, but only in the region of its focal point, called a volume pixel or voxel [30]. A high-intensity femtosecond pulsed laser can cause molecules to absorb two photons simultaneously. As the probability of this phenomenon is proportional to the squared intensity of the laser pulse, the process is limited to the focal point of the laser. Instead of UV light, a laser at twice the wavelength (i.e. half the energy) with near-infrared (NIR) light such as a Titanium-sapphire laser is employed in TPP. The energy necessary for excitation is nevertheless attained by the combination of the energies of both individual photons [31].
\nAs portrayed in Figure 3, the spatially constrained 3D voxel in TPP allows for curing of shapes inside the resin bath and not just on its surface. This eliminates the need for layer-wise production and enables fabrication of extremely complex geometries including freely moving parts without superfluous support structures [28].
\nSEM images of microstructures fabricated with TPP (A), reprinted with permission from [32] (Ovsianikov A. et al. ultra-low shrinkage hybrid photosensitive material for two-photon polymerization microfabrication.), copyright (2008) American Chemical Society. Scheme of TPP vs. conventional laser-SLA (B) redrawn and adapted from [33].
One of the challenges which remain in TPP is the restriction to extremely small geometries in the mm range [34] and low writing speed of the laser lines. At a maximum of a few mm/s, it cannot compare to hundreds of mm/s, which is attainable with conventional laser-SLA methods [8]. Developing a suitable PI could help speed up the process. Conventional UV initiators have the drawback of low-activity in TPP. In order to augment their response, the design of molecules with specific structures is necessary [35].
\nA method similar to TPP, pinpoint solidification, was proposed by Ikuta et al. in 1998 under the name of super integrated hardened polymer SLA (Super IH) process [36]. A tightly focused laser is used and as with TPP, due to the high intensity in the focal point of the laser, curing of the resin can only be achieved in this voxel. The mechanism, however, is that of conventional single photon polymerization. Thus, resolutions of below 0.4 μm have been reached without the use of expensive fs pulsed lasers [37]. This process has as of yet not been commercialized, and very little research is invested in pinpoint solidification-SLA.
\nIn bulk lithography, 3D textures can be created by variation of exposure energy. The cure depth, which is a direct function of laser power or scan velocity (i.e. of the applied energy), thereby defines the depth of the features [38]. One can thus see the entire part as only existing of one layer with varying thickness. This eliminates the sometimes abrupt steps in z-direction, which are generated with conventional SLA methods, and vastly speeds up printing. Although this process is not capable of printing structures with overhangs and is limited to geometries thinner than 0.25 mm, it could have potential future applications in high-throughput fabrication of microstructures [39].
\nDLP is a method, which can reach resolutions in the order of 25 μm [7]. Smallest feature sizes of 0.6 μm have also been reported [40], and resins filled with ceramic particles have been printed via DLP with layer heights of 15 μm and with lateral resolutions of 40 μm [18].
\nIn contrast to laser-SLA, the entire cross-section of a layer is illuminated simultaneously by a DLP light engine, as shown in Figure 4. The digital micromirror device (DMD) is the key component and functions as a dynamic mask for the DLP process. It is constructed of an array of mirrors, each one representing a single pixel. Individual tilting of every mirror enables fast and reliable switching of pixels [42]. When linked with a computer for image processing, a light source (often LED), and optics, it can project desired cross-sections of light quickly and precisely [42]. The fast switching speed of the DMD is a prerequisite for realizing grayscale illumination, which can be beneficial for precise control over exposure time and by extent energy dosage [40].
\nSetup of a DLP-SLA printer (A) adapted and redrawn from [22]. Printed polymer structures (B) adapted and reprinted with permission from [41] (Macdonald NP. et al., 3D printed micrometer-scale polymer mounts for single crystal analysis). Copyright (2017) American Chemical Society.
With its pixel-based exposure mechanism, DLP is excellent for illumination of sharp corners but can cause saw-tooth type surface roughness on otherwise curved surfaces [18]. Consequently, when aiming for higher resolution, the pixel size needs to be reduced with the help of designated optics. As the DMD has a fixed amount of mirrors, this leads to shrinkage of the image and reduces maximum geometry size. Large parts are thus often printed at lower resolutions than small ones. While not quite reaching the sub-micron resolutions of laser-SLA, DLP retains the advantages of lower cost and higher printing speeds [40, 43].
\nContinuous liquid interface production (CLIP) is a type of constrained surface DLP process, where a thin film between building platform and the material tray is not cured and remains liquid. The so-called dead zone at the interface can be generated by utilizing a vat with a floor that is permeable to oxygen. This inhibits curing, and the resin in contact with oxygen remains liquid. Recoating mechanisms are thereby superfluous and continuous elevation of the building platform can be achieved, which improves surface quality and drastically increases printing speed up to 500 mm/h [44]. Similarly, to attain a liquid interface film, a high-density inert and an immiscible liquid layer such as brine has been proposed [45]. CLIP has been commercialized by Carbon Inc., and is establishing itself in the AM market due to its reduced printing times [46].
\nSince its development in 1997 by Bertsch et al. [47], using an LCD device as a dynamic mask for SLA has been almost completely replaced by the DLP counterpart. The latter benefits are from superior switching speeds at higher accuracy [48]. Nevertheless, it merits mentioning as a low-cost alternative to DLP with commercially available LCD printers primarily catering to the laypersons demographic as opposed to the industry [49].
\nPhotocurable resins for SLA all have the same essential components, as summarized in Figure 5. The liquid precursors, which form the network when polymerized, as well as PIs, which start the reaction, are indispensable. In addition, most resin formulations have inert dyes, which absorb incident light and enhance control over the polymerization. Especially when using filled resins, further additives such as diluents, surfactants, or other stabilizers can be present.
\nResin components in SLA.
The precursors in SLA are liquid molecules, which can be linked together (i.e. polymerized), after exposure to light to form a solid 3D network. Depending on the future application and desired attributes, a variety of monomers, oligomers, or prepolymers can be utilized.
\nAcrylate-based resins are common in the SLA process, as they exhibit high reactivities, which is advantageous for fast building speeds [7]. Different types of acrylates are readily available to tune mechanical properties and thermal resistance for example by altering the number of reactive groups [8] or by employing different oligomers such as urethane acrylates [50]. One disadvantage of acrylate resins is their high-shrinkage during printing, causing potential distortion of the printed part. As a solution, the combination with methacrylates is often implemented [51]. The resin’s sensitivity to oxygen, which inhibits the polymerization reaction, is another challenge.
\nEpoxy systems have a different curing mechanism than acrylates. They are based on cationic rather than radical photopolymerization and need longer reaction times, are inhibited by moisture, but have the advantage of stability against oxygen [52]. Additionally, epoxy resins exhibit significantly lower shrinkage than their acrylate counterparts [53]. In order to exploit the advantages of both alternatives, hybrid systems have been created. Combination of acrylate and epoxy-based resins lead to fast curing, low-shrinkage materials and are nowadays the standard in most commercial systems [54, 55].
\nThe PI is the resin component, which reacts to light. Once irradiated at the correct wavelength, it is excited and can initiate the curing reaction. A suitable PI, depending on the nature of utilized precursor needs to be selected. Type and amount of PI can substantially influence reaction kinetics, necessary light dosage, conversion, cross-linking density, and by extent, mechanical properties of the printed parts [8, 56, 57].
\nAnother component that is essential in most SLA processes is a light absorber, which reduces the penetration of light into the resin and limits the depth until, which the resin is cured. Especially for complex geometries with undercuts, this cure depth needs to be precisely defined in order to prevent excessive curing in z-direction and loss in feature development [14, 17, 40]. The most commonly used UV absorbers are benzotriazole derivatives [58].
\nFabrication of metal or ceramic materials via SLA has been implemented by filling resins with powder, printing the parts, and subsequently debinding and sintering the printed specimens [4, 5], as shown in Figure 6. During debinding, the organic resin components are removed by pyrolysis. This binder burnout is easier for thin structures with high filler content, as otherwise, defects such as cracks can form [5]. In the subsequent sintering step, the metal or ceramic powder, which remains, is further thermally treated to achieve dense structures [21]. In order to attain geometrically accurate parts, the material specific shrinkage coefficients need to be taken into account, and high filler content is beneficial to reduce shrinkage [60]. Variations of the thermal treatment include implementing an additional drying step prior to debinding to remove solvents or combining debinding and sintering into one single but correspondingly longer thermal process to eliminate potential defect sources during transportation of the fragile brown parts [59].
\nScheme of the formation of dense ceramic components from filled resins by SLA, redrawn and adapted from [59].
Particles smaller than the layer height need to be utilized, and as previously mentioned, maximum particle content is desirable. In highly filled resins with particles in size range of the wavelength of light, scattering is the main interaction mechanism with light and consequently determines cure depth and affects resolution. Reducing the refractive index difference between filler and matrix is a common approach to minimizing scattering [61]. It is noteworthy that composite materials, where the organic component is not removed but retains its matrix function in the final part, have also been manufactured with SLA [3, 62]. By adding (nano)-particles to the SLA resin, mechanical, thermal, optical, or even electrical properties can be further amended [63, 64, 65].
\nA high-volume fraction of solid loading can cause certain disadvantages. Especially for smaller particles with the large surface area, the viscosity of the slurry rises with particle content [4]. This changes the flow behavior of the resin, interferes with coating mechanisms, and increases the mechanical force necessary for the elevation of the building platform in constrained surface setups [19]. Approaches to reduce viscosity include the application of temperature [66], the use of diluents [67], or evoking shear thinning behavior [68].
\nRheological additives and stabilizers can increase solid loading and are necessary for extended shelf-life of slurries as well as for stability during longer printing jobs [68]. Agglomeration and sedimentation of particles need to be avoided to ensure continuous, homogeneous ceramic or metal powder distribution. To that end, dispersants such as oligomeric surfactants [69], long chained acids like oleic acid [70], or phosphine oxides with aliphatic chains [71] have been used.
\nAfter removal of the built part from the platform, any support structures that had been necessary for the printing process need to be cut from the green part. Cleaning in suitable solvents and drying of the structure is often followed by sanding of support residues. Post-curing in a UV chamber can be implemented to complete conversion of the polymerization reaction and thereby attain improved mechanical properties [72]. In the case of filled resins, debinding and sintering are the final post-processing steps.
\nSLA is a very versatile method with applications in a variety of industries. The aerospace and automotive industries can, for instance, benefit from rapid manufacturing of high-performance materials. Microfluidics and medicine are furthermore, significant fields where SLA shows great potential and is already being applied successfully.
\nFully polymeric materials structured by SLA can range in their properties from highly elastic silicones for applications in soft robotics [45] to high-strength thermally post-cured epoxy resins [73]. Their limited thermo-mechanical stability is, however, an issue for most polymeric materials. Using filled resins to create metal or ceramic structures, is a possibility in SLA, as previously mentioned in Section 3.4. Furthermore, polymer-derived ceramics can be manufactured by using monomers as precursors, which contain the essential components to form ceramics upon pyrolysis. These methods offer superior versatility in geometry than casting or machining processes and can yield components for high-temperature applications such as in propulsion systems or as thermal insulators [74].
\nRecently, SLA has been extensively investigated in the field of microfluidics, where small fluid volumes need to be precisely manipulated through micro-sized channels for applications such as inkjet print heads or lab-on-a-chip technologies [6]. When compared to material extrusion and jetting, DLP-SLA shows superior resolution, smaller possible feature sizes, reduced surface roughness, and faster production times in this application [75]. Channels with dimensions below 100 μm and valves, pumps, as well as multiplexers for mixing [76], can be fabricated rapidly and easily.
\nApplications in medicine, where patient-specific designs are often necessary to accommodate for individual anatomies, can greatly benefit from AM as well. Some examples are depicted in Figure 7. CT or MRI scans can be employed to determine the geometrical specifications, from which devices are then manufactured. Craniofacial implants out of porously structured hydroxyapatite have for example been implanted in patients with large bone defects [80].
\nTop row: CAD model of skull defect (A), SLA fabricated cranial implant (C), and an implant placed into skull model (D), reprinted and modified from [77]. Middle row: SEM images of SLA printed microneedle structures for transdermal drug delivery, modified and reprinted from [78]. Bottom row: SEM images of tissue engineering scaffolds for bone regeneration by SLA, modified and reprinted from [79] by permission of Springer Nature.
In dentistry, CAD modeling has been applied since the 70s in the creation of crowns, which are used to cover a damaged tooth, and dentures, which are removable or fixed devices to replace lost teeth [81]. Now, many AM technologies including SLA can be employed to speed up the process between the acquisition of the geometrical data and implantation of the device into the patient [82]. A second application in healthcare, where AM has become the norm is the manufacturing of hearing aids. SLA can reduce the manufacturing time of these custom-made devices from more than a week to less than a day while also improving wear comfort [83, 84].
\nMedical applications of SLA are not limited to the fabrication of implants, prostheses, or other medical devices, but drug delivery systems such as micro-needles, capable of administering drugs by painlessly penetrating the skin [78], or 3D printed tablets for individual dosage regulation [85] have also been established. SLA can furthermore be used in medical imaging to create 3D models [86] for preoperative planning [87] or educational purposes [88]. 3D cell culture for more accurate in vitro models to study diseased, as well as healthy tissues, can likewise be created [89]. Tissue engineering constructs in regenerative medicine have also been fabricated with SLA methods [90] and even bioprinting, where live cells are incorporated into the printed scaffold is currently being investigated [91].
\nA plethora of SLA printers are currently on the market, ranging in price and quality from amateur desktop applications to professional high-precision machines. A brief overview of their specifications is given in Table 2.
\nSLA-type | \nLateral resolution (μm) | \nPrinting speed (mm/h) | \nMaximum print size (mm) | \nCommercial vendors | \nSources | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Laser | \n6–140 | \n14 | \n27–750 | \n3DSystems, Formlabs, XYZPrinting, | \n[92, 93, 94, 95] | \n
TPP | \n0.400 | \n— | \n100 × 100 × 3 | \nNanoscribe | \n[34] | \n
DLP | \n33–120 | \n25–150 | \n45–230 | \nEnvisionTEC, Kudo3D | \n[96, 97, 98] | \n
CLIP | \n50–100 | \n500 | \n80–320 | \nCarbon | \n[44] | \n
LCD | \n50–100 | \n20–60 | \n55–160 | \nSparkMaker, Photocentric | \n[49, 99] | \n
Comparison of commercially available SLA systems.
LCD-SLA is only available as a low-budget 3D printer for hobbyists. The more common methods such as conventional laser-SLA and DLP-SLA, however, have their low-cost and low-resolution desktop editions for consumers but can also offer high-end methods for professionals and industrial applications. While CLIP and TPP are both in higher price ranges, the former is designed for the extremely fast production of larger parts, while the latter is used for very slow fabrication of small parts with sub-micron resolution.
\nAs the front-runner for high-resolution 3D printing, SLA retains substantial limitations due to the often high costs of this AM method, which are augmented further by slow printing velocities. Additionally, the fact that printing is only possible with one resin at a time severely restricts potential applications.
\nTrends toward faster manufacturing have already been set by the CLIP technology [44]. Other continuous DLP methods, where building platforms are raised at a constant rate during the printing process, have also been established [76]. For laser-SLA processes, illumination itself is a limiting factor in reducing printing times and different approaches to increase throughput are necessary. Using a broader scanning pattern for bulk features and applying more precise, narrow lines only in areas where the maximum resolution is required, such as for fine structures and at surfaces, is one method, which is already being implemented [93]. The development of hybrid systems of DLP and laser techniques is currently being investigated as well. Similarly, the inner area should be illuminated via pixel-based DLP, and only round surfaces drawn with the vector-based system of laser-SLA. This could further reduce printing times to rates comparable to DLP while maintaining high-accuracy of laser illumination [22].
\nAnother method, which combines laser and DLP-SLA, addresses the compromise between build size and resolution in DLP. A proposition to retain small pixels and thereby high-resolution even when printing large parts is to laterally stitch the projected images. If a layer has a cross-section exceeding the attainable size by the DMD, it can be divided into smaller areas, which are then illuminated one after the other [100]. This combination of scanning and projection-based illumination, also called large area projection micro SLA (LAPμLA) [101], can lead to the low-cost fabrication of cm-sized objects with a μm-range resolution [102].
\nModification of available SLA systems to manufacture parts from multiple materials has been attempted. This usually includes a time consuming cleaning step between material changes. Thus, minimum feature sizes and resolution are no more comparable to conventional SLA than required printing time [103, 104, 105]. Nevertheless, after thorough investigation and development, these methods could help to further extend the application spectrum of SLA in the future.
\nNone.
Today, information has become the main component of what we produce, do, buy, and consume. Having an economic value in almost all products and services that meet the needs of today’s societies, it has been now obligatory for individuals and organizations to obtain information technologies and to actively use them in both work and social life domains. Hence, in the current information age, where information is seen as power, this situation has made it imperative for organizations to become increasingly information-based and to benefit from information technologies in many processes and activities.
The intensive use of information technologies in many functions and processes has also required some changes in organizations [1]. This is due to the fact that information technologies, unlike traditional technologies, do not only change the technical fields but also affect the communication channels, decision-making functions and mechanisms, control, etc. [2]. Consequently, one of the most striking developments is on organizational structures that are becoming increasingly flattened and horizontal. Relatedly, information technologies have begun to take over the role of middle management, which supports decision-making processes of senior management and has reduced the importance of this level [3, 4, 5]. Similarly, while information technologies enable managers to obtain faster, more accurate, and more information [6, 7, 8], it also provides lower-level managers with more information about the general situation of the organization, the nature of current problems, and important organizational matters [9, 10, 11, 12].
Moreover, information technologies also have an important potential in determining whether organizations have a mechanical or an organic structure [13]. Within the mechanical organizational structures, people do not have much autonomy, and behaviors expected from employees are being careful and obedience to upper authority and respect for traditions. In such organizations, predictability, consistency, and stability are desirable phenomena. In contrast, people in organic structures have more freedom in shaping and controlling their activities, and being enthusiastic, creative, and taking risks have important places among the desired behaviors [14].
Accordingly, information technologies begin to influence the cultural values of the organization over time, through these transformations they create on organizational structures, processes, and operations. In other words, the fact that organizational structures are mechanical or organic causes the formation of diverse cultural values in organizations [15]. Therefore, the desired cultural values in mechanical organizations are quite different from those in organic structures [1, 16, 17]. In this context, this chapter deals with the influences of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations along with the reflections of the use of these technologies on organizational structures and their functioning.
When we look at studies on the relations between organizational culture and information technologies, we generally see the studies on the effects of culture on technology adaptation or use [18, 19, 20, 21], as well as on the effects of certain specific information technologies and applications (e.g., e-mail use, group support practices, etc.) on some aspects of any organizational culture [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. However, the number of studies that consider the use of information technologies as a “whole” and that address “why” and “how” its effects on organizational culture occurred is still limited. And so, this chapter aims to examine and discuss the overall effects of the usage and intensity of information technologies established in organizations on the cultural life within.
In this context, the chapter plan is as follows: Firstly, the basic concepts related to information and information technologies are included. Emphasis is placed on the meaning differences between knowledge and information, and their connections to information technologies are tried to be explained briefly. Secondly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure are given particular attention. The reason for this is that as a system of values, beliefs, assumptions, and practices [32], organizational culture encompasses many features closely related to structures of organizations. Thirdly, possible links between organizational structure and organizational culture are included. Fourthly, important theoretical approaches and studies on the relationships between information technologies and organizational culture are provided. Finally, by deepening a bit more and by emphasizing key points, some important arguments are discussed.
In the literature, the concepts of information and knowledge are sometimes expressed by a single term, “information.” However, although the concepts of knowledge and information are intertwined, they are two different concepts that have different meanings and describe different phenomena. The reason for this is that knowledge is also included in the concept of information as it is transformed into a commodity when it begins to be processed, stored, and shared by information technologies.
Becoming the basic elements of today’s economic, social, and cultural systems, information is obtained in a certain hierarchy. The images are at the beginning of the process, and the process is completed with a hierarchical staging in the form of data, information, and knowledge, respectively [33]. Image is located in the first step of the process. Humans copy the picture of any object and event they previously perceived by sensory organs. When faced with a similar phenomenon in the later stages of life, these pictures in the mind are redesigned. We call these pictures of realities occurring in the human mind as images [33]. The next stage, the data, contains symbols that represent events and their properties. For this reason, data are expressed as figures and/or facts without content and interpretation [34]. Information that constitutes the next stage of the process and is mixed with knowledge and used interchangeably is expressed as a reporting of one system’s own status to another system [33]. In information, associated data are combined for a specific purpose. Therefore, we can explain information as meaningful data [35]. Knowledge, on the other hand, is defined as personalized information that allows people to fully and accurately grasp what is happening around them and manifests itself in the form of thoughts, insights, intuition, ideas, lessons learned, practices, and experiences [36]. According to Kautz and Thaysen [37] who stated that knowledge is found only in the people’s minds, knowledge is, therefore, a subjective formation. In other words, knowledge is the form of information enriched with interpretation, analysis, and context [38]. However, here, it should be emphasized again by highlighting a very important issue that knowledge is also accepted as information when this knowledge begins to be processed, stored, shared, and used over information technologies. Therefore, after this, when talking about information, one should consider not only the information created by the data brought together in a meaningful way but also the knowledge shared and used over information technologies.
On the other hand, information technologies, used as the most important tool of generating value today, are defined as the technologies that enable processes such as recording and storing data, producing information through certain operational processes, and accessing, storing, and transmitting this produced information effectively and efficiently [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. The term information technologies is used to cover computer and electronic communication technologies, as they are now inseparably intertwined in literature and everyday use and are generally used in this way [47]. In this context, data processing systems, management information systems (MIS), office automation systems, executive support systems, expert systems, intranet and extranet, electronic mail (e-mail), group applications (groupware), database management systems, decision support systems, artificial intelligence, and telecommunication systems can be given as examples of information technologies [33, 48, 49].
Towards the end of the twentieth century, the rapid changes with the impact of developments in information technologies led to the emergence of customer satisfaction-based, learning, knowledge-based, and constantly changing organizations [50]. The fact that organizations have become considerably information-based and benefit from information technologies intensively in their activities and processes has made also the changes in their organizational structures mandatory [1]. Accordingly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure will be summarized under the subtitles of differentiation, centralization, and standardization/formalization, which are the three main components of organizational structure [15].
Differentiation within an organization occurs in three ways: Specialization/division of labor, horizontal and vertical differentiation, and hierarchy and size [15]. Specialization refers to the amount of different expertise or types of work [51, 52]. Specialization generally increases the number of subunits and makes it harder to understand the larger structure that people contribute to with their skills and expertise [53]. Information technologies have the potential to reduce this tendency by providing more access to information and experts at this point. In this way, access to information resources provides synergy [54].
Vertical and horizontal differentiation refers to the amount of hierarchical levels in an organization [55]. Information technologies, with the support of problem solving and decision-making, lead to the emergence of more flattened organizational structures as they require fewer levels within the hierarchy [56]. Since information technologies give employees in lower positions more autonomy to harmonize their activities, this can allow them to find and try better methods while performing their work. In this context, we can increasingly see that organizational structures have become horizontal and strengthened and that virtual organizations have begun to emerge as the most cost-effective structure [17].
In terms of hierarchy and size, Heinze and Stuart [4] argue that the mid-level management staff is unnecessary, increases bureaucracy, reduces efficiency, and has no function in organizations any more. Since most of the tasks performed by mid-level executives can be fulfilled by computers, both less costly and faster, information technology has begun to take over the role of mid-level management, which supports the decision-making process of senior management [5]. Sharing the same opinion, Fulk and DeSanctis [57] also stated that the largely witnessed situation in modern organizational designs is the reduction of intermediate-level managers and administrative support.
Centralization points to the extent to which decision-making power within an organization is scattered or centered [58]. Due to increasing local and global competition, many companies have started to leave their strategic decision-making task further down the organization to benefit from the expert people with more precise and timely local knowledge [10]. Information technologies affect these efforts directly in two ways. Firstly, information technologies increase local knowledge by contributing to obtaining closer information about market trends, opportunities, and customers. Secondly, information technologies can create synergies for organizations because, thanks to information technologies, communication and coordination between distributed decision makers, central planners, and senior managers can be realized more effectively and efficiently [59].
However, whether information technologies will lead to centralization or decentralization is a very controversial question. Regarding centralization, it enables managers to acquire faster, more accurate, and more information, reduces uncertainty, and allows them to make decisions that they cannot make before [6, 7, 8]. Conversely, by the use of other forms of information technologies (e.g., electronic bulletin boards), decentralization provides more information to lower- and mid-level managers about the general situation of the organization and the nature of current matters and problems [9, 10, 11, 12]. Raymond et al. [60] argued that because information technologies facilitate the use and transmission of information by all levels and units in the organization, it enables top management, which is the decision authority, to be disabled in certain areas and the decentralization of control. Thach and Woodman [61] maintained that this is due to the fact that as a result of sharing information at lower levels with the help of information technologies, this power of senior management has decreased to a certain extent, and the knowledge and participation of the staff in organizational matters have increased.
The literature shows that information technologies allow both centralization and decentralization. Researchers are in the agreement that information technologies make it possible for organizational managers to leave their decision-making power to a large part of the hierarchical levels without compromising the quality and timeliness of the decision [62, 63]. Keen [64] combined the concepts of centralization and decentralization and used the term “federated organization” in which organizations do not have to choose either because information technologies simultaneously allow centralization-decentralization [64, 65].
Formalization is the process of detailing how activities are coordinated for organizational purposes in order for employees and organizational units to respond routinely to recurring situations [51, 66]. Formalization involves rules, instructions, shared values, and norms [67]. In fact, formalization is based on the objective of more efficiency and less uncertainty [13].
Information technologies provide the ability to reduce the negative effects of formalization by facilitating the documenting and retrieving of information on organizational occurrences and endeavors that make behaviors and processes more consistent through formalization [63]. The more information technologies assist in reducing search times and preventing downtime, the more the administrative cost of formalization decreases and the productivity increases, which ultimately benefits the path to innovation [68].
Different organizational structures lead to the development of different cultural values [15]. The fact that the structure which an organization has established to control its activities and is defined as a formal system consisting of duties and authority relations is mechanical or organic causes the emergence of completely different cultural values, rules, and norms [69]. While mechanical structures are vertical, highly centralized, and almost everything in them are standardized, organic structures are horizontal, decentralized, and based on mutual adaptation [14]. People feel relatively less autonomous in vertical and centralized organizations, and being careful, obeying the upper authority, and respecting traditions are among the desired behaviors. Therefore, in a mechanical organizational structure, there are cultural values where predictability and stability are important [69]. In contrast, in horizontal and decentralized organizations, people can freely choose their own activities and control them. Creativity, courage, and risk-taking are given importance as desired behaviors. Therefore, organic structures contribute to the formation of cultures that value innovation and flexibility [15].
Organizational structure is also important for the development of cultural values that support integration and coordination. In a structure with stable task and role relations, sharing of rules and norms is more since there will be no communication problems and the information flow will be fast [70]. In organizations where the sharing of cultural values, norms, and rules is at a high level, the level of performance also increases [15]. Particularly in team or matrix structures where face-to-face communication is intense, the sharing of these cultural values and common reactions to the problems develop more rapidly [9].
Whether an organization is centralized or not causes different cultural values to emerge. In decentralized structures, authority is divided into subordinate levels, and an environment is created for the formation of cultural values in which creativity and innovation are rewarded [13]. Employees are allowed to use the organization’s resources and work in projects that they want, by spending some of their time in these projects, thus contributing to the production of innovative and creative products and services [15]. The structures of such organizations constitute the cultural values that give their employees the message “as long as it is in the interest of the organization, it is okay to do things in an innovative and the way you want.”
Conversely, in some organizations, it may be more important for employees not to decide on their own and all activities to be followed and controlled by their superiors. In such cases, a centralized structure is preferred to create cultural values that will ensure accountability and obedience [71]. Through norms and rules, all employees are expected to behave honestly and consistently and inform their superiors about wrongs or mistakes, because this is the only acceptable form of behavior within these structures [72].
Since working on the factors that determine the consequences of the adoption and use of information technologies, researchers have focused on people’s beliefs, values, assumptions, and codes of conduct. As a result, they have given names to this research field such as “socio-technical systems,” “social system,” “social structure,” and most recently “culture” [73]. For example, Markus and Robey [23] using “social elements” and Barley [26] using “social system” or “social structure” tried to explain this phenomenon. When examined more closely, it is seen that the details that these authors emphasize while depicting the case are the assumptions, beliefs, and values that exist in common among the group members, and this corresponds to the definition of organizational culture.
Research examining the relationships between information technologies and values, beliefs, and norms belonging to a particular group has gone through certain stages and used rich and complex research models to explain the relationships in each of these stages [74]. In the first studies on information technology applications, it has been suggested that information technologies cause changes in various organizational phenomena including structural features and thus have certain effects on organizations [74]. For instance, in some studies on adoption of groupware software, several researchers have used this deterministic approach to describe how groupware use affects communication and collaboration among employees and their productivity [27, 28]. These studies assume that certain results will certainly emerge after the adoption of information technologies, without considering the motives or activities that shape the use of information technologies by managers and employees. Like much more deterministic studies, these authors often assumed that information technologies would have predetermined influences on the adoption of information technologies, regardless of the environment in which information technologies were applied, how they were applied, and the users’ specific behaviors and particular purposes.
The second group of views concerning the relationships between organizational culture and information technologies includes the fact that information technologies are seen as a tool that can be used for any change that managers desire to make in organizational practices [22]. In studies in this approach, researchers believe that there is a wide range of possibilities to identify changes in organizational culture, structure, processes, and performance [22, 75]. Researchers from this tradition presume that with the right choice of information technologies and appropriate system design, managers can achieve whatever goals they desire.
These works were mostly adopted in the 1980s and reflect a perspective that managers think can manipulate organizational culture in the way they want. Often called “management and control,” “a functional or instrumental approach” to organizational culture, this methodology has caused serious debate in the literature [76]. This approach attributes great powers to the management level in this regard, which conflicts with anthropologists’ views that culture cannot be consciously controlled and goes much deeper to understand it [76]. Robey and Azevido [77] also do not accept the rational thought on the assumption that culture can be manipulated directly in this way.
Studies with this rational perspective in the information technology literature assume that managers can use information technologies as a leverage to make changes in the norms of behavior, strategy, structure, and performance among members within the organization. For example, in studies on group support systems (GSS), we find managers’ beliefs that they can use collaborative technologies to create a more cooperative organizational culture. This perspective was not accepted by Karsten [78] and some experimental research on GSS [30, 79]. Organizational necessity is no longer accepted, as it is viewed by information technology researchers as an overly simple approach [23, 80].
Researchers who take another approach suggest that information technologies and organizational culture can interact with each other to produce various results [22, 23]. These results can be in the form of adoption and effective use of information technologies (if there is a harmony between organizational culture and information technologies) or user reluctance, refusal, or sabotage (if no fit). Researchers who have been working on information systems since the 1980s have focused on understanding information technology features and functionality that cause effective or problematic information technology applications and the interaction between users’ values, assumptions, and other elements of organizational culture. In this regard, Romm et al. [81] argued that many forms of information technologies comprise cultural assumptions embedded within themselves and these assumptions may conflict with existing values of a particular organization. The authors argued that these embedded assumptions present information technologies as a “cultural boundary” and that a cultural analysis should be made to predict compliance or incompatibility. The authors in this approach warn managers to think of organizational culture as a binding limitation in information technology applications. In a warning by Pliskin et al. [76], managers are advised not to try to change the culture of the organization. Regarding this issue, Orlikowski [30] cites Lotus Notes (a group software) application at Alpha Corporation, a consultancy company. In this example, this system, which was established by the CEO of the company only with the benefits to be obtained, did not create the expected effects, became unsuccessful, and disappointed due to reasons such as no cultural analysis and inadequate training. Employees responded to the use of Notes with resistance and refrained from using it. The reason for this was that the employees in this organization, which had a competitive culture where information was seen as a power, avoided sharing information with others. As a result, this incompatibility between the collaborative culture that Notes had in itself and the competitive culture of the organization in question had failed this application of information technologies.
In a different approach, it is stated that information technologies and culture are not fixed and they are more flexible in terms of change [23, 75]. Managers in this approach may set specific goals for the use of information technologies, but actual results of the use of information technologies are not deterministic, and results cannot be predicted or controlled even under the best conditions [23]. The effects of information technologies are not deterministic because technology has interpretable flexibility considering that it can have different meanings for different employees. Similar technology can be interpreted in a different way by distinct people, based on certain assumptions, beliefs, and values. Robey and coauthors [24, 25], for instance, showed that it would be an empty attempt for organizational managers to try to intentionally manipulate the effects of these technologies, since there are many ways that diverse employees can configure a particular technology in different social environments.
Gopal and Prasad [31] also achieved similar results in their work on group support system (GSS), claiming that for researchers seeking fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors, this would be an impossible goal to pursue. Conversely, the results of using information technologies depend on the symbolic meanings that information technologies have for a particular user. This work of Gopal and Prasad [31] expresses similar results with the work of Barley [26] and Robey and Sahay [25]. The authors stated that the symbolic meanings of certain technologies for users affect their perceptions of information technologies and their specific behaviors.
In the light of the above-mentioned approaches, arguments, and important studies in the literature, it will be useful to discuss some important points by deepening a little more and by emphasizing the key features related to the concepts of information, information technologies, and organizational culture.
First, organizational culture is a complex phenomenon that develops and changes in a historical process [32, 82, 83]. Thus, although it might seem like a plain and simple concept, organizational culture includes many subdimensions and processes. When considered as a complex pattern of these interactions of many factors with each other, it is also a difficult process to identify the direct and indirect effects of information technologies on organizational culture within this cluster of relationships and interactions. Moreover, culture is not a phenomenon that changes and develops in a short time and is therefore open to manipulations of managers. On the contrary, from this point of view, it is not possible to easily achieve control over cultural changes, and it is necessary to go much deeper [76]. So, it is not rational to expect that the rapid developments and changes in information technologies will cause changes in cultural characteristics at the same speed. In this sense, it could be inaccurate to seek direct relationships between two phenomena in question, whose rates of change are quite different.
Second, for cultural changes, there must also be changes in the basic assumptions, beliefs, and values on which the culture is built [84]. It would be misleading to expect little or intensive use of information technologies to cause changes in these rooted assumptions. For the desired changes in these basic assumptions, beliefs, and values, it is necessary to design the structure accordingly, to recruit employees who are qualified for the targeted culture, and to set ethical values and property rights to employees in accordance with this culture [15]. In this sense, information technologies may only catalyze the contribution of organizational structure to organizational culture.
Third, there are many and different types of hardware and software that fall under the scope of information technologies. It is not logical to accept all of them as homogeneous technologies in all aspects (with the same functions and features, similar usage areas, standard conditions they are applied, similar intentions, and behaviors of all users), and it can be, therefore, misleading to carry out research under a single “IT” concept from this perspective. The reason for this is that, as stated in the sections above, cultural features of each information technology application or product embedded in it might be different. The interactions between the cultural characteristics of the environment in which information technologies are applied and the unique cultural contents of information technologies may cause different results on the culture of the organization.
Fourth, contrary to what is believed, some of cultural features that we anticipate to support information technology applications and products may be interpreted otherwise by diverse people contingent on different assumptions, beliefs, and values. In fact, Robey et al. [24, 25] showed that managers cannot control the effects of these technologies, since different users can configure a particular technology in numerous ways in different social environments. Also, Gopal and Prasad [31] argued that this would be an impossible achievement for researchers looking for fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors.
Fifth, information technologies were defined above as technologies that enable processing, storage, and sharing of information. The key concept in this definition is “knowledge-based” information and not the technology itself. Therefore, what makes information technologies essential and important is the information itself. According to the definition of knowledge, the most significant characteristic that differentiates it from information is its being a product of the human mind [37]. Because knowledge is the interpretation of information and expresses the value produced from it, qualifying information technologies as good-bad, useful-useless, and necessary-unnecessary can be a meaningless evaluation. So, the basic thing that creates value-added for organizations is not the technology used but the information itself, which is processed, stored, and shared on this technology. In this context, even if it is the latest, most advanced, and most expensive technology in the world, if the organization does not have a qualified human resource capable of producing knowledge that will create value-added, an appropriate organizational structure and culture that will activate this creative potential, and a management approach, all investments in these technologies will also be wasted.
This chapter has aimed to examine the impacts of information technologies on organizations’ cultures, and for this purpose, a special emphasis is given to the concept of “organizational structure” within the theoretical framework presented above. The most important reason for this is that relevant literature shows that organizational culture and organizational structure are in a very close relationship. Indeed, when the question items in the Denison organizational culture scale [85], which is the most frequently used in the literature, are examined, it is possible to see that most of these items point to many features of organizational structure concerning centralization, formalization, and differentiation dimensions. Therefore, it is a very rational approach to expect that information technologies can have direct and indirect effects on organizational cultures based on the influences of information technologies on structures of organizations. However, it should be underlined that different and controversial approaches and findings in the literature mentioned above on the relations between information technologies and organizational culture generate question marks in the minds as well.
In this regard, it is already quite difficult to draw a clear picture of the impacts of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations. The number of studies on the subject in the literature is still very limited. Accordingly, it is necessary to underline the great need for interdisciplinary studies in this field. But still, this study argues that the main factor that determines the actual impact and value of information technologies, which have become an integral part of human life in today’s world, is the information itself rather than technology, and it should be kept in mind that information technologies can only function as a means or tool in this knowledge-based social, economic, and cultural life. In other words, the determinant of the benefits, meaning, and importance of information technologies might be the conditions created by organizational factors such as cultural environment and organizational structure where knowledge is created, developed, and used and human resources have become the most important capital element and source of wealth.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\\n\\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"7"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9553",title:"Cryptocurrency Economy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2548b2dab88b36797382292832f86563",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9553.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"336397",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebahattin",surname:"Demirkan",slug:"sebahattin-demirkan",fullName:"Sebahattin Demirkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10551",title:"Beyond Human Resources - Research Paths Towards a New Understanding of Workforce Management Within Organizations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4a34551c1324fb084e902ad7f56e584d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey, Dr. Fernando Martín-Alcázar and Dr. Natalia García-Carbonell",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10551.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"332101",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonzalo",surname:"Sánchez",slug:"gonzalo-sanchez",fullName:"Gonzalo Sánchez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10753",title:"Taxes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9dc0293dca676c8e873312737c84b60c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10753.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"33697a6f655fc4d7f4a21a0a083a9096",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10757",title:"Agricultural Value Chain",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"732ee82bf579a4bc4c5c929ceba2db26",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10757.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10915",title:"Leadership",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f8f21ec8134eff175fa49450269811d8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10915.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10916",title:"Firm Value",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0de75a8efe6a5f4c8d42858ca3016f08",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10916.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10917",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"904717638ed1e5538792e4d431fe59a5",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10917.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10918",title:"Digital Economy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dbdfd9caf5c4b0038ff4446c7bc6a681",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10918.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10919",title:"Consumer Behavior",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"51700695578f48743b0514ba6d8735b2",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10919.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:10},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"22",title:"Robotics",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics",parent:{title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology"},numberOfBooks:99,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1355,numberOfWosCitations:3495,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3030,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5998,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9902",title:"Service Robotics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b42f533ea14906bcd1e07df74b33ac2",slug:"service-robotics",bookSignature:"Volkan Sezer, Sinan Öncü and Pınar Boyraz Baykas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9902.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268170",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"volkan-sezer",fullName:"Volkan Sezer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6864",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c320902fc1cfc252c1db006b944996fb",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6864.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8883",title:"Autonomous Vehicle and Smart Traffic",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"841c82c0bf27716a7c800bc1180ad5de",slug:"autonomous-vehicle-and-smart-traffic",bookSignature:"Sezgin Ersoy and Tayyab Waqar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8883.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156004",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sezgin",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy",slug:"sezgin-ersoy",fullName:"Sezgin Ersoy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8872",title:"Multi Agent Systems",subtitle:"Strategies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b0454f8f575d5d65603f329af59c80b",slug:"multi-agent-systems-strategies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ricardo López - Ruiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ruiz",slug:"ricardo-lopez-ruiz",fullName:"Ricardo Lopez-Ruiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7792",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53805f091c3107536edd2579c9987649",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu and Geert De Cubber",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7792.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6865",title:"Becoming Human with Humanoid",subtitle:"From Physical Interaction to Social Intelligence",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e208316a62e4ab5b042486aea682ee18",slug:"becoming-human-with-humanoid-from-physical-interaction-to-social-intelligence",bookSignature:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori, Ali Leylavi Shoushtari and Andon Venelinov Topalov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6865.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13394",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Hoirul",middleName:null,surname:"Basori",slug:"ahmad-hoirul-basori",fullName:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7779",title:"Path Planning for Autonomous Vehicle",subtitle:"Ensuring Reliable Driverless Navigation and Control Maneuver",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91196f0aadb70bd5cecac290401d614f",slug:"path-planning-for-autonomous-vehicles-ensuring-reliable-driverless-navigation-and-control-maneuver",bookSignature:"Umar Zakir Abdul Hamid, Volkan Sezer, Bin Li, Yanjun Huang and Muhammad Aizzat Zakaria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7779.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268173",title:"Dr.",name:"Umar Zakir Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Hamid",slug:"umar-zakir-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Umar Zakir Abdul Hamid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7386",title:"Advances in Human and Machine Navigation Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a60a4da048a8bee2e12c3fe40236afe9",slug:"advances-in-human-and-machine-navigation-systems",bookSignature:"Rastislav Róka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112777",title:"Dr.",name:"Rastislav",middleName:null,surname:"Róka",slug:"rastislav-roka",fullName:"Rastislav Róka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7227",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b4993517c29aed9abd474e362370e28a",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",bookSignature:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7227.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7400",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",subtitle:"Control Spectrum",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba8de13ac5162187fbc7f932a7fb0b34",slug:"multi-agent-systems-control-spectrum",bookSignature:"Vladimir Shikhin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7400.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237011",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Shikhin",slug:"vladimir-shikhin",fullName:"Vladimir Shikhin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7270",title:"Agricultural Robots",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"404b9128ab371832f2b7f0b6f32b2951",slug:"agricultural-robots-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Jun Zhou and Baohua Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"242047",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"jun-zhou",fullName:"Jun Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6322",title:"Advanced Path Planning for Mobile Entities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"438f519ccb7ac4196660ada6b648e15f",slug:"advanced-path-planning-for-mobile-entities",bookSignature:"Rastislav Róka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6322.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112777",title:"Dr.",name:"Rastislav",middleName:null,surname:"Róka",slug:"rastislav-roka",fullName:"Rastislav Róka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:99,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"10088",doi:"10.5772/8835",title:"Intention-Based Walking Support for Paraplegia Patients with Robot Suit HAL",slug:"intention-based-walking-support-for-paraplegia-patients-with-robot-suit-hal",totalDownloads:4593,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:166,book:{slug:"climbing-and-walking-robots",title:"Climbing and Walking Robots",fullTitle:"Climbing and Walking Robots"},signatures:"Kenta Suzuki, Gouji Mito, Hiroaki Kawamoto, Yasuhisa Hasegawa and Yoshiyuki Sankai",authors:null},{id:"240",doi:"10.5772/4876",title:"Geminoid: Teleoperated Android of an Existing Person",slug:"geminoid__teleoperated_android_of_an_existing_person",totalDownloads:3800,totalCrossrefCites:61,totalDimensionsCites:108,book:{slug:"humanoid_robots_new_developments",title:"Humanoid Robots",fullTitle:"Humanoid Robots: New Developments"},signatures:"Shuichi Nishio, Hiroshi Ishiguro and Norihiro Hagita",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"}]},{id:"172",doi:"10.5772/4808",title:"Limit Cycle Walking",slug:"limit_cycle_walking",totalDownloads:4521,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:91,book:{slug:"humanoid_robots_human_like_machines",title:"Humanoid Robots",fullTitle:"Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines"},signatures:"Daan G.E. Hobbelen and Martijn Wisse",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62563",title:"Online Mapping-Based Navigation System for Wheeled Mobile Robot in Road Following and Roundabout",slug:"online-mapping-based-navigation-system-for-wheeled-mobile-robot-in-road-following-and-roundabout",totalDownloads:759,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Mohammed A. H. Ali and Musa Mailah",authors:[{id:"32016",title:"Prof.",name:"Musa",middleName:null,surname:"Mailah",slug:"musa-mailah",fullName:"Musa Mailah"},{id:"243606",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed A. H",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"mohammed-a.-h-ali",fullName:"Mohammed A. H Ali"}]},{id:"39430",title:"Novel Yinger Learning Variable Universe Fuzzy Controller",slug:"novel-yinger-learning-variable-universe-fuzzy-controller",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"fuzzy-controllers-recent-advances-in-theory-and-applications",title:"Fuzzy Controllers",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Controllers - Recent Advances in Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Ping Zhang and Guodong Gao",authors:[{id:"141337",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"ping-zhang",fullName:"Ping Zhang"},{id:"160791",title:"Dr.",name:"GuoDong",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"guodong-gao",fullName:"GuoDong Gao"}]},{id:"465",title:"Omnidirectional Mobile Robot - Design and Implementation",slug:"omnidirectional_mobile_robot_-__design_and_implementation",totalDownloads:40971,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:40,book:{slug:"bioinspiration_and_robotics_walking_and_climbing_robots",title:"Bioinspiration and Robotics",fullTitle:"Bioinspiration and Robotics Walking and Climbing Robots"},signatures:"Ioan Doroftei, Victor Grosu and Veaceslav Spinu",authors:null},{id:"70496",title:"Sky-Farmers: Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in Agriculture",slug:"sky-farmers-applications-of-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-uav-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:710,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Chika Yinka-Banjo and Olasupo Ajayi",authors:null},{id:"73486",title:"Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Prosthetic and Orthotic Rehabilitation",slug:"application-of-artificial-intelligence-ai-in-prosthetic-and-orthotic-rehabilitation",totalDownloads:292,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"service-robotics",title:"Service Robotics",fullTitle:"Service Robotics"},signatures:"Smita Nayak and Rajesh Kumar Das",authors:[{id:"204704",title:"Mrs.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Nayak",slug:"smita-nayak",fullName:"Smita Nayak"},{id:"321308",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"rajesh-das",fullName:"Rajesh Das"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:909,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null},{id:"51224",title:"Series Elastic Actuator: Design, Analysis and Comparison",slug:"series-elastic-actuator-design-analysis-and-comparison",totalDownloads:2498,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior, Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade and\nAntônio Bento Filho",authors:[{id:"182082",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafhael",middleName:"Milanezi De",surname:"Andrade",slug:"rafhael-andrade",fullName:"Rafhael Andrade"},{id:"185372",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Bento Filho",slug:"antonio-bento-filho",fullName:"Antônio Bento Filho"},{id:"185373",title:"MSc.",name:"Arnaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes Leal Junior",slug:"arnaldo-gomes-leal-junior",fullName:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior"}]},{id:"74572",title:"Visibility-Based Technologies and Methodologies for Autonomous Driving",slug:"visibility-based-technologies-and-methodologies-for-autonomous-driving",totalDownloads:62,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Self-driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies",fullTitle:"Self-driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies"},signatures:"Said Easa, Yang Ma, Ashraf Elshorbagy, Ahmed Shaker, Songnian Li and Shriniwas Arkatkar",authors:null},{id:"62978",title:"Intelligent Robotic Perception Systems",slug:"intelligent-robotic-perception-systems",totalDownloads:1219,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"150",title:"Sensor-based Global Planning for Mobile Manipulators Navigation Using Voronoi Diagram and Fast Marching",slug:"sensor-based_global_planning_for_mobile_manipulators_navigation_using_voronoi_diagram_and_fast_march",totalDownloads:2690,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"mobile_robots_perception_navigation",title:"Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Mobile Robots: Perception & Navigation"},signatures:"S. Garrido, D. Blanco, M.L. Munoz, L. Moreno and M. Abderrahim",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"74572",title:"Visibility-Based Technologies and Methodologies for Autonomous Driving",slug:"visibility-based-technologies-and-methodologies-for-autonomous-driving",totalDownloads:63,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95328",book:{title:"Self-driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies"},signatures:"Said Easa, Yang Ma, Ashraf Elshorbagy, Ahmed Shaker, Songnian Li and Shriniwas Arkatkar"},{id:"74396",title:"Design Considerations for Autonomous Cargo Transportation Multirotor UAVs",slug:"design-considerations-for-autonomous-cargo-transportation-multirotor-uavs",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95060",book:{title:"Self-driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies"},signatures:"Denis Kotarski, Petar Piljek and Josip Kasać"},{id:"74476",title:"Selected Issues and Constraints of Image Matching in Terrain-Aided Navigation: A Comparative Study",slug:"selected-issues-and-constraints-of-image-matching-in-terrain-aided-navigation-a-comparative-study",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95039",book:{title:"Self-driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies"},signatures:"Piotr Turek, Stanisław Grzywiński and Witold Bużantowicz"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:19},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/185952/natacha-godbout",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"185952",slug:"natacha-godbout"},fullPath:"/profiles/185952/natacha-godbout",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()