Recent assessments of protected areas by the most prominent management effectiveness evaluation tools
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10226",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Risk Management",title:"Risk Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Risk management is a very important process in the context of global and organizational sustainability. It helps organizations prepare for organizational risks and reduce costs before they occur. Risk management contributes to the achievement of organizational objectives and to the development of organizational benefits and risk opportunities. As such, this book identifies strategic challenges for risk management assessment and practices, examines potential factors that affect business growth, and offers new opportunities for enterprises. It includes fifteen chapters that cover such topics as sustainable management in the construction industry, risk communication in the age of COVID, managing tax risks in mergers and acquisitions, corporate governance, and much more.",isbn:"978-1-83968-906-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-905-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-907-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91067",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"risk-management",numberOfPages:302,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9b65afaff43ec930bc6ee52c4aa1f78f",bookSignature:"Muddassar Sarfraz and Larisa Ivascu",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10226.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3401,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"260655",title:"Dr.",name:"Muddassar",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muddassar-sarfraz",fullName:"Muddassar Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260655/images/system/260655.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz works as an assistant professor at Wuxi University, China. He completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Business Management at the Business School of Hohai University, China. He has published numerous papers in foreign authoritative journals and academic conferences at home and abroad. He is senior editor of Cogent Business & Management, associate editor of Frontiers in Psychology, Energies, and Future Business Journal, and guest editor of Frontiers in Environmental Sciences and INQUIRY. He is a member of the British Academy of Management, Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), and the American Economic Association, and an ambassador of the MBA program at Chongqing University, China. His research focuses on corporate social responsibility, risk management, strategic management, and business management.",institutionString:"Zhejiang Shuren University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Zhejiang Shuren University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"288698",title:"Dr.",name:"Larisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ivascu",slug:"larisa-ivascu",fullName:"Larisa Ivascu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/288698/images/system/288698.png",biography:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu is a professor at the Politehnica University of Timisoara, Romania, with eighteen years of experience in programming, teaching, and research. She graduated with an MBA in Production and Transportation from the Faculty of Management, Politehnica University of Timisoara. She is a doctoral supervisor in the field of engineering and management. She is the head of the Entrepreneurship Office of Politehnica University of Timișoara, and director of the Research Center in Engineering and Management. She is the president of the scientific committee of the Academy of Political Leadership, and vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management. Ms. Ivascu has been involved in national and international projects and has published nine books and contributed scientifically to more than 200 scientific articles.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"432",title:"Critical Management Studies",slug:"critical-management-studies"}],chapters:[{id:"75308",title:"Insurance Business and Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96389",slug:"insurance-business-and-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:310,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, we will discuss recent developments in risk management of the global financial and insurance business with respect to sustainable development. So far climate change aspects have been the dominant aspect in managing sustainability risks and opportunities, accompanied by the development of several legislative initiatives triggered by supervisory authorities. However, a sole concentration on these aspects misses out other important economic and social facets of sustainable development goals formulated by the UN. Such aspects have very recently come into the focus of the European Committee concerning the Solvency II project for the European insurance industry. Clearly the new legislative expectations can be better handled by larger insurance companies and holdings than by small- and medium-sized mutual insurance companies which are numerous in central Europe, due to their historic development starting in the late medieval ages and early modern times. We therefore also concentrate on strategies within the risk management of such small- and medium-sized enterprises that can be achieved without much effort, in particular those that are not directly related to climate change. We start this study with a general overview of the UN sustainable development goals and their implementation in the financial sector world-wide, with a major focus on climate change aspects of investments in a lower carbon economy and economic support of underdeveloped countries that were prevailing until very recently. Although the insurance sector can be considered as a particular branch of the finance industry there are several particularities which need a separate consideration. In the first place, insurance provides a protection of individuals and companies against severe material and non-material losses. Therefore the insurance premiums must be invested safely, in particular under actual insurance regulations like Solvency II. But the insurance industry is also faced with new emerging risks due to climate change, in both the life and non-life sector. Moreover, the European development of insurance regulation has very recently focused also on other sustainability aspects than those related to climate change. We discuss this aspect of risk management in a separate section of this study. Finally, we discuss in detail appropriate strategies how small- and medium sized insurance companies in Europe can handle the new challenges of insurance supervision without too much effort. Our suggestions are mainly driven by own experiences from practice.",signatures:"Dietmar Pfeifer and Vivien Langen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75308",authors:[{id:"336145",title:"Dr.",name:"Dietmar",surname:"Pfeifer",slug:"dietmar-pfeifer",fullName:"Dietmar Pfeifer"},{id:"336152",title:"BSc.",name:"Vivien",surname:"Langen",slug:"vivien-langen",fullName:"Vivien Langen"}],corrections:null},{id:"77490",title:"Environmentally Influenced Risk and Sustainable Management of State Controlled Transportation Assets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98232",slug:"environmentally-influenced-risk-and-sustainable-management-of-state-controlled-transportation-assets",totalDownloads:181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Federal and state transportation agencies across the world face a multitude of challenges to effectively maintain cost-effective core maintenance programs for managing a safe, yet sustainable transportation assets’ program. The decision-making process involves several risk factors, and the prioritization of these factors could considerably affect both the level of utilization of these assets, as well as short- and long-term management protocols and plans for these agencies. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act requires each state Department of Transportation in the United States to have a risk-based asset management plan in place to preserve the condition of their assets and improve the performance of the National Highway System. Many transportation agencies lack the financial and human resources to achieve their targets, and therefore they may opt to make trade-offs, lower targets, and perhaps drop some important objectives. Trade-off decisions can become clearer when objectives and targets are viewed through the lens of which options reduce the top-priority risks, such as reduced risk to safety, asset performance, or future costs. This chapter primarily focuses on emphasizing the importance of risk management in transportation networks and demonstrating the relationship between environmentally influenced risk management and sustainable management of state-controlled transportation assets in the United States. Several key parameters including risk assessment, financial risk and organizational behavior are addressed. Successful examples demonstrating how transportation agencies have identified how to best address a given risk, and in turn impact the resource allocation process are provided.",signatures:"Wael A. Zatar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77490",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77490",authors:[{id:"139672",title:"Prof.",name:"Wael",surname:"Zatar",slug:"wael-zatar",fullName:"Wael Zatar"}],corrections:null},{id:"79330",title:"Risk Mitigation: Sustainable Management in Construction Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100215",slug:"risk-mitigation-sustainable-management-in-construction-industry",totalDownloads:158,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Various parameters which are interactive in nature are exerting a negative influence on the existence of planet earth. Excessive urbanization, runaway global warming, unbridled generation of waste and pollution of air, water and soil has resulted in depletion of natural resources. As a result of threat to ecosystems and irreversible degradation, the growing evidence that the earth’s ability to sustain life is getting eroded needs to be taken seriously. Major parameter which is responsible for substantial contribution to global warming and degradation of environment is the construction industry. The construction industry consumes about 40% of extracted materials and is responsible for about 35% of total carbon dioxide emissions. Rapid economic development coupled with unplanned construction has resulted in choking of cities/towns, with little or no lung space and over-exploitation of natural resources. This paper seeks to address the methods to mitigate the adverse effects on environment by way of implementation of sustainable management in the form of green and intelligent building which will facilitate the planet earth to be a liveable place for future generation while simultaneously pursuing the agenda of sustainable development.",signatures:"K. Srinivas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79330",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79330",authors:[{id:"255339",title:"Prof.",name:"K.",surname:"Srinivas",slug:"k.-srinivas",fullName:"K. Srinivas"}],corrections:null},{id:"77396",title:"Basel IV: The Challenge of II Pillar for Risk Management Function",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96929",slug:"basel-iv-the-challenge-of-ii-pillar-for-risk-management-function",totalDownloads:172,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The book is based on Supervisory Review and Evaluation Process (SREP) is conducted annually by the Supervisory Authorities to verify that each bank (Significant/Less Significant) has implemented strategies, processes, capital, and liquidity assessment process appropriate to the business model and overall planning activity and risk governance system. Analysis of the aims, the features, and the different phases of SREP and the proportionality principles on which the Single Rulebook is based. Some reflections about proportionality principle of Single Rule Book and new skills required to Risk Management function. The research emphasised the need for a holistic approach also in Risk Management and the bank’s business activity.",signatures:"Pasqualina Porretta and Fabrizio Santoboni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77396",authors:[{id:"209611",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasqualina",surname:"Porretta",slug:"pasqualina-porretta",fullName:"Pasqualina Porretta"},{id:"209612",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrizio",surname:"Santoboni",slug:"fabrizio-santoboni",fullName:"Fabrizio Santoboni"}],corrections:null},{id:"77257",title:"Risk Management in the Area of Major Industrial Accident Prevention in the EU and Slovak Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98406",slug:"risk-management-in-the-area-of-major-industrial-accident-prevention-in-the-eu-and-slovak-republic",totalDownloads:193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The SEVESO II and III Directives relate to approximately 12,000 EU establishments working with the hazardous substances. The majority of EU member states implement new requirements of the SEVESO III Directive to their legal environment. The third revision goes hand in hand with the enforcement of the CLP legislation, concerning the Classification, Labelling and Packaging of chemical substances and mixtures. Risk Management is appearing as one of the most important challenges nowadays to raise the prevention level in these establishments. The book chapter analyses the industrial accidents and identified consequences and impacts whose results can be implemented to the effective prevention. The benefit of this chapter is the summarisation of the legal regulations, information systems and especially the statistics of the industrial accidents in Slovakia and the EU. The risk assessment is one of the problem areas of prevention therefore, it was necessary to present the methods and techniques utilised here and to clarify the approach used in the Slovak Republic. The programme ALOHA is most frequently used for modelling the consequences and therefore we presented its possible utilisation on a particular example at the end of this article. The main goal of this chapter is to show how is important to proceed risk management in establishments with hazardous substances is, what kind of methods should be use here to decrease risks and possibilities for modelling its impacts.",signatures:"Katarina Holla and Eva Sventekova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77257",authors:[{id:"184727",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarina",surname:"Holla",slug:"katarina-holla",fullName:"Katarina Holla"},{id:"417117",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Sventekova",slug:"eva-sventekova",fullName:"Eva Sventekova"}],corrections:null},{id:"77337",title:"Risk Analysis in Engineering Projects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98197",slug:"risk-analysis-in-engineering-projects",totalDownloads:126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern business processes are characterized by a large number of random factors that can affect the characteristics of internal and external processes. The created models use the method of calculating output parameters as an operation with random characteristics of factors that affect the final results. The processes and factors of the project are divided into permanent and random. Random processes are characterized by individual distributions and characteristics. The mathematical model of a business project is formed by a program that performs operations with the characteristics of random factors and risk factors that form the business project. The generated model allows you to calculate financial flows and balances at all stages of the project implementation, and determines various indicators of its effectiveness. To optimize these indicators, it is planned to introduce anti-risk measures. The model allows you to optimize the number of such activities, taking into account their cost and the degree of impact on the project performance indicators. Using the proposed method of analyzing business projects allows you to take into account possible random factors and risk factors and make the most optimal management decisions.",signatures:"Vladimir Gorbunov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77337",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77337",authors:[{id:"208371",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"vladimir-gorbunov",fullName:"Vladimir Gorbunov"}],corrections:null},{id:"76274",title:"Social Impact Returns. Filling the Finance Gap with Data Value",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97407",slug:"social-impact-returns-filling-the-finance-gap-with-data-value",totalDownloads:252,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainability, regulation and environmental issues such as climate change and resource scarcity are emerging as key trends with decisive impact on company’s Risk management, value creation and growth strategy. This combination represents one of the biggest opportunities to Society as a whole, including organizations, Governments and citizens. Typically, companies possess vast amounts of data, most of it unutilized. Many are now making investments in digital transformation, which generates even more data. The issue is how to generate social impact returns. The use of data and data analytics is centuries old, but with Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), jointly with other distributed ledger technologies (Blockchain, Cloud) that are advancing rapidly, there are major opportunities to capture value better, cheaper and faster. Speed is of the essence, and success depends on how fast organizations understand the need for non-financial risks management and respond to data-driven intelligence by reallocating resources to accomplish what needs to be done more efficiently. The reason for impact returns is understanding the benefit as a common value, not exclusive to companies, but it also has to distribute value among individuals, communities, and why not, to contribute to regenerate our planet based on a new economy.",signatures:"Amparo Marin de la Barcena Grau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76274",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76274",authors:[{id:"147943",title:"Dr.",name:"Amparo",surname:"Marin-De-La-Barcena",slug:"amparo-marin-de-la-barcena",fullName:"Amparo Marin-De-La-Barcena"}],corrections:null},{id:"76302",title:"Dealing with Unforeseen Circumstances. Implication of Risk Management in the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97408",slug:"dealing-with-unforeseen-circumstances-implication-of-risk-management-in-the-covid-19-public-health-e",totalDownloads:257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Any production plant can be affected by a disaster. Emergency management plans are the best ally to overcome disasters in an adequate way. The present COVID-19 public health emergency can be assimilated to a disaster because of its effects on production and, thus, it requires a contingency plan too. The purpose of this study is to develop a model of contingency plan based on Risk Management (RM) concepts. The methods and analysis used in this development are based on those proposed in international pharmaceutical guidelines. The author, a consultant of the pharmaceutical industry, uses RM tools to provide a practical roadmap to detect problems and implement consistent palliative solutions in any type of manufacturing plant.",signatures:"Jordi Botet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76302",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76302",authors:[{id:"143483",title:"Dr.",name:"Jordi",surname:"Botet",slug:"jordi-botet",fullName:"Jordi Botet"}],corrections:null},{id:"75456",title:"Risk Communication in the Age of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96390",slug:"risk-communication-in-the-age-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:448,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Literature describes a pandemic as a unique form of health crisis, which requires intensive communicative efforts. The government is a key actor in such situations for it is not only particularly trusted to manage a crisis, but also can obtain compliance on part of the affected population. Scholars agree that health messages are important tools to create awareness for the (health) threat. Particularly during health emergencies, information on which preventive measures should be taken is most valuable. With measures often concerning “disruptive actions”, messages must be carefully crafted to counteract negative emotions and controversial arguments. The present chapter presents a checklist for successful campaign design in health risk situations by paying specific attention to COVID-19. To this end, we conduct an extensive literature review and highlight how scientific information should be presented, as well as which message appeals and design features should be utilized to provide the population with targeted and timely information. This is essential against decreasing health literacy rates, which have to be considered in the message design process. To illustrate our case, we will refer to selected national health campaigns which were successfully utilized to manage the risk associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter will conclude with some limitations and directions for future research.",signatures:"Isabell Koinig",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75456",authors:[{id:"333702",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabell",surname:"Koinig",slug:"isabell-koinig",fullName:"Isabell Koinig"}],corrections:null},{id:"76129",title:"Corporate Governance and ERM for SMEs Viability in Italy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96688",slug:"corporate-governance-and-erm-for-smes-viability-in-italy",totalDownloads:219,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Family Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (Family SMEs) in Italy have been asked by the new Insolvency and Crisis Code (IC-Code) to establish organizational, management and accounting bodies and tools appropriate to their nature and size. They need to be able to face early warning of company’s crisis and potential loss of going concern and to be able to implement strategies provided by the law to recover viability. The peculiarity of the Italian System is the joint existence of two levels of controls. A “downstream” one carried out by Auditors in charge of the accounting control and an “upstream” one carried out by the Supervisory Board in charge for the surveillance of directors’ behaviour. The board of statutory auditors (Collegio Sindacale), which has been defined as the watchdog distinguishing Italian corporate governance system, plays a fundamental role in reaching the goal. Its supervisory activities are played ex-ante over directors and are set with independence and competence. Auditors, instead, operate when everything has already been decided or even implemented concentrating on the accounting issues. The IC-Code sets up new corporate governance rules for a huge number of Family SMEs requiring the appointment of independent control bodies, Board of Statutory Auditors and Auditors and demanding therefore for more attention to risk monitoring and managing.",signatures:"Patrizia Riva, Maurizio Comoli and Ambra Garelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76129",authors:[{id:"230543",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrizia",surname:"Riva",slug:"patrizia-riva",fullName:"Patrizia Riva"},{id:"245410",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"comoli",slug:"maurizio-comoli",fullName:"Maurizio comoli"},{id:"245411",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambra",surname:"Garelli",slug:"ambra-garelli",fullName:"Ambra Garelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"75923",title:"The Management of Tax Risks in Mergers and Acquisitions - The Importance of Tax Due Diligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96964",slug:"the-management-of-tax-risks-in-mergers-and-acquisitions-the-importance-of-tax-due-diligence",totalDownloads:280,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the importance of tax risk management in mergers and acquisitions processes by conducting an investigative work called due diligence. To achieve this objective, bibliographic and documentary research was used, as part of exploratory research. In topic 1 it is evidenced that the complexity of tax systems around the world has demanded increasing attention from companies to avoid undesirable cash disbursements for payment of infringement notices arising from questioning by tax authorities related to improper procedures of companies when paying taxes. Additionally, it has required them to be diligent in identifying lawful tax planning alternatives to optimize the tax burden on their operations. In topic 2 the responsibility of company administrators in the management of tax risks is exposed. Topic 3 explains the importance of accounting, tax and legal due diligence in merger and acquisition processes. Finally, topic 4 analyzes the main aspects of due diligence in the tax area. In view of all the exposed in this chapter, it will remain clear to readers the importance of the tax due diligence of the target company, as a way to minimize risks in the decision-making process of the managers of the purchasing company that may compromise the success of the merger and acquisition operation, as well as not subjecting them to administrative and judicial suits, for non-compliance with their fiduciary duties of diligence and loyalty in relation to the company of which they are executives. Additionally, the study’s results suggest that companies—in compliance with the guidelines and limits set by the board—choose the appropriate and specific techniques of risk management, especially those related to minimization, immunization, and transferring these risks. The recommendations derive from the need to identify and manage tax risks, from the point of view of good corporate governance practices. This study may serve as a reference to companies in general, when studying, developing, and implementing recommendations for the identification and minimization of tax risks, as well as in the development of a work program that allows them to conduct due diligence work in target companies.",signatures:"Arnaldo Marques de Oliveira Neto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75923",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75923",authors:[{id:"334951",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Arnaldo",surname:"Marques de Oliveira Neto",slug:"arnaldo-marques-de-oliveira-neto",fullName:"Arnaldo Marques de Oliveira Neto"}],corrections:null},{id:"74554",title:"Fuzzy Approach Model to Portfolio Risk Response Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95009",slug:"fuzzy-approach-model-to-portfolio-risk-response-strategies",totalDownloads:282,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Risk management and control of project risks have been the intrinsic characteristics of high-rise building projects in a changing built environment. In this research, a novel bi-objective model for the best mixture of projects is proposed. The first objective focuses on maximizing profits and efficiency of risk responses, and the second objective aims at minimizing project direct cost including machinery, human, and material costs to implement proper risk responses over a planning horizon under uncertainty. In this model, risks of the projects are controlled by time, quality, and cost constraints, and the most optimum risk response strategies (RRSs) are selected to eliminate or reduce the impacts of the risks. Thus, the combination of optimum projects with the best RRSs can be selected for an organizational portfolio model. Finally, to assess the solution method and the proposed model, the empirical result and sensitivity analysis are carried out. Ten large-scale high-rise building projects and their associated risks are evaluated as cases in this study.",signatures:"Yaser Rahimi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74554",authors:[{id:"275735",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaser",surname:"Rahimi",slug:"yaser-rahimi",fullName:"Yaser Rahimi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77820",title:"Determinants of Job Satisfaction of Accounting Professionals in Tunisia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99331",slug:"determinants-of-job-satisfaction-of-accounting-professionals-in-tunisia",totalDownloads:231,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study aims to identify the factors that affect the job satisfaction of professional accountants. It examines the relative effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on job satisfaction among accounting professionals. Our methodology was applied to 232 accounting professionals working in Tunisia. The methods of data analysis are principal component analysis (PCA) and multiple regression. The results show that intrinsic and extrinsic factors have a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction. However, promotion, growth and recognition do not have effect on job satisfaction.",signatures:"Lassaad Abdelmoula and Sami Boudabbous",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77820",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77820",authors:[{id:"336202",title:"Dr.",name:"Lassaad",surname:"Abdelmoula",slug:"lassaad-abdelmoula",fullName:"Lassaad Abdelmoula"}],corrections:null},{id:"77041",title:"Discerning the Strategies for Exiting Your Business",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98338",slug:"discerning-the-strategies-for-exiting-your-business",totalDownloads:191,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For many business owners, strategies for operations are well thought out, whereas strategies for exit are not. 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He is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, USA.\n\nIn 2018, Dr. Vinjamuri received the Harvey N Davis Distinguished Teaching Award for excellence in undergraduate and graduate teaching. He also received the National Science Foundation (NSF) CAREER Award in 2019 and an NSF Industry-University Cooperative Research Centers (IUCRC) Planning Grant in 2020. 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several aims such as biodiversity conservation, regional economic development, social inclusion and sharing of benefits from conservation as put forward by the Convention in Biological Diversity (CBD; see Secretariat of the CBD, 2005). As such, protected areas certainly contribute to a sustainable development from various perspectives (Getzner and Jungmeier, 2012). However, as several analyses show, many protected areas can be considered as “paper parks” (Brandon et al., 1998; Bruner et al., 2001) for which no effective regulatory and management system is in place. The ineffectiveness of “paper parks” may also constitute a reason why studies also found no significant difference in management effectiveness of land inside and outside of parks (Hayes, 2006).
For fulfilling the aims and objectives of protected areas, it is of great importance that property rights are well defined, the legal, institutional, and managerial frameworks are in place, and sufficient resources are provided for funding efficient and effective protected area management bodies. In comparison to the status quo, even some basic funding might significantly increase biodiversity conservation in “paper parks” (Joppa et al., 2008). Evaluation and monitoring tools generally provide the basis for assessing these frameworks both in terms of efficiency (e.g. wise use of resources relative to outputs and results), effectiveness (e.g. achievement of ecological objectives), and social and distribution issues (e.g. benefit sharing) (see Pomeroy et al., 2005) with the aim to improving adaptive multi-dimensional management. However, merely assessing management effectiveness by applying evaluation and/or monitoring tools, while necessary, might not be sufficient for achieving the protected area’s objectives. For increasing PA management effectiveness, the involvement and the contributions of several stakeholder groups might be crucial. For instance, involving even visitors and local residents can contribute to the effectiveness of ecological management since illegal behavior is reduced by increasing the understanding of and support for ecosystem management (Powell and Vagias, 2010). In this context, evaluating management effectiveness in protected areas might not only serve as an information and management tool for the PA management authority but also as an instrument for informing stakeholders and collecting tacit knowledge. Such instruments and methods thus also may contribute to “good governance” of protected areas, and lead to social learning experiences of all stakeholders. Some broad acceptance of stakeholders is thus considered to constitute an important pillar for effective (adaptive and integrative) PA management.
The current chapter therefore aims at discussing the role and function of evaluating management effectiveness as an integral part of the whole set of management tools and strategies of the PA management authority, as an important ingredient of the governance system of protected areas, and as a tool for social learning and inclusion. As a case study, we use an evaluation tool that has formerly been developed by the Nature Conservancy (2004) (Parks in Peril Site Consolidation Scorecard). This tool was transformed and adapted to the European context by Pfleger (2007a and 2008) and renamed as “European Site Consolidation Scorecard” (ESCS, Pfleger, 2007b). The most important characteristics, described in more detail below, are the strategic and long-term assessment of relevant management plans, instruments and resources, the selective inclusion of several stakeholder groups internal and external to the protected area, and the built-in feed-back and commentary sections in the evaluation report. As an example for applying the ESCS to a concrete protected area, we chose the Gesäuse National Park (Austria), established in 2002 and evaluated in 2007/2008.
The structure of the chapter is the following: Section 2 presents a brief review of the international debate concerning the application of diverse PA management effectiveness evaluation frameworks, and discusses selected aspects of evaluation in PAs. Section 3 describes the linkages between the ecological system, the economy, PA management, and the function of evaluations such as the ESCS. Section 4 presents the effectiveness indicators of the European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS) and discusses the dimensions of evaluation along the empirical case study of the Gesäuse National Park (Austria). Section 5 finally discusses the importance of evaluation instruments, specifically the ESCS, for good governance and social learning, summarizes the results, and concludes with a range of further recommendations for improving the existing evaluation and monitoring frameworks.
Since about the last 20 years, a broad range of frameworks (tools) for measuring management effectiveness of protected areas have been developed. Hockings et al. (2006, 1) define the evaluation of management effectiveness as “the assessment of how well protected areas are being managed – primarily the extent to which management is protecting values and achieving goals and objectives.” Evaluations in general may fulfill several aims and objectives in modern societies. It is not only necessary to evaluate products (outputs) but to assess also outcomes in terms of legitimacy of public activities, and to provide steering mechanisms for public decision-makers (cf. Stockmann, 2007; Diller, 2008).
“design issues relating to both individual protected areas and protected area systems;
adequacy and appropriateness of management systems and processes; and
delivery of protected area objectives including the conservation of value.”
An ideal assessment methodology and framework tries to account for the whole evaluation/management cycle (PAME, Protected Areas Management Effectiveness) with the elements of “context”, “planning”, “inputs”, “processes”, “outputs”, and “outcomes”.
Effectiveness of PA management in conserving biodiversity thus addresses basically the following two questions (Chape et al., 2005, 443):
“Effectiveness of coverage: how much and what biodiversity is included within protected areas?
Effectiveness in achieving conservation objectives: are protected areas being managed effectively?”
Leverington et al. (2010a) describe about 40 different approaches to evaluation, ranging from rapid assessments to in-depth monitoring tools. A most recent overview of management effectiveness assessment tools lists about 50 different methodologies (WDPA, 2012), of which the most widely internationally used are the following (Leverington et al., 2010b; Stoll-Kleemann, 2010; see Table 1):
RAPPAM (Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management) was developed by WWF and has widely been used for a quick assessment of strengths and weaknesses of PA management, and PA systems and networks. By allowing for comparisons between protected areas, the methodology can also be used for setting policy priorities both of governments and NGOs.
METT (Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool) was developed to quickly assess management effectiveness at the site level using scorecards. METT is internationally used by WWF, the World Bank, and GEF (Global Environment Facility).
The US-based Nature Conservancy (TNC) developed a specific assessment tool for its PiP (Parks in Peril) program, the Parks in Peril Site Consolidation Scorecard (The Nature Conservancy, 2004), to explore the existing and needed resources for effective management of parks that may only exist “on paper”.
The tools provided or promoted by big international institutions have become standards even if some other solutions may also have their advantages or justifications (e.g. IPAM-toolbox [www.ipam.info], or the ESCS as presented in this paper).
The European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS) was developed on the basis of the TNC-PiP assessment methodology and may be described as a comprehensive assessment of a specific park and its long-term policies by means of a range of indicators measured and described along a five-point scorecard (Pfleger, 2007b and 2010). Table 2 presents an overview of the indicators of the ESCS to be measured during the evaluation process.
Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management | RAPPAM | 939 |
Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool | METT | 865 |
New South Wales State of Parks (Australia) | NSW SOP | 639 |
Monitoring Important Bird Areas | BirdLife | 506 |
PROARCA/CAPAS scorecard evaluation | PROARCA/CAPAS | 483 |
TNC Parks in Peril Site Consolidation Scorecard | PiP SCSC | 300 |
Victoria’s State of Parks | Victorian SOP | 102 |
AEMAPPS: PAME with Social Participation-Colombia | AEMAPPS | 89 |
Parks profiles | Parks profiles | 62 |
Recent assessments of protected areas by the most prominent management effectiveness evaluation tools
A.1 | Project area zoning |
A.2 | Site‐based long‐term management plan |
A.3 | Science and information needs assessment for project area |
A.4 | Monitoring plan development and implementation for project area |
B.1 | Physical infrastructure for project area |
B.2 | On‐site personnel |
B.3 | Training Plan for On‐site Personnel |
B.4 | Land tenure and land use issues within the project area |
B.5 | Threats analysis for the project area |
B.6 | Official declaration of protected area status for the project area |
B.7 | Organisational structure |
C.1 | Long‐term financial plan for sites in the project area |
D.1 | Broad‐based management committee/technical advisory committee for project area |
D.2 | Institutional Leadership for the project area |
D.3 | Common Leadership for the project area |
D.4 | Community involvement in compatible resource use at the project area |
D.5 | Stakeholder and Constituency Support for Project Area |
D.6 | Policy agenda development at national/regional/local levels for project area |
D.7 | Communication plans for the project area |
D.8 | Environmental education plans for the project area |
D.9 | Cooperation with other organizations |
D.10 | Integration in an ecological network |
Summary of scorecard indicators of the European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS)
Deciding on the “right” evaluation tool, of course, has to be done in close reference to the aims of the evaluation, and also to the efforts necessary to achieve the evaluation objectives. Comparing different evaluation methods may thus be done according to the benefit-cost ratio of such instruments. Figure 1 presents a rough picture of the benefits of the ESCS in relation to the efforts (costs) involved in comparison to two prominent evaluation tools mentioned above (RAPPAM, METT). While RAPPAM is considered to be a fast evaluation providing a quick picture of PA effectiveness, METT goes a little bit more into detail. The ESCS is an evaluation tool going into much more detail. However, depending on the requirements of a specific evaluation (e.g. self-assessment vs. in-depth external evaluation), its application range is very flexible and so are the necessary efforts.
Cost-benefit ratios of different evaluation tools
Management effectiveness evaluation is generally considered to constitute an important ingredient and pre-requisite for adaptive management since the changing ecological, social and economic environments call for flexible management frameworks. Effective management in this sense has to focus on adaption and learning in order to hold the developing PA on a sustainable path. Thus, evaluation not only measures results (outputs) but relates outcomes to resource inputs (e.g. budgets) and also may form the basis of a monitoring system. In addition, management effectiveness instruments provide an overview of different dimensions of protected areas (ecological, social) which are not considered in mere economic valuation methods. Figure 2 presents the “management effectiveness triangle”. Throughout the phases of management (the life-cycle of the protected area), certain measures and policies can be implemented. The ESCS concentrates on contexts to processes (the first four phases of management) since these are the most important to achieve respective outputs and outcomes (results). The figure also demonstrates that the decision on effective frameworks and processes is of utmost importance for future results. Policies that might try to change outputs and outcomes only have little impacts if contexts or processes are ineffective and inefficient.
Long-term impacts of management decisions and room for improvements in a lock-in situation (management effectiveness triangle)
Regarding “paper parks” described above, there are examples of such parks that do not lack financial resource (e.g. international funding) but are designated without further activities. Evaluating effectiveness thus provides also a firm basis for discussing the financial inputs and their efficiency.
Evaluation of management effectiveness may be an important, even essential part in the management cycle of a protected area in particular with a focus on adaptive management strategies (Getzner et al., 2010). However, the current paper not only presents details of an evaluation of a national park (see section 4) but also extends the perspective of evaluation with respect to governance and social learning. Before discussing these aspects along the empirical case-study, we want to address evaluation from a systemic viewpoint linking evaluation with an economic-ecological model in a conceptual perspective.
Figure 3 presents such a conceptual model of the linkages between evaluation and monitoring by means of the European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS) and the whole governance and financing system of a protected area. An ecological model of the ecosystem lies at the center of the conceptual framework describing the interdependencies between species (1), the habitats (2), and the abiotic features of the site. For simplicity, we assume that the species is an endemic animal species that may be observed in the habitat but is closely reliant on the quality and the size of the habitat since it cannot easily migrate to other habitats. In this ecological model (cf. Behrens et al., 2009), the species uses the habitat for food and reproduction, and underlies its own dynamics in terms of reproduction and decline which may seasonally change due to changing environments (provision of nutrients, water). This includes that the species is in competition with other species, and might also be a prey for natural enemies. We assume that protecting the animal species is crucial from a nature conservation perspective (e.g. endemic, or protected and listed in the species “red list”), and may easily be negatively affected by disturbing visitors. PA management may try to improve the reproduction of the species e.g. by temporal or permanent access bans to breeding grounds. The habitat itself has its own dynamics in terms of natural growth (including the abiotic elements) for which we assume that there exists a natural maximum size of the habitat in a certain area. The habitat may be impacted by visitors and their damages, and, again, by visitor management policies of the PA management.
Linking evaluation and monitoring according to the European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS) with the protected area governance and financing system
The second part of the conceptual model may be labeled “economic” model since it refers to the economic use of the habitat in terms of demand for visits to the area (3). Visitors may be attracted to the area by a mixture of landscape (habitat) and species attributes (e.g. observation of wildlife). In addition, PA management can influence demand by providing or not providing (de-marketing) respective visitor infrastructure and facilities, and by education and information policies.
PA management, described by box (4), can steer (manage) the ecological, social and economic systems by a range of management policies such as ecological management for the habitat and species, and by aiming at the wide range of PA objectives such as visitor management and infrastructure provision, by information and education, and by production of scientific knowledge. Depending on the strength of the different objectives, PA management may have a certain objective function to be fulfilled (e.g. maximizing visitor benefits while sustaining a viable balance in the ecological system). In addition, PA management may also include the provision of non-use values (e.g. existence value of species/habitats) into its objective function.
The ecosystem, visitors, and the PA management – the latter including the whole range of property rights, relevant policies, decisions bodies and authorities – constitute the governance system of the protected area. Stakeholders (5) may partially be part of the governance system, for instance, by their inclusion in decision bodies of the protected area. However, we assume that the general public is outside the governance system.
The establishment and effective and efficient management of protected areas consumes resources, i.e., a range of costs have to be financed. On the one hand, the designation of a certain plot of land to be protected defines and changes property rights, and thus also alters the economic use of the area In the case of a national park according to IUCN’s category II, all consumptive (extractive) uses of the area are prohibited.
The efficiency and effectiveness of PA management, together with information provided, leads to a certain public support for the protected area in terms of willingness-to-pay for the financing the park (6). Willingness-to-pay may be measured by expenses of visitors (e.g. travel costs), and by the whole range of non-use values (e.g. existence values) of the general public. A positive attitude towards the protected area may also lead to a different regional economic development (7) which also may be a source of funding for PA management. Altogether, public authorities and private bodies (households, companies) pay for the establishment and operation of the protected area in terms of a range of contributions (e.g. taxes and fees, entry fees, sponsoring, donations) (8).
For understanding the implications of this conceptual model, it is important to consider that efficiency and effectiveness of PA management is paramount for securing funding. One the one hand, the private sector is only willing to pay in terms of fees, travel costs, regional labeled products, etc., if PA management is effective and also sufficiently informs the general public. On the other hand, for securing public funds, national tax payers have to be convinced to provide sufficient financing.
Evaluation and current monitoring instruments thus may play a vital role in this conceptual model of managing and financing protected areas. The grey arrows and the letters (A to D) refer to the grouping of indicators of the European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS) listed and described above (see Table 2). The different PA management policies are evaluated by different indicators, such as ecological management, visitor management, and education and information policies. However, as the ESCS is not only a tool for assessment based on data and statistics, the inclusion of several stakeholder groups is of specific importance. Stakeholder groups such as local decision-makers, experts, visitors, and PA business partners, in this context provide, first of all, information for attributing “correct” values to the indicators. Second, as stakeholders are involved by means of talks, discussions, and group work, the different perspectives become apparent. Third, the ESCS is also an information instrument by itself. By communicating the evaluation process and the results, the general public is informed about the use of public (and private) funds, and about the effectiveness of PA management.
In this conceptual model, evaluation thus becomes part of the governance system as an instrument of stakeholder involvement (participation), as well as an instrument of information. Furthermore, as the empirical case study will demonstrate, the ESCS process is a contribution to social learning and to “good governance”. In general, accounting for stakeholder participation rests on the normative assumption that participatory frameworks lead to more efficient and effective park management. However, as governance systems including regulatory frameworks are different between regions and between parks, it is not straight forward to clarify the impacts of more or less participation. Hayes (2006) discusses this issue by presenting evidence both in favor and against participation of stakeholders by stressing that the “traditional” model of PA planning has recently regained more weight in effective park management. Schultz et al. (2011) argue in the same direction by cautiously describing how park management effectiveness might gain from participation of certain stakeholder groups (such as scientists, volunteers, and local inhabitants). The current chapter does not judge upon this question but rather shows that evaluation exercises might benefit from certain and well-defined instruments for stakeholder inclusion. As Raymond et al. (2010) point out, it is of specific importance in which frameworks local knowledge is collected and used for environmental management because evaluating management effectiveness might partially rely on tacit (local) knowledge for which stakeholder involvement is crucial.
Social learning in the context of (collaborative) resource management is defined as “learning that occurs when people engage one another, sharing diverse perspectives and experiences to develop a common framework of understanding and basis for joint action” (Schusler et al., 2003, 312). This general understanding of social learning emphasizes that – while the “learning unit” is the individual – learning is done through observation of or interaction with others in the social context, for instance, in a process of deliberation which “includes any process to communicate, raise and collectively consider issues, increase understanding, and arrive at substantive decisions” (Schusler et al., 2003, 312). Furthermore, social learning includes “learning by social aggregates, learning pertaining to social issues, and learning that results in recognizable social entities such as collective decision making procedures” (Maarleveld and Dangbégnon, 1999, 268). Even simple face-to-face communication has already proved to reduce resource consumption in experimental settings (Anderies et al., 2011), thus providing a fruitful starting point for social learning perspectives. Borowski et al. (2008) present a conceptual framework regarding the perspective of social learning in participatory resource management. They find that social learning may take place at many places in the governance and management processes (such as context, inputs, processes, outputs, outcomes) and provide indicators for the extent and effectiveness of social learning (see also Cheng et al., 2011). Consequently, social learning is supported by a range of different participatory instruments (e.g. information, stakeholder forums). As evaluation exercises provide several indicators for the efficiency and effectiveness of PA management, involvement of stakeholders in the evaluation process thus may also account for different forms of participation, from face-to-face discussions to workshops, and to comments and written critique in the evaluation report.
The ESCS methodology rests on a specific structure of indicators, and recommends a certain process how the information on each of the indicators is collected, discussed with stakeholders, condensed and assessed, and summarized to a certain score value. Insofar, evaluation does not seem to provide a major contribution to social learning allowing for extensive deliberative processes. While the ESCS may not be able to make up for missing deliberation and participation in the governance structure of the PA management – the lack of such participatory structures should become apparent by the evaluation itself – the evaluation process might also constitute an element of deliberation due to the inclusive nature of the indicator assessment, with the potential aim to encourage “social partnerships” among stakeholders and the park management (Benn, 2010). As such, an evaluation of management effectiveness in parks (e.g. by means of the ESCS) may also form one part of a governance structure of a protected area. Governance in the context of protected areas is usually defined as the “interactions among structures, processes and traditions that determine how power is exercised, how decisions are taken, and how citizens or other stakeholders have their say” (Graham et al., 2003, 2f.). Decision-making rules, including responsibility and accountability, are clearly part of the governance system of protected areas. While the leeway within an evaluation exercise is certainly limited since evaluation has to be based on a certain methodology and structure which cannot be changed during the evaluation process without loss of credibility and focus, the applied evaluation instruments allow for different extents of participation and deliberation.
Whether evaluation instruments in principle contribute to “good” governance is an additional question. The
Building up social capital by learning due to appropriate stakeholder involvement is nevertheless one important ingredient in participatory resource management (Enengel et al., 2011).
Based on a feasibility studie (Jungmeier & Velik, 1999) and an intensive regional public debate the Gesäuse national park was established in the Austrian federal state of Styria in 2002 as a national park conforming to IUCN’s category II of protected areas. Only in 2003, the national park was officially acknowledged by IUCN to conform to category II. The landscape is alpine with deep gorges formed by the Enns river and its contributing streams with small patches of high-diversity wetlands adjacent to the river. The area of the national park amounts to around 11,000 hectares of which 86% are core zones (the rest consists of buffer zones and sustainable pastures). The park stretches from around 500 to over 2,300 meters above sea level, with about 63% of the area consisting of forests, 30% high alpine areas, and the rest water bodies and pastures. The land is almost entirely owned by the public (federal state of Styria). Four rural municipalities form the core of the “Gesäuse national park region”. The national park administration is also responsible for managing the area according to the European Union’s Natura 2000 network.
The park was established in 2002, based on an agreement between the federal state of Styria and the Republic of Austria (Ministry of the Environment) sharing the management and financial responsibilities. While this agreement – codified in a regional law – comprehensively deals with all aspects including IUCN management criteria, it also provides the legal basis for regularly evaluating management effectiveness of the park. According to the law, comprehensive evaluations have to take place once every five years with the aim to assess management effectiveness in all dimensions of the park’s organizational and managerial fields, such as the organization, financial and activities planning, ecological management, visitor policies, and scientific research.
The current evaluation project was commissioned in 2007 by the national park authority to an interdisciplinary group consisting of M. Jungmeier (ecologist and nature conservation planner for over 20 years), B. Pfleger (environmental engineer and conservation planner/manager), W. Scherzinger (professor of ecology and nature conservation), and M. Getzner (ecological economist). The framework of evaluation was set up by the European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS) with the explicit recommendation to consult all relevant stakeholders during the evaluation process, and the request by the park management to present a very detailed assessment of the park.
The ESCS evaluates the effectiveness of management in a broad perspective, addressing all relevant issues of a park’s management, and measuring the success or failure by means of detailed scores for each indicator. A brief description of the methodology can be found in Pfleger, 2010. Table 2 above presents an overview of the indicators of this evaluation tool.
Each indicator is evaluated according to a pre-defined scale; for instance, the indicators measure whether the financial basis of the park is sustainable and secured for the future, and whether effective management plans are developed and implemented. Five different levels of implementation and effectiveness are described, explained, and can be selected. In addition, management tools, references and best practice examples for each indicator are included in the description of the ESCS framework and instrument. Finally, there is a comprehensive documentation section for recording information, and, among others, for verifying the results and helping to implement necessary measures and policies.
The measurement of indicators along a scorecard is probably not the only significant contribution of the ESCS evaluation tool. While the assigning of certain scores to the indicators was done by the research team, the concrete scores for the indicators are not the most relevant element of the evaluation process. The first step of the evaluation was to collect a comprehensive informational basis for assessing management effectiveness which was done by contacting all relevant stakeholders; at the beginning, information was, of course, collected with the national park authorities including the management, and the local nature conservation authorities. The informational basis was, as objectively as possible, described and condensed for each indicator. The second step was to collect stakeholders’ opinions regarding the current state of each indicator. For some indicators, different stakeholder groups presented their assessment of the current situation which was documented in the ESCS report, too. The third working step included an assessment from the viewpoint of the expert (evaluation) team, and the final (fourth) section of each indicator assessment included a comprehensive list of recommendations for further improving management effectiveness.
It is of high importance to note that the evaluation of management effectiveness by means of evaluation tools, especially in the case of the ESCS, is concentrated towards the long-term development of the park. In the case of the Gesäuse national park, the evaluation of the long-term sustainability of current policies, including the frameworks mentioned above, is particularly significant. For instance, current policies in transforming the composition of tree species in the diverse forests of the park can only be assessed in the far future due to the slow development of forests towards a natural composition and ecological balance. As national parks secure and partially (re-) introduce natural dynamics to the ecosystems, these processes are inherently stretching far into the future. A basic assessment such as the ESCS therefore cannot, and does not want to, assess management effectiveness in the sense of measuring the current benefits of policies (outputs and outcomes), as this would often require long-term monitoring and research. Instead, the ESCS has the aim to review current policies with the perspective of the sustainability and future achievements of PA authorities. Based on the assumption, that changes in the first phases of the management cycle (see Figure 2) have far more significant impacts on the effectiveness of a protected area than improvements in the latter ones, the ESCS focuses on the first four phases (context, planning, inputs, processes), rather than on concrete outcomes. The last phases are indirectly addressed by the respective indicators for comprehensive monitoring which measures the objectives of the park.
As mentioned above, a particularly strong focus of the ESCS was the involvement of local and regional stakeholders. At the time of evaluating the park, park policies were subject to many emotionalized debates in the region. The need to identify and integrate critical perceptions into the evaluation was obvious, but a clear distinction between opinions and facts was considerably difficult. To secure the credibility of the process and the whole evaluation efforts, the discussion with stakeholders was structured according to the “Regional Timeline Method” (Jungmeier et al., 2010). Based on individual events and incidents, stakeholders created a joint emotional timeline for particular periods from the inauguration of the park until the evaluation exercise. This method thus complemented the evaluation process by providing “screenshots” of stakeholders’ views.
As mentioned before, evaluating the Gesäuse national park is included in the governance framework of the park which is itself codified in the regional national park law. The evaluation was carried out based on international standards with reference to the existing evaluation frameworks while applying a newly developed, participatory evaluation methodology called “European Site Consolidation Scorecard” (ESCS). It is safe to say that this evaluation exercise has been by far the most in-depth evaluation for Austrian parks to date. The analysis was based on all important documents, personal talks, several workshops in the region, and an assessment of the regional economic impacts. The evaluation report summed up the results in the following way. The Gesäuse national park management can be described as “exceptionally positive. The foundations that are laid down, the developed structures in the park, processes and activities certainly compare favorably in the international context. Strategic decisions of the park management are well argued, the documentation is comprehensive, and the overall direction of the park is sustainable.” (Getzner et al., 2008; translation from German).
In particular, the following fields and projects of the national park management are exceptional:
Innovative and high-quality, partially unique offers for visitors regarding education and information (visitor center, exhibitions, events);
Comprehensive and systematic public relations work within and outside the region;
Highly qualified, motivated and effective team members and team work;
Comprehensive basic ecological inventory, excellent scientific research and planning work;
First already verifiable impacts on the regional economy due to increases in visitor numbers.
On the other hand, the evaluation highlighted some aspects that might need further concentration of resources:
Reduction of the barrier effect of roads, rail tracks, forestry and provisioning paths;
Assurance of financial sustainability by valorization of public budgets based on the consumer price index;
Further development of the legal frameworks to stringently apply IUCN criteria;
Improvement of participatory processes for stakeholders and vested interests inside and outside the region;
Development of a comprehensive and inclusive management plan with the park’s vision, objectives, and implementation strategies;
Improvement of collaboration between the land owner (Styrian Forests, a publicly owned company) and the national park authority;
Improvement of the boundaries of the national park in the light of ecological dynamics.
All in all, the existing evaluation of the Gesäuse national park has certified that the park’s management has decided upon sustainable strategies for improving and securing the natural dynamics in the ecosystems while providing excellent infrastructure for visitors and information for stakeholders and the general public.
During the life-cycle of a protected area (PA), the evaluation of management effectiveness of the PA administrating and managing authorities including the whole PA context becomes increasingly important, both for securing and improving the conservation of biodiversity, but also for the acceptance of stakeholders and funding bodies. Currently, there are numerous approaches to evaluating management effectiveness of parks; many international institutions have drafted and implemented such evaluation instruments.
The current paper has focused on a specific evaluation instrument that emphasizes the process of evaluation from the perspective of a range of important stakeholders. The “European Site Consolidation Scorecard” (ESCS) is an evaluating instrument with four large groups of indicators dealing with strategic planning, conservation activities and results, long-term financing, and site constituency. The instrument thus has become part of the governance system of the park contributing to social learning both of the PA staff as well as local stakeholders in manifold dimensions.
At the beginning of any evaluation exercise, PA management and policy makers have to be convinced of the usefulness of the evaluation to increase the probability that recommendations will indeed be implemented (Pfleger, 2008). The implementation of the evaluation results is crucial since the evaluation might lead to higher costs than benefits since the frustration of those involved in the evaluation process might be significant (Hockings et al., 2006). However, the lack of implementing evaluation results is, at the moment, one of the biggest problems in assessing protected area management effectiveness. Evaluations are carried out, but recommendations are not implemented in daily management (Steindlegger, 2007).
In general, external evaluation is important because it addresses “uncomfortable” topics such as the organizational structure, enhances credibility of park management, and forms the basis for policy changes. However, it is useless without sufficient discussion and participation of the PA management because the administration of the protected area has the responsibility to implement the recommendations. Without understanding evaluation results in a respective social learning environment, PA management will not follow recommendations and adapt management policies.
Integrating stakeholders’ opinions and viewpoints is necessary especially for collecting information about PA policies and impacts. In addition, it is of high importance to present stakeholders with the opportunity to express their opinions with the aim to making PA management more effective, and to increase the acceptance and support of the evaluation results. Suitable instruments may be workshops, and personal talks and interviews as an addition to the existing governance framework. However, once stakeholders are involved, their opinion has to be accounted for in a transparent way. In addition, evaluation results have to be made available for stakeholders (as well as the general public) to receive a sufficient acceptance of evaluation results. Publicizing evaluation results has to be done in a sensitive way because presenting bare scorecard figures to the general public may lead to misinterpretations.
As the European Site Consolidation Scorecard (ESCS) focuses on the first four phases of the management cycle and not on outputs and outcomes, the evaluation method cannot assess the efficiency of PA management in terms of relating outcomes to the costs of the park. The ESCS thus has to be complemented by long-term monitoring methods (however, the ESCS indirectly addresses long-term developments and outcomes by including an indicator assessing the PA’s monitoring plan). During the detailed ESCS evaluation process in the Gesäuse national park some crucial elements of effective PA management such as the missing management plan or insufficient stakeholder involvement, were soon obvious. As a methodological conclusion of our evaluation study, it is not necessary to employ in-depth evaluation tools for discovering the most obvious weaknesses of PA management which might be evident by using a simple scorecard with some stakeholder involvement. Thus, a first quick evaluation might exhibit crucial issues with relative low efforts if the evaluation concentrates on the first four management phases. If results should be more comprehensive, and provide more detailed recommendations, costly evaluation and long-term monitoring tools are necessary.
Whether protected area management effectiveness evaluations really contribute to good governance and social learning depends less on the methodology chosen (whether e.g. it is a rapid assessment or an in-depth evaluation). Instead, the evaluation process itself is of much more importance. A “secret” self-assessment done by the protected area management body will hardly be useful whereas an integrated approach that also includes external experts as well as relevant stakeholders, and widely publishes the results, brings far more benefits than just management recommendations.
The debate on appropriate indicators, evaluation tools, scorecards and checklists, has intensified in the last decade but remains at a rather technical level. However, any learning and progress in and about protected areas management is clearly connected to the intensity of the public debate provoked by the evaluation process. The evaluation of the Gesäuse national park as part of the park’s governance had mainly three results. First, a written evaluation report including the scorecard and the recommended policies; second, a broad range of personal viewpoints and findings of over 50 staff members and stakeholders directly involved in the evaluation exercise in the sense of social learning experiences; third, a broader understanding of the PA staff for the principles of adaptive management that may quickly respond to changing needs and requirements. Summing up, the authors of the current study consider the first result – while the only “tangible” output of the evaluation – to be the least important one.
We are thankful to the editor and the reviewers for their comments and suggestions. In addition, we would like to thank W. Scherzinger, W. Franek, and the Gesäuse national park staff, for their collaboration and support during the evaluation of the national park. All errors are, of course, the responsibility of the authors.
Wine is an alcoholic beverage commonly produced from fermented grape juice. It can be categorized as dry wine, semidry wine, semisweet wine, sweet wine, still wine, and sparkling wine based on its sugar or carbon dioxide content. Depending on the production methods or materials used, it can also be classified as a special wine (including liqueur wine, carbonated wine, icewine, noble rot wine, floral wine, flavored wine, low alcohol wine, nonalcohol wine, and
In addition to the categorization of wine regarding its alcohol content, one with an alcohol content above 10.5% v/v, from 5.5 to 10.5% v/v, from 1.2 to 5.5%, from 0.5 to 1.2% v/v, or below 0.5% v/v may be classified as an alcoholic wine, lower-alcohol wine, reduced-alcohol wine, low-alcohol wine, or nonalcoholic wine (NW) [2, 3]. However, these classifications differ from one winemaking region or country to another [4]. Over the years, with health risk awareness and social demands related to road safety, consumer preferences are now shifting toward new product offerings and alternatives, with an increasing percentage of the adult population seeking lower alcohol wines more frequently. This has boosted the production and sales of nonalcoholic wines with the global nonalcoholic wine market worth over $10 billion and is still estimated to increase at a significant CAGR above 7% between 2019 and 2027, attaining a profit share of over $30 billion [5].
Lower, reduced, low, and NW wines can be produced at the various stages of wine production (pre-fermentation, fermentation, and post-fermentation stages) using several methods such as reduction of the juice fermentable sugars before fermentation, the reduction of alcohol production during fermentation, and the separation by membranes and thermal treatment after complete fermentation of the wine [6, 7, 8, 9]. The latter methods, also known as physical dealcoholization (ethanol removal) methods are usually used after complete fermentation of the wine (i.e., at wine post-fermentation stage) and can achieve good results when used on a finished wine. Studies have reported the ability of some physical dealcoholization methods in preserving the phenolic compounds [10], volatile compounds [11], and sensory quality [12, 13] of the final wine product at certain levels of ethanol removal with a taste almost similar to the original wines (in the case of partially dealcoholized wines), contrarily to the former methods (commonly used before and during fermentation), which produces unbalanced wine products (high acidity, unfermented juice, and low fermentative aroma compounds) with legality issues in the case of the juice fermentable sugars dilution with water [14]. Wine produced by physical dealcoholization methods (i.e., alcohol removal from finished wines) is termed dealcoholized wine (DW). The dealcoholization of wine can be complete or partial. A completely DW is a beverage obtained exclusively from wine by dealcoholization with a final alcohol content below 0.5% v/v (resolution OIV-ECO 432-2012), while a partially DW is a beverage obtained exclusively from wine by dealcoholization with a final alcohol content ≥0.5% v/v (resolution OIV-ECO 433-2012). NW (< 0.5% v/v ethanol) produced from a finished wine by dealcoholization may be termed DW, whereas low, reduced, and lower alcohol wines (0.5–10.5% v/v ethanol) may be termed partially dealcoholized wines. In this chapter, we focus on the methods used for producing of NW from high-strength alcoholic wines after complete fermentation (wine post-fermentation stage), specifically, their impact on the aroma profile and sensory characteristics of NW. In addition, the state-of-the-art methods of improving the aroma profile of DW/NW are discussed.
The production of NW can be achieved by several methods as shown in Figure 1. These methods can be broadly classified into three groups based on the principle or mechanism of ethanol reduction and removal at the various stages of wine production, including reduction of fermentable sugars (pre-fermentation stage), reduction or limitation of ethanol production (fermentation stage), and ethanol removal by membrane separation or thermal treatment (post-fermentation stage) [6, 7, 8, 9].
Methods of lower, reduced, low, and NW wines production.
The reduction of fermentable sugars in the pre-fermentation stage of wine is one of the common methods for the production of wines with lower or reduced alcohol content. It includes techniques such as juice dilution [15, 16], juice filtration with membranes [17, 18], the use of enzymes (e.g., glucose oxidase) [19, 20], early harvest and blending with mature harvest [21], viticultural practices (e.g., use of growth regulators, reduction of photosynthetic activity, reduction of leaf area, preharvest irrigation) [22, 23].
Juice dilution involves adding water to grape juice or mixing the juice with green harvest to reduce the concentration of fermentable sugars. In countries such as South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and the United States of America (excluding California where it is only permitted for preventing stuck fermentations), water is only allowed as a processing aid. The substitution of grape juice with water or the direct addition of water to reduce the concentration of fermentable sugars has been effective in reducing the ethanol content of the final wine product by 4-6% v/v [15, 16]. Regarding the use of green harvest in juice dilution, this range of ethanol reduction is determined by the harvest date. The pre-fermentative substitution of a matured Shiraz juice (obtained from Shiraz grapes harvested at 25.5 °Brix) with water or direct water addition at rates of 10.2, 34.0, and 47.2% v/v resulted in lower alcohol wines with 14.5%/14.4%, 12.0%/11.7%, and 10.6%/9.6% ABV, respectively, after fermentation to dryness (<1 g/L of total sugar). The lower alcohol wines (10.6%/9.6% ABV) produced by substituting or diluting the juice with 47.2% v/v water decreased the total phenolics, anthocyanin concentration, tannin concentration, color density, and SO2-resistant pigments compared with the control (15.5% ABV) [16]. Furthermore, sensory attributes such as “body,” “astringency,” “flavor intensity,” and “alcohol” flavor were lower in wines with 9.6% ABV compared with the control, which was attributed to the alcohol concentration difference of 1% ABV between the lower alcohol wines produced by substitution (10.6%) and those produced by direct water addition (9.6% ABV) [16]. However, in some European winemaking countries such as France, Spain, Italy, and Germany, this practice is illegal because it can significantly affect most physicochemical parameters, phenolic and volatile components, and the sensory quality of the resulting wine [15, 16, 21].
Filtration of the juice with membranes is another method of producing lower or reduced alcohol wines, based on the principle of sugar reduction of the juice before fermentation. In this method, a portion of the sugar-rich juice is filtered with nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, or reverse osmosis membranes, which have a very small pore size and can retain the sugar. The filtered juice is then mixed with the other portion of the sugar-rich juice and fermented to obtain lower or reduced alcohol content wine [17, 18]. To produce a lower or reduced alcohol content wine (≤ 10.5% v/v ethanol) by this method, optimal operating conditions and a suitable membrane configuration with a good molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) should be considered to increase the retention of volatile compounds and maintain good taste in the wine. On the contrary, this could lead to a lower content of polyphenols, anthocyanins, and color intensity and consequently affect the sensory properties of the nonalcoholic wine [17, 24].
The use of glucose oxidase is another way to produce lower or reduced alcohol wines. This enzyme is found in the fungus
Early harvesting of fruit and blending with ripe grapes is another strategy that can be used to reduce the ethanol concentration in wine. In one study, using this strategy resulted in a 3.2% v/v reduction in ethanol content of red wines with ideal aroma profiles [27]. Similarly, a 3% v/v reduction in ethanol concentration was observed when an acidic and low alcohol blend of early harvested white and red grapes was added to a ripened grape ferment [28]. According to Piccardo et al. [29], this strategy can lower not only ethanol content but also pH and total acidity without significantly affecting other wine components. Contrary to other studies, acidity and “raw” aromas can be perceived in the resulting wine [28].
About half of the total fermentable sugar in grape juice is glucose [30], which is the main substrate converted to alcohol by yeasts during fermentation. Viticultural practices such as reducing photosynthetic activity, using growth regulators, reducing leaf area, and preharvest irrigation have been used to regulate grape fermentable sugars so that low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wines can be produced from grape juice [22, 23]. As indicated by some studies, the degree of sugar accumulation in berries can be influenced by reducing the leaf area [31, 32, 33], resulting in a reduction of ethanol content in the resulting wine [23, 34, 35]. For example, a lower alcohol content in the finished wine was observed after leaf area reduction of Shiraz vines [22]. A similar observation was made after post-veraison leaf removal in a Sangiovese vine, with no negative effects on phenolic compounds [36].
Reducing or limiting alcohol production is another principle used in producing nonalcoholic or low-alcohol wines during the fermentation of wines. This principle basically includes three techniques such as interrupted fermentation [2], reduction of yeast biomass [37], use of modified yeast strains with low alcohol production ability [38, 39], and use of non-
Interrupted or limited fermentation is the intentional termination of alcoholic fermentation before it is complete by controlling the fermentation time and temperature during fermentation [2]. Generally, during fermentation, the ethanol concentration is monitored until the desired concentration is reached. Then, fermentation is stopped either by lowering the fermentation temperature or by adding sulfur dioxide. When producing nonalcoholic or low alcohol wines using this method, the fermentation time is usually short in order to achieve a very low ethanol content. However, this usually results in sweet nonalcoholic or low alcohol wines with high residual sugar content that require further post-fermentation treatments, such as heat treatment or addition of sulfur dioxide to combat microbial instability and difficult storage [42].
The reduction of yeast biomass during fermentation can also be used to produce nonalcoholic or low-alcohol wines. In this method, the yeast population is reduced from time to time during fermentation to keep the fermentation rate of fermentable sugars as low as possible. This prevents the production of high amounts of ethanol during fermentation. Through centrifugation, Fan et al. [37] reduced the biomass of dry yeast (106 CUF/ml) during the fermentation process of an apple cider, resulting in a cider with low alcohol content and fruity aroma. Similar to limited fermentation, the final product of this technique is sweet with a high residual sugar content and requires attention for its microbial stability and storage [42]. Nevertheless, this method is useful for producing a sweeter and more pleasant nonalcoholic or low-alcohol beverage [43].
The literature also reports the use of modified yeast in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wine [38, 39]. Through gene modification or adaptive evolution and selection, modified yeast strains with low ethanol production ability are developed and can be used to reduce the alcohol content in wine during fermentation [44]. A
Non-
The complete fermentation of grape juice with high amounts of sugars produces wines. Wines are generally characterized by bitterness, hotness, good viscosity, and intense aroma and flavor. Wines can be further processed into low or nonalcoholic wines based on the final alcohol content. There are basically three methods of alcohol removal including extraction processes, membrane processes, and heat treatment [8, 9, 54].
Extraction processes use extraction media such as gases (carbon dioxide), solvents (liquid carbon dioxide, pentane, hexane), and absorbents (zeolites) to remove ethanol from wine to produce alcohol-free or low-alcohol wine [30, 54, 55, 56]. Carbon dioxide in the form of gas or liquid can be used to extract of ethanol from wine. Carbon dioxide has a critical pressure (73 atm) and temperature (31 °C) [57], above which it behaves as a supercritical fluid (i.e., both liquid and gas) that can be used to extract organic compounds such as ethanol from wine due to its affinity for the carbon chain (as a liquid) [55] and then immediately evaporates (as a gas), leaving the extracted compound (ethanol) with a high concentration of aroma compounds [54] and no residue [7]. This method offers several advantages because carbon dioxide is inexpensive, easy to handle, does not require hazardous substances, and has a low supercritical temperature [30]. In addition, extraction solvents such as pentane and hexane are also used to remove ethanol from wines, where the ethanol dissolves in the solvent and is subsequently removed from the wine [55]. However, these extraction solvents can also remove other soluble aroma compounds along with the ethanol, which can negatively affect the aroma profile of the final product [56]. Hydrophobic adsorbents such as zeolites can also extract ethanol from wine by absorbing and filtering the ethanol from the wine. This method can be used to produce nonalcoholic wines with an ethanol content of 0.5% v/v [58]. Nevertheless, extraction methods for alcohol reduction are expensive and are rarely used in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wines.
Membrane processes are physical separation processes that can reduce or remove ethanol from wine using a semipermeable membrane. In this method, natural osmotic pressure is created by the pressure exerted on two solutions of unequal solution concentration flowing tangentially, parallel, or circularly through a semipermeable membrane. To restore the equilibrium of natural osmotic pressure, the alcohol and water in the wine pass through the semipermeable membrane from the high-concentration solution to the low-concentration solution [30, 59]. This phenomenon reduces or removes the ethanol from the wine, resulting in a low- or non- alcoholic wine, depending on the remaining ethanol content. The most commonly used membrane separation processes at the commercial level include reverse osmosis (RO), osmotic distillation (OD), and pervaporation (PV) (Figure 2) [6, 8, 9, 30].
Membrane separation techniques for removal of alcohol from wine.
In PV, the transfer of compounds (by adsorption, diffusion, and desorption) occurs through a close-packed polymer membrane based on the partial evaporation of liquid mixtures with similar boiling points confined in an azeotropic mixture, with the liquid phase changing to the vapor phase [59, 60]. PV has been used to remove ethanol and recover aromatics from wines [61, 62]. It is highly selective, consumes little energy, operates at lower temperatures, causes less loss of aromatics, and is a clean method (i.e., it produces water and ethanol as by-products that can be recycled or reused). Nevertheless, the high cost of the PV machine and membranes, the low diffusion rate at low temperatures, and the limited market for PV membranes are some disadvantages of using PV to produce low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wines.
RO also works on the principle of membrane separation, in which a concentration gradient between two solutions through a hydrophilic, semipermeable hollow fiber membrane causes the solvent to flow from the high-concentration solution through the membrane to the low-concentration solution, retaining salts, peptides, and proteins [30]. The use of RO in the production of wines and beverages with or without alcohol content has been reported [8, 9, 63, 64]. In a diafiltration configuration, an industrial-scale plant of RO was used to produce nonalcoholic red, white, and rosé wines with a final alcohol concentration of 0.7% v/v, but most of the basic oenological parameters, volatile composition, and sensory quality of the wines were affected [65]. In contrast, some studies reported that low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wines produced with RO had no negative effects on the main aroma compounds and had similar taste and aromas to normal wines [66, 67]. RO can be operated at low temperatures and meets the requirements for a clean technology, as it can recover and reuse ethanol from the dealcoholization byproduct (water and ethanol solution). However, adding water during diafiltration to achieve effective alcohol removal is a drawback of this method, as the addition of water to wine is prohibited in some wine-producing countries or regions.
Another modern membrane separation process that has found application in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wine is osmotic distillation (OD), also known as evaporative pertraction (EP). In this membrane-based technology, two liquid phases, wine and a stripping liquid (usually water), circulate in countercurrent on opposite sides of a hydrophobic hollow fiber membrane, as shown in Figure 2. In this process, the vapor pressure of the volatile solutes in the wine and the stripping liquid is the driving force [68]. The mechanism for ethanol removal in the OD process is as follows: evaporation of ethanol from the wine on one side of the membrane, followed by diffusion of ethanol vapor through the membrane pores, then finally exit of ethanol vapor from the opposite side of the membrane and condensation in the stripping water solution [68]. Minimal loss of aroma compounds was observed after alcohol reduction up to 5% v/v in Garnacha, Xarelo, and Tempranillo wines by OD [69]. Similarly, alcohol reduction up to 6% v/v in fermented beverages with OD at 10 ° C–20 °C did not result in significant losses of aroma compounds [70]. Moreover, OD was used to reduce the alcohol content (−10.5% v/v) of
Thermal processes such as spinning cone column (SCC) and distillation under vacuum/vacuum distillation (VD) are two very common methods for reducing alcohol in wine and other alcoholic beverages based on the principle of heating and evaporation [8, 9, 30]. The SCC is a falling film separator consisting of a rotating vertical shaft and vertically stacked cones that rotate alternately and are fixed in place (Figure 3a). The SCC process is considered very cost-effective and efficient for retaining aroma compounds from wine, beverages, and other liquid foods [30]. In particular, it has reportedly been used to recover concentrates from grape juice, lower the ethanol content in wines, remove sulfur dioxide from grape juice, and recover aroma compounds from wines and beer [2, 9, 30, 72]. To reduce the alcohol content of the finished wine, the SCC technique uses a two-stage process. In the first stage, the wine is passed through the SCC at a reduced vacuum pressure (0.04 atm) and temperature (about 28 °C) to extract the wine aroma compounds in about 1% of the total wine volume. Subsequently, the ethanol content of the wine is reduced to produce a low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wine (depending on the final alcohol content) in the second stage at a slightly higher vacuum pressure and temperature (about 38 °C) to remove the alcohol. The aroma of the low-alcohol or alcohol-free wine is then improved by adding the recovered wine aromas (i.e., the aroma compounds extracted in the first stage) [30]. In a previous study, SCC was successfully used to recover about 97–100% of aroma compounds from white, rosé, and red wines by regulating the extraction percentage and flow rate of the base wines [72]. Moreover, 94% of ethanol was recovered from a water-ethanol mixture (14.8% v/v ethanol) using SCC at medium-high stripping rates (0.1–0.6), high feed and medium temperatures (40–50°C). However, when the alcohol content of a Chardonnay grape juice (2% v/v) was reduced halfway through fermentation with SCC, a reduction in volatile compounds of about 25% was observed. The significant change in the concentration of volatile aroma compounds after alcohol reduction could be due to the remaining ethanol content [65], the chemical-physical properties of the aroma compounds [73], and the composition of the nonvolatile matrix of the wine [74]. The high cost of SCC technology and the costs associated with its operation are two of its main drawbacks [75].
Production of nonalcoholic wine using (a) spinning cone column; and (b) vacuum distillation.
VD is another interesting technique used to reduce the alcohol content of wines and alcoholic beverages (Figure 3b). In this technique, the feed (usually wine) from the feed tank or flask is heated to a temperature (15–20°C) [74] suitable for the evaporation or vaporization of the ethanol of the wine from the wine medium under vacuum [72], which then condenses as a distillate in a still flask, leaving a low-alcohol or alcohol-free wine, depending on the remaining ethanol content. In some cases, some important volatile aroma compounds removed along with the ethanol could be recovered from the first distillate and added back to the nonalcoholic wine. At the same time, the ethanol could also be recovered and used for ethanol correction of wines. Previous studies have reported the use of VD to reduce the alcohol content (at 0.7–5% v/v) of wines [65, 74]. For example, the alcohol content of rosé and red wines was reduced to 5% v/v, producing reduced-alcohol wines without significantly affecting polyphenols, anthocyanins, cations, and organic acids. However, significant losses in volatile aroma compounds were observed [74]. Also, VD was used to produce nonalcoholic wines (0.7% v/v ethanol) from white, rosé, and red wines, but also significantly affected most chemical parameters and volatile composition. In particular, pH, free sulfur dioxide, total sulfur dioxide, and volatile acidity decreased significantly, while reducing sugar, color intensity, and total acidity increased significantly [65]. In addition, 92–99% of esters and terpene compounds were lost [65]. VD can significantly improve the nonvolatile components in wine compared with membrane separation methods [74]. Nevertheless, VD can significantly reduce almost all volatiles in wine, especially ethyl esters, alcohols, and terpenes [65].
Another evolving technique used in the production of low and nonalcoholic wines and beverages is an integrated membrane/distillation system known as a multistage membrane/distillation system. This technique involves the combination of two or more alcohol removal methods to remove ethanol from wines and beers while minimizing the loss of important volatile aroma compounds associated with individual membrane and thermal separation processes such as RO, PV, OD, and VD [8, 9, 12, 65, 73, 74]. Commonly used multistage membrane/distillation systems include integrated PV and distillation units [76], reverse osmosis-evaporative pertraction (RO-EP) [77], and nanofiltration-pervaporation system (NF-PV) [78], of which RO-EP is the most commonly used (Figure 4). These integrated systems have proven successful in producing reduced-flavor, low-alcohol, or alcohol-free wines and beers with similar or improved aroma and flavor compared with the original wine or beer product [76, 78, 79]. However, significant losses of alcohols (up to 27%), acids (up to 24%), esters (up to 22%), phenols (up to 18%), and lactones (up to 14%) have been reported at ethanol reduction up to 5.5% v/v in the case of RO-EP used for alcohol reduction of a
Scheme of reverse osmosis-evaporative pertraction (RO-EP) for nonalcoholic wine production. RO membrane; reverse osmosis membrane and EP; and evaporative pertraction membrane.
As mentioned earlier, this chapter is focused on low and nonalcoholic wines production methods used after complete fermentation (post-fermentation stage) of wine since these methods are mostly preferred to those used at pre-fermentation and concurrent fermentation stages of wine due to their ability to achieve best results, thus, produce low and nonalcoholic wines with high concentration of fermentative aroma compounds resulting from fully fermented juice. Therefore, in this section we discuss the effect of these methods on the quality of low and nonalcoholic wines, in particular, their effect on the phenolic composition, volatile compounds, and sensory characteristics.
The phenolic composition of wine (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic) is one of the key factors influencing its quality, especially red wine, which mainly includes flavonoids (anthocyanins, flavanols, flavones, flavonols, and proanthocyanidins) and non-flavonoids (hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, and resveratrol) [81, 82, 83]. Table 1 summarizes some reported effects of production methods on the phenolic composition of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines. The production of nonalcoholic wines at the post-fermentation stage of winemaking using physical methods is mainly applicable to finished wines based on the principle of ethanol reduction. During the reduction of alcohol from wine, water is also removed together with the ethanol, which can have either a positive or negative effect on the phenolic composition of the final product. Wine ethanol reduction has been reported to impact wine phenolic compounds [79, 84]. The removal of ethanol from 2011 vintage Barbera red wine (14.6% v/v), Verduno Pelaverga red wine (15.2% v/v), and Langhe Rosè (13.2% v/v) by VD and membrane contactor method to a final ethanol content of 5% v/v resulted in the loss of anthocyanins and polyphenols [74]. In contrast, reduction of the alcohol level in a white wine from 12.5% v/v to 0.3% by OD had no significant effect on the total phenols and flavonoids of nonalcoholic wine compared with the base wine [11]. Similarly, flavonoids, total anthocyanins, and total phenols were not affected after the removal of ethanol (−10.5% v/v) from a red wine (13.2% v/v) [12], whereas a reduction of up to 5% v/v ethanol in a red wine by RO-EP caused an increase in the color intensity and phenolic compounds concentration [87]. Furthermore, SCC was reported to modify the phenolic composition of red wines reduced to less than 0.3 % v/v such that the concentrations of phenolic compounds including total phenols, anthocyanins, stilbenes, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and non-flavonoids increased significantly [84].
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Phenolic composition | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.4 | Insignificant decrease in the concentrations of total anthocyanins and total phenols | [88] |
Barbera red wine, Langhe Rosè wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Increased the concentrations of total flavonoids and total anthocyanins | [83] | |
Aglianico red wine | 0.4–4.9 | Increased the content of total phenols | [80] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7 | Flavonoids and phenolic compounds remained unaffected | [21] | |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3 | No significant effect on the contents of total flavonoids and total phenols | [20] | |
RO | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 9.0 | Total anthocyanins decreased Total phenols increased | [88] |
Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Tempranillo red wines | 2.0–4.0 | No significant effect on the concentrations of total anthocyanins and phenolic compounds Increased color intensity by 20% due to high concentration of anthocyanins | [93] | |
SCC | White, rose, and red wines | < 0.3 | Increased the contents of flavonols, anthocyanins, total phenols, and phenolic compounds contents by 24% | [92] |
VD | Langhe Rosè wine, Verduno Pelaverga red wine, and Barbera red wine | 5.0 | Increased the contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids | [83] |
RO–EP | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine (cv.) | 5.5 | Increased the content of total phenols Decreased the content of total anthocyanins | [88] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the phenolic composition of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
The aroma and flavor of wines are mainly associated with volatile aroma compounds belonging to different chemical groups such as esters, organic acids, alcohols, terpenes, monoterpenes, C-13 norisoprenoids, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, and sulfur compounds [85]. These compounds are either of varietal (imparted from the grape skins), fermentative (produced during wine fermentation) or post-fermentative (produced from aging or additives after fermentation) origin. Factors such as grape variety, viticultural practices, and winemaking methods define the volatile composition of wines as well as its aroma and flavor [86]. As regards the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines using post-fermentation methods such as membrane separation and heat treatment processes, the removal of alcohol can affect the volatile compounds of the final product. For example, the total removal of ethanol from a Tokaji Hárslevelű wine with an alcohol content of 13.1% v/v by PV resulted in a 70% loss of the total aroma compounds [61]. In addition, the production of a nonalcohol wine (0.5% v/v) from a Cabernet Sauvignon red wine (12.5% v/v) using PV led to losses of 99, 28, and 40% of esters, organic acids, and alcohols, respectively [62]. Furthermore, losses of about 9, 4, and 18% were observed in the total concentration of volatile compounds in white, rose, and red wines, respectively, after treated with SCC [72]. More recently, Sam et al. [65] compared RO and VD in the obtainment of nonalcoholic wines (with final ethanol content of 0.7 v/v) from white wine (13.4% v/v), rose wine (12.2% v/v), and red wine (13.9% v/v). They observed significant losses of volatile compounds in the nonalcoholic wines, in particular, VD resulted in losses of the total concentration of esters in white, rosé, and red wines by 96, 98, and 96%, respectively, whereas respective losses of 92, 81, and 87% were observed in RO-treated wines. Alcohol removal is not solely responsible for the losses of volatile aroma compounds during the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines, other factors such as the type of method used, the operating conditions applied, the type of membrane used (in the case of membrane processes), the chemical-physical properties of the volatile compounds, and the nonvolatile matrix of the wine can also play a vital role [8, 9]. Some reported effects of production methods on the volatile compounds of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines are summarized in Table 2.
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Losses of volatile compounds (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Aglianico red wine | 8.8 | Esters = 60.9 Alcohols = 31.8 Acids = 17.1 Terpene compounds = 32.3 | [96] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.4 | Esters = 19.0 Alcohols = 3.0 Acids = 25.0 lactones = 25.0 Phenols = 10.0 | [88] | |
Langhe Rosè wine, Barbera red wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Esters = 23.8–47.8 Alcohols = 59.9–63.9 Acids = 17.4–30.9 | [83] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7 | Esters = 85.0 Alcohols = 84.0 Acids = 23.0 lactones = 37.0 Phenols = 37.0 | [21] | |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3 | Esters = 99.0 Alcohols = 98.9 Acids = 98.7 Ketones = 99.9 Lactones = 98.2 | [20] | |
Aglianico red wine | 0.2 | Esters = 89.9 Alcohols = 99.9 Acids = 78.9 Ketones & lactones = 97.9 Aldehydes = 100 Sulfur compounds = 78.7 Phenols = 100 | [82] | |
RO | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 9.0 | Esters = 8.0 Alcohols = 30.0 Acids = 22.0 Phenols = 13.0 Lactones = 14.0 | [88] |
Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Esters = 81–92 Alcohols = 58–75 Acids = 73–89 Terpenes = 48–70 Other compounds = 75–87 | [74] | |
PV | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | 0.5 | Esters = 99.9 Alcohols = 39.5 Acids = 28.2 | [71] |
SCC | White wine | 0.3 | Esters = 53.0 Aliphatic alcohols = 98.0 Aromatic alcohols = 3.0 Acids = 20.0 Ketones = 71.0 | [97] |
VD | Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Esters = 96–98 Alcohols = 85–95 Acids = 85–91 Terpene compounds = 92–96 Other compounds = 91–99 | [74] |
Langhe Rosè wine, Barbera red wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Esters = 19.5–22.9 Alcohols = 50.4–53.6 Acids = 2.3–13.7 | [83] | |
RO–EP | Shiraz red wine | 10.4 | Esters = 49.5 Alcohols = 38.9 Terpene compounds = 35.3 Lactones = 21.4 | [98] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.5 | Esters = 22.0 Alcohols = 27.0 Acids = 24.0 Phenols = 18.0 Lactones = 14.0 | [88] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the volatile compounds of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
Volatile compounds, especially terpenes and esters, contribute significantly to the aroma and flavor of wines [90, 91], and their complete loss or decrease due to the removal of ethanol from wine can significantly affect the sensory characteristics of the final wine product. Ethanol can enhance the perception of viscosity, bitterness, and hotness in wine, while masking other sensory characteristics such as astringency and acidity [92, 93, 94]. Some important findings on the effect of ethanol reduction using nonalcoholic wines production methods are presented in Table 3. Studies have shown that the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines by post-fermentation techniques can significantly affect sensory attributes such as hotness, bitterness, aroma intensity, color, astringency, acidity, sweetness, wine body, red fruits, dried fruits, etc. [12, 62, 65, 71, 89, 95, 96]. A nonalcoholic white wine (0.3% v/v ethanol) produced by OD was characterized by low sweetness, aroma, viscosity, and high acidity in comparison to the original the wine with an alcohol content of 12.5%, giving it an unbalanced taste and unpleasant aftertaste [11]. Similar observations were made in nonalcohol white, rose, and red wines produced by RO and VD [65]. Moreover, the reduction of ethanol in Aglianico red wines at 5% v/v by a membrane contactor technique decreased aroma notes such as red fruits and cherry in the final reduced wine products [87]. Furthermore, when SCC was used to reduce the alcohol content of oaked Chardonnay wine, the perceptions of hotness and overall aroma intensity reduced substantially compared with the original wine [97]. It is worth mentioning that low and nonalcoholic wines (< 0.5–5.5% v/v ethanol) usually have poor sensory quality and consumer preferences due to their imbalanced body and flavor, reduced hotness, and high acidity and astringency when compared with original wines [65, 89, 96] unless supplemented with additives. Meanwhile, lower and reduced wines (6.5–10.5% v/v ethanol) typically have acceptable preferences [12, 87, 98] due to less negative impact on the sensory characteristics arising from less ethanol removal and aroma compounds. For example, the reduction of alcohol in a white Chardonnay wine (14.2% v/v) by 4.5% v/v negatively affected consumer liking of the final product, while a reduction of 1.5% and 3.3% v/v had no significant effect. Also, when a red wine with alcohol content of 13.2% v/v was dealcoholized (i.e., its ethanol reduced) by 8% v/v, no substantial changes in the color intensity and overall acceptability were observed between the two wines [12]. In addition, an ethanol reduction by 3 and 5% v/v in two red wines (cv. Aglianico) with different initial alcohol contents (15.4 and 13.3 % v/v) using a membrane contactor technique increased the bitterness, acidity, and astringency of the final lower alcohol wines, while a 2% v/v reduction resulted in no significant differences between the base wines and the final wine products [87]. Similarly, Meillon et al. [98] reported a decrease in consumer preference for a Syrah red wine (13.4% v/v) dealcoholized by 5.5% v/v and a nonsignificant effect on the preference at dealcoholization by 2% and 4% v/v using RO. The inability of most consumers to notice alcohol reductions ≤2% v/v may have accounted for these results [8].
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Sensory characteristics | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Aglianico red wine | 8.8–11.6 | Astringency, bitterness, and acidity increased, while red fruits, sweet, and cherry aromas decreased. | [96] |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3–9.8 | Unbalanced taste and liking, with an unpleasant aftertaste due to reduced sweetness, body, and odor | [20] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7–8.3 | Lower acceptability due to high acidity, low sweetness, and low red fruits and spices notes | [21] | |
RO | Syrah red wine | 9.6 | Hotness, sweetness, and wine length in the mouth decreased, while red fruits, woody and blackcurrant aromas increased | [105] |
Syrah red wine | 7.9 | Aromas, persistence, and complexity decreased | [107] | |
Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Acidity, astringency, and color intensity increased, while viscosity, sweetness, fruity and floral notes, red fruits, bitterness, hotness, aroma intensity, and overall acceptability decreased | [74] | |
PV | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | 0.5 | Good smell and taste due to high retention of fruity aromas | [71] |
VD | Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Acidity, astringency, and color intensity increased, while viscosity, sweetness, fruity and floral notes, red fruits, bitterness, hotness, aroma intensity, and overall acceptability decreased | [74] |
RO–EP | Shiraz red wine | 10.4 | Dark fruit, raisin/prune, and black pepper notes increased. Astringency and overall aroma intensity also Increase | [98] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the sensory properties of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
The aroma profiles of lower, reduced, low, and non-alcoholic wines have a great impact on consumers’ acceptability and mostly depend on volatile compounds. As the removal of alcohol from finished wines usually results in substantial loss of volatile compounds leading to changes in organoleptic properties, innovative ways for correcting these adverse effects are needed. Ways of improving the aroma and sensory properties of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines are rarely reported in the literature although the use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other rarely used aroma additives in enhancing the aroma profile of wines and alcoholic beverages has been reported [99]. For example, the concentration of monoterpenes and monoterpene glycosides significantly increased after the addition of phenolic-free glycosides, resulting in an increase in floral and fruity aroma, flavor, and aftertaste attributes, without altering the bitterness or astringency [100]. Similarly, dehydrated waste grape skins were used to improve the aroma composition of red wines [101]. Furthermore, addition of hydroalcoholic plants macerates to Vermouth and basic wines improved their sensory characteristics such as aroma, taste, and smell [102]. Moreover, when 2 g/L of Ganoderma lucidum extract was added to a Shiraz wine product, it imparted the wine with fruity and floral notes [103]. Also, the addition of oak chips to Verdejo wines imparted the wines with higher concentrations ethyl acetate, hexyl acetate, isoamyl acetates, higher alcohols, and ethyl esters of straight-chain fatty acids [104], which are known to contribute fruity and floral aromas to the wines. Other wines aromatized with botanical extracts include Benedictine, Chartreuse, liqueurs, and bitters [105]. Possibly, the reciprocation of these studies in lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines would significantly improve their aroma profile. However, the ongoing debate at OIV whether to permit the use of flavorings or exogenous aroma additives from grapes or non-grapes origin in the aroma improvement of these categories of products is a major hindrance to the scientific exploration in this field. Nevertheless, some studies have reported on the aroma improvement of dealcoholized wines (lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines) and beers [11, 76, 106]. In an attempt to improve the aroma profile of a white wine (11.5% v/v) dealcoholized to a final ethanol content of 0.8% v/v by vacuum evaporation, glycosidic aroma precursors isolated from Muscat grapes were added to the dealcoholized wine. This increased concentrations of β-phenylethyl alcohol, linalool, and geraniol, imparting the final product with high fruity and floral odors [106]. Similarly, Liguori et al. [11] developed an alcohol-free wine beverage with improved aftertaste and flavor from an OD dealcoholized white wine (0.3% v/v ethanol) by adding grape must, sodium carbonate solution, and some floral wine flavors. Furthermore, the aroma profile of a nonalcoholic beer with alcohol content of less than 0.5% was improved by first extracting aroma compounds from non-carbonated alcoholic beer (5.67% v/v ethanol) by pervaporation. Subsequently, the alcohol was removed from the alcoholic beer by spinning cone column distillation. The dealcoholized beer was then reconstituted with about 5–10% v/v of the original beer and 0.3% v/v of the extracted aroma compounds and finally carbonated, resulting in a nonalcoholic beer with improved aroma profile similar to the original beer [76]. Recently, a study was conducted at Gansu Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, China to investigate the effect of rose (
Spider plot of sensory analysis (means) performed on (a) rose wine; and (b) red wine. Different letters (a–c) represent significant differences at a significant level of 0.05. OW; original merlot wine (control), DW; dealcoholized merlot wine (control), R-RDW; rose reconstituted dealcoholized wine, P-RDW; peach reconstituted dealcoholized wine, L-RDW; and lily reconstituted dealcoholized wine.
With health risks awareness, consumer preferences are shifting toward new product offerings and alternatives, with increasing percentage of the adult population seeking lower alcohol wines more frequently. This has boosted nonalcoholic wine production and sales, with many industries and researchers already abreast with different nonalcoholic wine production techniques at the various stages of winemaking. In this chapter, we focus on the methods used for the production of NW from high-strength alcoholic wines after complete fermentation (wine post-fermentation stage). Specifically, their impact on the aroma profile and sensory characteristics of NW as well as the state-of-the-art methods of improving the aroma profile of such product. Among the methods of NW production, physical dealcoholization methods are usually used as they can achieve the best results when used on a finished wine. Also, when used in the reduction of ethanol at several percent (2–4% v/v), they can preserve the phenolic compounds, volatile compounds, and sensory quality of the wine. Furthermore, the end product usually has a taste almost similar to original wine. In contrast, the other methods discussed in this chapter can produce unbalanced wines (with high acidity, unfermented juice, and low fermentative aroma compounds) with legality issues in the case of the juice fermentable sugars dilution with water. Nevertheless, some important aroma compounds can be lost using physical dealcoholization methods in the production of NW. Therefore, subsequent aroma enhancement may be needed to compensate for the loss of important volatile compounds associated with the aroma profile of the NW during dealcoholization. Currently, there are few studies that scientifically evaluate or optimize the parameters of the production process of aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines, which could be one of the future research areas. To date, there is limited research on new types of aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines, though there is evidence that the use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other rarely used aromatic materials in winemaking improves the aroma profiles of wines and dealcoholized wines. Moreover, the unapproved use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other aromatic materials as an oenological practice by the European Union (EU) and the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) is a major setback to their use as wine additives. Nevertheless, for the category of special and aromatized wines, they could be added. The development of novel products from dealcoholized wines reconstituted with fruit-based, herb-based, or new aroma additives represents a potential new market for the wine industry. Therefore, future development of such products will benefit not only the wine industry by producing diversified and high-quality commercial NW and wine products, but also consumers by providing options for novel aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines with unique and pleasant aroma profiles.
The authors would like to thank the Department of Commerce of Gansu Province fund, through the wine style exploration, solidification, and typical new product development in Gansu Hexi Corridor appellation, project: GSPTJZX-2020-4, and the Ministry of Education of Gansu Province fund, through the wine production practice teaching reform and practice based on industry chain system, project: CXCYJG2021003. We would also like to thank the late professor Shun-Yu Han from the College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, and a former Dean of Gansu Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology for his help in fund acquisition and his contribution in the conception of this chapter, and express our gratitude to professor Yong-Cai Li, the dean of College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University for his support in writing this book chapter.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\\n\\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\\n\\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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In this work, the most used thermoplastic foams with closed cells such as polypropylene, polyethylene, and polystyrene or polylactic acid have been focused. Their melt strength, degree of crystallinity for semi-crystalline ones, and viscosity have great importance on cell morphology. Cells in small diameter with high dense in polymer matrix are preferable. However, obtaining fine cells is not easy in each case, and it is still under investigation for some polymers. There are several ways to improve cell morphology, and one of them is addition of nanoparticle to the polymer. During foaming process, nanoparticles behave like nucleating agent that cells nucleate at the boundary between polymer and the nanoparticle. Besides, foaming agents contribute the homogenous dispersion of the nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, and this improves the properties of the polymer foams and generates multifunctional material as polymer nanocomposite foams.",book:{id:"6141",slug:"recent-research-in-polymerization",title:"Polymerization",fullTitle:"Recent Research in Polymerization"},signatures:"Mihrigul Altan",authors:[{id:"209557",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mihrigul",middleName:null,surname:"Altan",slug:"mihrigul-altan",fullName:"Mihrigul Altan"}]},{id:"57833",title:"Emulsion Polymerization Mechanism",slug:"emulsion-polymerization-mechanism",totalDownloads:3825,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Emulsion polymerization is a polymerization process with different applications on the industrial and academic scale. It involves application of emulsifier to emulsify hydrophobic polymers through aqueous phase by amphipathic emulsifier, then generation of free radicals with either a water or oil soluble initiators. It characterized by reduction of bimolecular termination of free radicals due to segregation of free radicals among the discrete monomer-swollen polymer particles. The latex particles size ranged from 10 nm to 1000 nm in a diameter and are generally spherical. A typical of particle consist of 1–10,000 macromolecules, where macromolecule contains about 100–106 monomer units.",book:{id:"6141",slug:"recent-research-in-polymerization",title:"Polymerization",fullTitle:"Recent Research in Polymerization"},signatures:"Abdelaziz Nasr Moawed Bakr El-hoshoudy",authors:[{id:"201556",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelaziz",middleName:"Nasr",surname:"El-Hoshoudy",slug:"abdelaziz-el-hoshoudy",fullName:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy"}]},{id:"34877",title:"Advanced Techniques in TEM Specimen Preparation",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-tem-specimen-preparation",totalDownloads:4869,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1508",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope"},signatures:"Jian Li",authors:[{id:"112508",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"jian-li",fullName:"Jian Li"}]},{id:"57574",title:"Polymerizable Materials for Diffractive Optical Elements Recording",slug:"polymerizable-materials-for-diffractive-optical-elements-recording",totalDownloads:1500,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The technologies based on holographic and photonic techniques related to the optical storage and optical processing of information are rapidly evolving. One of the key points of this evolution are the new recording materials able to perform under the most specific situations and applications. In this sense, the importance of the photopolymers is growing spectacularly. This is mainly due to their versatility in terms of composition and design together with other interesting properties such as self-processing capabilities. In this chapter, we introduce the diffractive optical elements (DOE) generation in these materials and some of the most important parameters involved in this process. The deep knowledge of the material is essential to model its behavior during and after the recording process and we present different techniques to characterize the recording materials. We also present a 3D theoretical diffusion model able to reproduce and predict the experimental behavior of the recording process of any kind of DOE onto the photopolymers. 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Among all, one stands out: bioactive glass. Bioactive glasses opened the door to a new genre of research into materials able to promote the regeneration of functioning bone tissue. However, despite their ability to promote cell attachment, proliferation and differentiation, these materials are mainly used as granules. However to promote loaded and sustained bone repair, a 3D structure, with open and highly interconnected pores, is desirable. 3D scaffolds are generally produced into green bodies via various techniques. The particles are then bound together via sintering. However, the highly disrupted silica network of the typical bioactive glasses composition leads to crystallization. Therefore, sintering of the most commonly used bioactive glass compositions (i.e. 45S5 and S53P4) leads to partly to fully crystallize bodies. The impact of crystallization on bioactivity still leads to large debate among the scientific community. Does crystallization reduce or suppress the materials bioactivity? Within this chapter, the processing routes for scaffold manufacture are presented, as well as an introduction to the thermal processing of glasses to form glass and glass-ceramics and the consequent effect on bioactivity is discussed.",book:{id:"5922",slug:"scaffolds-in-tissue-engineering-materials-technologies-and-clinical-applications",title:"Materials, Technologies and Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering - Materials, Technologies and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Amy Nommeots-Nomm and Jonathan Massera",authors:[{id:"205555",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Massera",slug:"jonathan-massera",fullName:"Jonathan Massera"},{id:"213341",title:"Dr.",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Nommeots-Nomm",slug:"amy-nommeots-nomm",fullName:"Amy Nommeots-Nomm"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"919",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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