Membranes composition.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6442",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Into Space - A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity",title:"Into Space",subtitle:"A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Our anatomy and physiology have been completely shaped by Earth's gravity. All body systems function in synergy with this unseen force. Yet, as we journey further and longer into space, our bodies must conform to a new reality, wherein gravity is absent or reduced, cosmic radiation threatens and our social and familial connections become distant. Into Space: A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity gives an overview of some of the physiological, anatomical and cellular changes that occur in space and their effects on different body systems, such as the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal, and touches on cultural and psychosocial aspects of leaving behind family and the safety of Earth. It further addresses the complexity of manned space flights, showing how interdisciplinary this subject is and discussing the challenges that space physiologists, physicians and scientists must face as humans seek to conquer the final frontier.",isbn:"978-1-78923-221-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-220-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-473-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70684",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"into-space-a-journey-of-how-humans-adapt-and-live-in-microgravity",numberOfPages:296,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"e7414f85fdf56e54bfd694d91fa492ac",bookSignature:"Thais Russomano and Lucas Rehnberg",publishedDate:"May 30th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6442.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9616,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"220541",title:"Dr.",name:"Thais",middleName:null,surname:"Russomano",slug:"thais-russomano",fullName:"Thais Russomano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220541/images/system/220541.png",biography:"Thais Russomano, MD PhD - graduated in medicine from the Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil (1985), has a Master’s Degree in Aerospace Medicine - Wright State University, USA (1991), and PhD in Space Physiology - King\\\\\\'s College London (1998). She founded and coordinated for 18 years the Microgravity Centre, PUCRS, a unique Latin American reference centre in the study of human space physiology and space biomedical engineering; is senior lecturer at King’s College London; Director of InnovaSpace Consultancy; Director/CMO of International Space Medicine Consortium; and International Relations Director of HuSCO. More than 25 years of experience in the fields of Aerospace Medicine, Aerospace Biomedicine, Aerospace Biomedical Engineering and Telemedicine, including participation in 200+ scientific events with 300+ scientific papers presented. She further holds 7 patents related to Space Life Sciences and Aerospace Biomedical Engineering.",institutionString:"King's College London",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"220542",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas",middleName:null,surname:"Rehnberg",slug:"lucas-rehnberg",fullName:"Lucas Rehnberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220542/images/7599_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Lucas Rehnberg, MBBS, BSc, MSc – graduated from Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry in 2015. Currently a Junior Clinical Fellow in Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Southampton, UK. Has an undergraduate degree in Biomedical Sciences and a Masters in Human and Applied Physiology from Kings College London (2009). He has been a Visiting Research Associate at the Centre of Human and Aerospace Physiological Sciences since 2011 and a Consultant in Space Medicine from 2012 at the Microgravity Centre, PUCRS. He has many years of experience in space life sciences, from conducting research, publishing several papers in the area of space medicine, as well as international presentations and teaching.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"683",title:"Aeronautics",slug:"aeronautics"}],chapters:[{id:"59621",title:"Reimagining Icarus: Ethics, Law and Policy Considerations for Commercial Human Spaceflight",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74716",slug:"reimagining-icarus-ethics-law-and-policy-considerations-for-commercial-human-spaceflight",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Sara M. Langston",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59621",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59621",authors:[{id:"221246",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Langston",slug:"sara-langston",fullName:"Sara Langston"}],corrections:null},{id:"60371",title:"Basic Methodology for Space Ethics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75689",slug:"basic-methodology-for-space-ethics",totalDownloads:700,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Tony Milligan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60371",authors:[{id:"220964",title:"Dr.",name:"Tony",surname:"Milligan",slug:"tony-milligan",fullName:"Tony Milligan"}],corrections:null},{id:"58161",title:"From the Individual to the Cultural Space Group",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72357",slug:"from-the-individual-to-the-cultural-space-group",totalDownloads:542,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Carole Tafforin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58161",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58161",authors:[{id:"221427",title:"Dr.",name:"Carole",surname:"Tafforin",slug:"carole-tafforin",fullName:"Carole Tafforin"}],corrections:null},{id:"59500",title:"Acute and Chronic Effects of Hypobaric Exposure upon the Brain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74231",slug:"acute-and-chronic-effects-of-hypobaric-exposure-upon-the-brain",totalDownloads:717,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Paul Sherman and John Sladky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59500",authors:[{id:"222286",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Sladky",slug:"john-sladky",fullName:"John Sladky"},{id:"222312",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Sherman",slug:"paul-sherman",fullName:"Paul Sherman"}],corrections:null},{id:"59772",title:"Spaceflight Induced Changes in the Central Nervous System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74232",slug:"spaceflight-induced-changes-in-the-central-nervous-system",totalDownloads:523,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Alex P. Michael",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59772",authors:[{id:"220742",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Michael",slug:"alex-michael",fullName:"Alex Michael"}],corrections:null},{id:"59699",title:"The Effect of Gravity on the Nervous System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74715",slug:"the-effect-of-gravity-on-the-nervous-system",totalDownloads:863,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Florian P.M. Kohn, Claudia Koch and Ramona Ritzmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59699",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59699",authors:[{id:"148496",title:"Dr.",name:"Florian",surname:"Kohn",slug:"florian-kohn",fullName:"Florian Kohn"},{id:"238072",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Koch",slug:"claudia-koch",fullName:"Claudia Koch"},{id:"238073",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramona",surname:"Ritzmann",slug:"ramona-ritzmann",fullName:"Ramona Ritzmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"59767",title:"Spaceflight: Immune Effects and Nutritional Countermeasure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74709",slug:"spaceflight-immune-effects-and-nutritional-countermeasure",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Anil D Kulkarni, Marie-Francoise Doursout, Asmita Kulkarni,\nAlamelu Sundaresan, Takehito Miura, Koji Wakame and Hajime\nFujii",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59767",authors:[{id:"222175",title:"Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Kulkarni",slug:"anil-kulkarni",fullName:"Anil Kulkarni"}],corrections:null},{id:"58565",title:"Countermeasure Development for Lumbopelvic Deconditioning in Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72881",slug:"countermeasure-development-for-lumbopelvic-deconditioning-in-space",totalDownloads:610,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Andrew Winnard, Dorothee Debuse and Nick Caplan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58565",authors:[{id:"222099",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Caplan",slug:"nick-caplan",fullName:"Nick Caplan"},{id:"222101",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Winnard",slug:"andrew-winnard",fullName:"Andrew Winnard"},{id:"234054",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorothee",surname:"Debuse",slug:"dorothee-debuse",fullName:"Dorothee Debuse"}],corrections:null},{id:"61131",title:"Tumor Cells in Microgravity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77214",slug:"tumor-cells-in-microgravity",totalDownloads:661,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Jun Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61131",authors:[{id:"220992",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Chen",slug:"jun-chen",fullName:"Jun Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"59615",title:"Plants in Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74230",slug:"plants-in-space",totalDownloads:876,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Bratislav Stankovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59615",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59615",authors:[{id:"220778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bratislav",surname:"Stankovic",slug:"bratislav-stankovic",fullName:"Bratislav Stankovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"59735",title:"Approaches to Assess the Suitability of Zooplankton for Bioregenerative Life Support Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74261",slug:"approaches-to-assess-the-suitability-of-zooplankton-for-bioregenerative-life-support-systems",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Miriam Knie, Bernard Wolfschoon Ribeiro, Jessica Fischer, Burkhard\nSchmitz, Kay Van Damme, Ruth Hemmersbach, Donat-P. Häder and\nChristian Laforsch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59735",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59735",authors:[{id:"223193",title:"Prof.",name:"Christian",surname:"Laforsch",slug:"christian-laforsch",fullName:"Christian Laforsch"},{id:"239673",title:"Dr.",name:"Miriam",surname:"Knie",slug:"miriam-knie",fullName:"Miriam Knie"},{id:"239674",title:"MSc.",name:"Bernard",surname:"Wolfschoon Ribeiro",slug:"bernard-wolfschoon-ribeiro",fullName:"Bernard Wolfschoon Ribeiro"},{id:"239675",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Fischer",slug:"jessica-fischer",fullName:"Jessica Fischer"},{id:"239676",title:"Mr.",name:"Burkhard",surname:"Schmitz",slug:"burkhard-schmitz",fullName:"Burkhard Schmitz"},{id:"239677",title:"Dr.",name:"Kay",surname:"Van Damme",slug:"kay-van-damme",fullName:"Kay Van Damme"},{id:"239678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Hemmersbach",slug:"ruth-hemmersbach",fullName:"Ruth Hemmersbach"},{id:"239679",title:"Prof.",name:"Donat-P.",surname:"Häder",slug:"donat-p.-hader",fullName:"Donat-P. Häder"}],corrections:null},{id:"60129",title:"Are We Alone? The Search for Life on Mars and Other Planetary Bodies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75437",slug:"are-we-alone-the-search-for-life-on-mars-and-other-planetary-bodies",totalDownloads:568,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Stephanie A. Smith, Andrzej Paszczynski and Susan E. Childers",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60129",authors:[{id:"21182",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej J.",surname:"Paszczynski",slug:"andrzej-j.-paszczynski",fullName:"Andrzej J. Paszczynski"},{id:"221688",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephanie",surname:"Smith",slug:"stephanie-smith",fullName:"Stephanie Smith"},{id:"221692",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",surname:"Childers",slug:"susan-childers",fullName:"Susan Childers"}],corrections:null},{id:"59151",title:"Exploring the Stratosphere: What We Missed by Shooting for the Moon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73602",slug:"exploring-the-stratosphere-what-we-missed-by-shooting-for-the-moon",totalDownloads:639,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Laura Galdamez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59151",authors:[{id:"221942",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Galdamez",slug:"laura-galdamez",fullName:"Laura Galdamez"}],corrections:null},{id:"59553",title:"The Mortality of Space Explorers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73603",slug:"the-mortality-of-space-explorers",totalDownloads:784,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Robert J. Reynolds and Steven M. Day",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59553",authors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. Reynolds"},{id:"220748",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"M. Day",slug:"steven-m.-day",fullName:"Steven M. Day"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1992",title:"Recent Advances in Aircraft Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67fa903d68a094013f66d01b38882107",slug:"recent-advances-in-aircraft-technology",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"623",title:"Global Navigation Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Signal, Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cf4b30bc55fec41acdfe8c1203e1de62",slug:"global-navigation-satellite-systems-signal-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Shuanggen Jin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/623.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113652",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuanggen",surname:"Jin",slug:"shuanggen-jin",fullName:"Shuanggen Jin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"215",title:"Aeronautics and Astronautics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"311199eb39821f7f12a19ca1efc3fd7f",slug:"aeronautics-and-astronautics",bookSignature:"Max Mulder",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/215.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10586",title:"Prof.",name:"Max",surname:"Mulder",slug:"max-mulder",fullName:"Max Mulder"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"54",title:"Advances in Flight Control Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"186a12a4766d19cae77a730fa648982a",slug:"advances-in-flight-control-systems",bookSignature:"Agneta Balint",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/54.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18768",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Agneta",surname:"Balint",slug:"maria-agneta-balint",fullName:"Maria Agneta Balint"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1704",title:"Future Aeronautical Communications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b8e37964820587b229361f22d299b29",slug:"future-aeronautical-communications",bookSignature:"Simon Plass",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1704.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72892",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",surname:"Plass",slug:"simon-plass",fullName:"Simon Plass"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"614",title:"Automatic Flight Control Systems",subtitle:"Latest Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e37ca326991ca149dd8f812475df8de",slug:"automatic-flight-control-systems-latest-developments",bookSignature:"Thomas Lombaerts",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/614.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19892",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Lombaerts",slug:"thomas-lombaerts",fullName:"Thomas Lombaerts"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4476",title:"Satellite Positioning",subtitle:"Methods, Models and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f1cb6a7a18e2391d2308b6ac1d423b0",slug:"satellite-positioning-methods-models-and-applications",bookSignature:"Shuanggen Jin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4476.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113652",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuanggen",surname:"Jin",slug:"shuanggen-jin",fullName:"Shuanggen Jin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1994",title:"Advances in Spacecraft Systems and Orbit Determination",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"005b6f7fa0ad6e582e7b37bee4ce88be",slug:"advances-in-spacecraft-systems-and-orbit-determination",bookSignature:"Rushi Ghadawala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1994.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103175",title:"Dr.",name:"Rushi",surname:"Ghadawala",slug:"rushi-ghadawala",fullName:"Rushi Ghadawala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"315",title:"Advances in Satellite Communications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97497fa8021416773088969c2c9219cb",slug:"advances-in-satellite-communications",bookSignature:"Masoumeh Karimi and Yuri Labrador",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/315.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13481",title:"Dr.",name:"Masoumeh",surname:"Karimi",slug:"masoumeh-karimi",fullName:"Masoumeh Karimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5136",title:"Recent Progress in Some Aircraft Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6855bfb94011b56313a07020fa05ead6",slug:"recent-progress-in-some-aircraft-technologies",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5136.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66301",slug:"corrigendum-to-denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",title:"Corrigendum to: Denim Fabrics Woven with Dual Core-Spun Yarns",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66301.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66301",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66301",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66301",chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"6679",leadTitle:null,title:"Serotonin",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"My scientific journey brought me from Lanzhou in China, Leuven in Belgium, Bethesda in the USA, all the way to San Diego. Sometimes I pick up an assortment of scattered seashells while walking along the beautiful Torrey Pines Beach in San Diego. Likewise, this book contains an assortment of discussions of different aspects of serotonin to enrich our knowledge and understanding of this neurochemical. The book contains four different chapters: 1. Introductory chapter: From Measuring Serotonin Neurotransmission to Evaluating Serotonin Post-Receptor Signaling Transduction; 2. Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Their Role in Chronic Pain Management; 3. Serotonin and Emotional Decision-Making; and 4. Clinical Aspects Related to Plasma Serotonin in the Horse.",isbn:"978-1-78985-236-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-235-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-026-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72010",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"serotonin",numberOfPages:74,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c833c86546ec9d3c38fb24a1072dbd0",bookSignature:"Ying Qu",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6679.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2038,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 20th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 11th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 30th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 29th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94028/images/5914_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ying Qu is a multi-disciplinary scientist, currently working in Leulan Bioscience, USA. She received her BS and MS in Chemistry from Lanzhou University, China and her PhD in Neuroscience from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. Dr. Qu has spent part of her career at the National Institutes of Health, USA, studying depression mechanisms underlying serotonin post-receptor regulated signaling transduction. She is also involved in a drug discovery program at Johnson and Johnson in the USA developing novel dual-acting antidepressants with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In 2002, she received a Sevier Young Investigator Award from the Serotonin Club at the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Satellite Meeting on Serotonin. She has published over 30 peer-reviewed papers, 40 abstracts and two book chapters in the fields of neuropsychopharmacology and bioanalysis.",institutionString:"Leulan Bioscience",position:"Senior Scientist",outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1115",title:"Neuropharmacology",slug:"neuropharmacology"}],chapters:[{id:"65286",title:"Introductory Chapter: From Measuring Serotonin Neurotransmission to Evaluating Serotonin Post-Receptor Signaling Transduction",slug:"introductory-chapter-from-measuring-serotonin-neurotransmission-to-evaluating-serotonin-post-recepto",totalDownloads:487,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu"}]},{id:"63750",title:"Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Their Role in Chronic Pain Management",slug:"serotonin-reuptake-inhibitors-and-their-role-in-chronic-pain-management",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64092",title:"Serotonin and Emotional Decision-Making",slug:"serotonin-and-emotional-decision-making",totalDownloads:472,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"61898",title:"Clinical Aspects Related to Plasma Serotonin in the Horse",slug:"clinical-aspects-related-to-plasma-serotonin-in-the-horse",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7256",title:"Dopamine",subtitle:"Health and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e46d08f526c35d787be15bcb17126fb8",slug:"dopamine-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181774",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarat Chandra",surname:"Yenisetti",slug:"sarat-chandra-yenisetti",fullName:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6404",title:"Drug Addiction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f432d0ab93a06628d3592b4c0fea44ae",slug:"drug-addiction",bookSignature:"Fang Zhao and Meng Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6404.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207525",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",surname:"Zhao",slug:"fang-zhao",fullName:"Fang Zhao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5894",title:"Neurotoxins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ed24b0789b6d0bf230c24637f2f7575",slug:"neurotoxins",bookSignature:"J. Eric McDuffie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5894.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161246",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Eric",surname:"McDuffie",slug:"j.-eric-mcduffie",fullName:"J. Eric McDuffie"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8166",title:"Receptors P1 and P2 as Targets for Drug Therapy in Humans",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"546c9abc8145b3a3ecf13557a03f7590",slug:"receptors-p1-and-p2-as-targets-for-drug-therapy-in-humans",bookSignature:"Robson Faria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7116",title:"Antidepressants",subtitle:"Preclinical, Clinical and Translational Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1bd4340dfebb60697e12fc04a461d9ac",slug:"antidepressants-preclinical-clinical-and-translational-aspects",bookSignature:"Olivier Berend",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7116.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58342",title:"Obtaining Hydrogels based on PVP/PVAL/Chitosan Containing Pseudoboehmite Nanoparticles for Application in Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72007",slug:"obtaining-hydrogels-based-on-pvp-pval-chitosan-containing-pseudoboehmite-nanoparticles-for-applicati",body:'\n
Hydrophilic membranes based on hydrogels can be defined as a polymeric material, which is insoluble in water, can absorb it and retain a significant fraction in its structure [1]. The material that forms the membranes with these characteristics is composed of two water-insoluble cross-linked hydrophilic polymer systems, due to the existence of a three-dimensional network connecting their chains, and is perceived that water was retained in its structure [2, 3, 4].
\nHydrogels can be expanded by water and ion absorption, above the equilibrium state and retain their original shape and mechanical properties. In addition, they present permeability to biologically active substances with low molecular weight, being used in dressings directly on contact with the skin and can be used as dressing or bandage in burn wounds, vascular prostheses, artificial cartilage membranes for hemodialysis, among other applications [5, 6].
\nHydrogels obtained by ionizing radiation, having as precursors poly(n-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PVP), agar and plasticizing agents such as polyethylene glycol that have been used in pharmaceuticals and have advantages over the previously obtained methods, they eliminate the sterilization phase, as this is still being obtained in the process of ionizing radiation [1].
\nDue to its properties, PVAl is one of the synthetic polymers that are used as a biomaterial, being of great importance in the industry, mainly in cosmetics, where it is used as an additive, providing texture to the products. Its main function is that of a plasticizer. Its use in the synthesis of hydrophilic membranes presents some restrictions when used alone, because the obtained membrane presents low elasticity and rigidity. To improve these properties, it is used in conjunction with other polymers [7, 8].
\nChitosan is a natural polymer that can be obtained through the process of deacetylation of chitin, a polysaccharide of great abundance in nature, and present a similar chain to cellulose. Among its main characteristics, of great importance and industrial interest, it is atoxic and has an easy way to create gel [9].
\nChitosan nanocomposites have been used in the cotton coating for application in dressings and bandage with the purpose of increasing the absorption of the exudate as well as improving the antibacterial activity [10].
\nChitosan and PVAl are biocompatible polymers being in the composition of several hydrogels used today [11, 12]. Hydrophilic membranes based on PVAl and chitosan have been synthesized because the presence of chitosan improves the mechanical, hydrophilic and antibacterial properties of membranes obtained from PVAl [13, 14]. These membranes modified by the presence of nanoclays for use in dressings have been obtained with good mechanical and absorption properties [15, 16].
\nHydrophilic membranes obtained from polyvinyl alcohol, poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) and antibiotic containing chitosan have been synthesized by Yu et al. [17].
\nThe pseudoboehmite obtained by the sol-gel process is a ceramic nanoparticle with high surface area, bioinert, which can be used in drug delivery systems [18]. Pseudoboehmite has the same structure as the boehmite (ɣ-ALOOH). It has an orthorhombic structure and presents two layers of octahedral oxygen partially filled with aluminum cations [19]. Through the sol:gel process, it is possible to obtain nanoparticles of pseudoboehmite, having as precursors aluminum nitrate and ammonium hydroxide [20].
\nThe sol-gel process consists of synthesis of materials, caused by the transition of a sol system, dispersion of colloidal particles (dimension from 1 to 100 mm) in a fluid; in a gel system, rigid structure system of colloidal particles or chains polymerization by immobilizing the liquid phase [21].
\nPseudoboehmites obtained by the sol-gel process have been successfully used in drug delivery systems [18].
\nThe aim of this chapter is to obtain a polymer system based on PVP, PVAl and chitosan containing pseudoboehmite nanoparticles, through the action of ionizing radiation, although the excellent biomedical properties in clinical practice of PVP-based hydrogels are confirmed, the difficult handling of these materials has been observed on their poor mechanical properties. Therefore, it is important to study new systems that maintain the properties required for these materials and at the same time to implement the physical:chemical and mechanical properties
\nThe following reagents were used: aluminum nitrate Al(NO3)3, supplied by Dinâmica LTDA; ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), supplied by Audaz Reagente Tecnológico; polyvinyl alcohol, supplied by Bandeirante Química; poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PVP), supplied by GAF Co.; chitosan, supplied by Polymar; poly(ethylene glycol), supplied by Oxiteno Brasil and agar supplied by Oxide.
\nThe synthesis of nanoparticles of pseudoboehmite (PSB): The nanoparticles of the pseudoboehmite were obtained through the sol-gel process, according to Munhoz Jr. et al. [22], aluminum nitrate solution in H2O, solution of ammonium nitrate in H2O and solution of polyvinyl alcohol in H2O, which is used to increase the viscosity of the aluminum nitrate solution. The solution of aluminum nitrate and polyvinyl alcohol was mixed with the ammonium hydroxide solution. The obtained product was washed with distilled water and dried through air.
\nObtaining chitosan solution: The chitosan was dissolved in acetic acid solution, 2 wt% in H2O, which was stirred for 48 h. After dissolution of chitosan, it was neutralized with 1 wt% sodium hydroxide solution in H2O until pH 7.
\nPreparation of PVP/PVAl/PSB/chitosan membranes reinforced with PSB: Membranes with 3 wt% PSB were obtained. Table 1 shows the composition of the membranes obtained.
\nMaterials | \nCompositions (wt%) | \n|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Comp. 1 | \nComp. 2 | \nComp. 3 | \nComp. 4 | \nComp. 5 | \nComp. 6 | \nComp. 7 | \nComp. 8 | \n|
PSB | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n3 | \n3 | \n
PVP | \n10 | \n10 | \n2.5 | \n2.5 | \n2.5 | \n2.5 | \n2.5 | \n2.5 | \n
PVAl | \n0 | \n0 | \n7.5 | \n7.5 | \n7.5 | \n7.5 | \n7.5 | \n7.5 | \n
Chitosan | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n1 | \n1 | \n1 | \n1 | \n
PEG | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n3 | \n
Agar | \n1 | \n3 | \n1 | \n3 | \n1 | \n3 | \n1 | \n3 | \n
Water | \n86 | \n84 | \n86 | \n84 | \n85 | \n83 | \n82 | \n80 | \n
Membranes composition.
The hydrogels were produced from a solution of PVP, PVAl, chitosan, agar and PEG in H2O, which was heated and subsequently PSB was added to the solution. The solution was poured into polyethylene molds and after cooling, a physical gel was obtained.
\nThe physical gel was irradiated in Dynamitron electron beam, with energy of 1.5 MeV, with a dose of 25 kGy and a dose rate of 11.3 kGy/s, which promoted the formation of the cross-links and also the sterilization of the material.
\nHydrogels were characterized by visual test, mechanical test, gel fraction, thermal properties and swelling.
Mechanical test: Tensile strength tests for the hydrated membrane were performed in a dynamometer of the Q-Test, model 65 J at 25 mm/min (ABNT-NBR 6241/80, with specimen type I).
Sol-gel fraction: The samples were washed in Soxhlet extractors with boiling water for 36 h. The obtained gels were dried until reaching constant weight. The gel fraction was determined in relation to the initial weight of the sample according to Eq. (1).
where Wfg = final weight (after drying); and Wi = initial weight of the sample.
Swelling: The samples were maintained in water for 240 h. The water absorption was checked every hour step in the first 24 h. After that, each measurement was performed using 24-h steps until reaching constant weight. The hydration grade was determined by the difference of the weight before and after swelling according to Eq. (2).
where Wfs = final weight (after swelling); and Wi = initial weight of the sample.
Thermal properties (DTA, TG and DTMA): Thermal analyses were performed by the Netzsch Thermische Analyze STA 409 equipment. The rate used in DTA and TG analysis was 10°C/min from ambient temperature until 600°C with 40 mL/min nitrogen flow. The thermodynamic-mechanical properties were determined in a Perkin Elmer equipment in the range from −80 to 0°C. The rate used in analysis was 1°C/min with 40 mL/min nitrogen flow.
Visual characterization: Figure 1 shows the obtained membranes with 25 kGy dose.
\nComp. 1 (PVP/1wt% agar); Comp. 2 (PVP/3 wt% agar); Comp. 3 (PVP/PVAl/1 wt% agar); Comp. 4 (PVP/PVAl/3wt% agar), Comp. 5 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/1 wt% agar), Comp. 6 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/3wt% agar); Comp. 7 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB)/1wt% agar) and Comp. 8 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/3 wt% agar).
The membranes with the compositions 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Figure 1) are transparent, while others are translucent and slightly yellowish. Therefore, the presence of chitosan makes the hydrogels less transparent.
\nIn the membranes with the compositions 1, 2, 3 and 4 were firm and without bubbles, the membranes of compositions 5, 6, 7 and 8 showed a greater adhesion or tack due to the presence of chitosan (Figure 1).
\nTensile strength: Table 2 and Figures 2 and 3 present the results to the tensile strength tests to 7 days after irradiation.
\nHydrogels | \nTensile strength (MPa) | \nElongation at rupture (%) | \n
---|---|---|
Comp. 1 (PVP/1wt% agar) | \n0.016 ± 0.006 | \n136.±29 | \n
Comp. 2 (PVP/3wt% agar) | \n0.022 ± 0.006 | \n42 ± 8 | \n
Comp. 3 (PVP/PVAl/1wt% agar) | \n0.108 ± 0.007 | \n490 ± 70 | \n
Comp. 4 (PVP/PVAl/3wt% agar) | \n0.232 ± 0.020 | \n568 ± 83 | \n
Comp. 5 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/1wt% agar) | \n0.054 ± 0.008 | \n289 ± 55 | \n
Comp. 6 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/3wt% agar) | \n0.046 ± 0.005 | \n496 ± 19 | \n
Comp. 7 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/1wt% agar) | \n0.012 ± 0.007 | \n227 ± 22 | \n
Comp. 8 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/3wt% agar) | \n0.027 ± 0.007 | \n339 ± 24 | \n
Results of the tensile strength tests.
*The values obtained are the average of 16 experiments.
Results of the tensile strength.
Results of elongation at rupture (%).
The results show that comparing the obtained hydrogels, the Comp. 4 (based on PVP/PVAl/3wt% agar) and Comp. 3 (based on PVP/PVAl/chitosan/3wt% agar) (Figure 2) showed higher tensile strength and higher elongation.
\nThe hydrogels Comp. 1 (PVP/1wt% agar), Comp. 2 (PVP/3wt% agar), Comp. 7 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PBS/1wt% agar) and Comp. 8 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB)/3wt% agar) exhibit lower tensile strength (Figure 2).
\nThe Comp. 2 hydrogels (PVP/3 wt% agar) (Figure 3) show the smallest elongation.
\nIn general, hydrogels containing 3 wt% of agar in the composition, presented higher tensile strength and elongation at break, than their versions containing 1 wt% of agar (Table 2; Figures 2 and 3).
\nThe data show that the association of chitosan with the increasing percentage of agar may have favored the elongation of the hydrogels (Figure 3);
\nThe hydrogels containing pseudoboehmite presented lower results of tensile strength and lower results for elongation at rupture (Table 2; Figures 2 and 3).
\nProbably, the amount of pseudoboehmite present absorbs part of the free radicals during the irradiation process by decreasing the formation of cross-links.
\nSol-gel fraction: Table 3 and the Figure 4 present the results obtained for the sol-gel fraction.
\nHydrogels | \nSol fraction (%) | \nGel fraction (%) | \n
---|---|---|
Comp. 1 (PVP /1wt% agar) | \n15.37 | \n84.63 | \n
Comp. 2 (PVP/3wt% agar) | \n43.27 | \n56.73 | \n
Comp. 3 (PVP/PVAl/1wt% agar) | \n30.99 | \n69.01 | \n
Comp. 4 (PVP/PVAl/3wt% agar) | \n44.38 | \n55.52 | \n
Comp. 5 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/1wt% agar) | \n54.05 | \n45.95 | \n
Comp. 6 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/3wt% agar) | \n61.85 | \n38.15 | \n
Comp. 7 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/1wt% agar) | \n57.53 | \n42.47 | \n
Comp. 8 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/3wt% agar) | \n44.63 | \n55.37 | \n
Results obtained for sol-gel fraction.
*The values obtained are the average of 16 experiments.
Results obtained for sol-gel fraction.
By results obtained in Table 3 and Figure 4, it is observed that the hydrogels obtained with compositions 5, 6 and 7, containing PVAl, chitosan and pseudoboehmite, presented the smallest percentage of gel fraction. The presence of PVAl, chitosan and pseudoboehmite, probably, absorb part of the free radicals during the irradiation process, decreasing the formation of cross-links.
\nThe hydrogels obtained with compositions 1 and 3 presented the highest percentages of gel fraction, although the conventional composition containing PVP/agar had a higher percentage of gel fraction than those containing PVP/agar/PVAl (Figure 4).
\nComparing the hydrogels containing PVP/agar/PVAl with the hydrogels containing PVP/agar/PVAl/chitosan and PVP/agar/PVAl/chitosan/PSB, it is observed that the first have higher gel fraction indicating that the PVAl, probably absorbs a smaller part of the free radicals during the irradiation process than the chitosan and the pseudoboehmite (Figure 4).
\nThe hydrogels obtained with compositions 2, 4 and 8 presented intermediate percentages of gel fraction. When comparing the agar concentration in the samples, it is observed that the increase in the agar concentration increases the gel fraction. Probably, the agar promotes the increase of the cross-link formation (Figure 4).
\nComparing the results obtained for the gel fraction of the hydrogels containing chitosan and pseudoboehmite with those containing only one of these components, the values obtained were intermediates, indicating that these compounds acted independently of one another (Figure 4).
\nThe Comp. 6 presents higher gel fraction. This sample does not contain pseudoboehmite in the composition (Figure 4).
\nSwelling: Swelling tests were performed for 7 and 30 days after irradiation of the hydrogels. Figures 5 and 6 show the results obtained for the swelling tests.
\nResults obtained for swelling tests of the hydrogels obtained after 7 days of the irradiation.
Results obtained for swelling tests of the hydrogels obtained after 30 days of the irradiation.
The results show that hydrogels presented higher percentages of swelling after 30 days of irradiation (Figures 5 and 6).
\nThe hydrogels based on only PVP and agar (Comp. 1 and Comp. 2) had a low swelling percentage after 7 days of irradiation (Figure 5), and after 30 days of irradiation had a significant increase in swelling percentage (Figure 6). Probably, some macroradicals are recombined during this stage.
\nFor the PVP/PVAl/1 wt% Agar (Comp. 3) hydrogels, the swelling percentage was low after 7 days of irradiation and remained low after 30 days of irradiation (Figures 5 and 6). While for the hydrogels of similar composition only with variation in composition of 3 wt% agar, the increase in swelling percentage was significant. Probably, this difference is due to the presence of agar in a higher concentration that causes a greater absorption of water in the hydrogel structure because probably the agar promotes the increase of the cross-link formation.
\nThe hydrogels containing PVP and PVAl, chitosan, Comp. 5 and Comp. 6 had low percentages of swelling after 7 days of irradiation (Figure 5), and the increase was not representative for the tests after 30 days of irradiation (Figure 6). Probably, the chitosan avoid the posterior cross-link.
\nThe hydrogels containing PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/1 wt% agar, Comp. 7, presented the highest percentage of swelling after 7 days of irradiation (Figure 5), but the increase was not significant after 30 days of irradiation (Figure 6). The hydrogels containing PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PBS/3 wt% agar, Comp. 8, presented low water absorption after 7 days of irradiation and significant increase after 30 days of being irradiated (Figures 5 and 6).
\nDTA and TG: The DTA and TG results for the obtained hydrogels are shown in Figures 7–11.
\n(A) DTA of pure PVP with 1 wt% of agar, (B) TG of pure PVP with 1 wt% of agar, (C) DTA of pure PVP with 3 wt% of agar; (D) TG of pure PVP with 3 wt% of agar.
The results show that for the Comp. 1 hydrogels, containing PVP as the matrix, it can be observed that the PVP melts at a lower temperature, decreases the Tm and its degradation. For this composition, the Tg did not show considerable variation in relation to the pure PVP, and also its degradation temperature (Figure 7).
\nFor the Comp. 2 hydrogels, where the matrix is also PVP, containing a higher percentage of agar, there was a decrease in Tg. PVP molecules have probably gained greater mobility at a lower temperature. However, Tm occurred at a higher temperature, indicating that degradation in the PVP molecules present in the hydrogel probably occurred. An increase occurred in temperature of degradation was observed (Figure 7).
\nFor the Comp. 3 hydrogels, where the PVAl is found in greater proportion, the molecules gained greater mobility at lower temperature, that is, it decreased the Tg and the fusion occurred at lower temperature, and also, it decreased the Tm (Figure 8). The same occurred for the Comp. 4 hydrogels with PVP and PVAl matrix and 3 wt% agar (Figure 8), that compared with the other samples, the molecules gained greater mobility at lower temperature, decreasing Tg and Tm at a lower temperature. It was observed that the decomposition occurred at a higher temperature for samples Comp. 3 and Comp. 4.
\n(A) DTA of the PVP/PVAl with 1 wt% of agar, (B) TG of the PVP/PVAl with 1 wt% of agar, (C) DTA of the PVP/PVAl with 3 wt% of agar and (D) TG of the PVP/PVAl with 3 wt% of agar.
For membranes with composition 5 containing PVP/PVAl/chitosan/1 wt% agar, it was concluded that the water was not strongly retained and the molecules gained mobility at a lower temperature, decreasing Tg and Tm (Figure 9). However, the degradation was delayed, that is, it occurred at higher temperature than pure PVP (Figure 7(A) and (B)).
\n(A) DTA of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan with 1 wt% of agar, (B) TG of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan with 1 wt% of agar, (C) DTA of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan with 3 wt% of agar and (D) TG of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan with 3 wt% of agar.
(A) DTA of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB with 1 wt% of agar; (B) TG of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB with 1 wt% of agar; (C) DTA of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB with 3 wt% of agar; and (D) TG of the PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB with 3 wt% of agar.
(A) DTAs and (B) TGs of the all compositions.
DMTA results of the Comp. 1 and Comp. 2.
DMTA results of the Comp. 3 and Comp. 4.
DMTA results of the Comp. 5 and Comp. 6.
DMTA results of the Comp. 7 and Comp. 8.
For Comp. 6 hydrogels with PVP/PVAl/chitosan/3 wt% agar, it can be concluded that the addition of agar did not hinder the loss of water. However, the molecules gained mobility at higher temperature (Tg higher), and the melting temperature was almost the same as temperature of sample 5. However, the degradation was delayed, occurring at a higher temperature (Figure 9).
\nDMTA: The DMTA results for the obtained hydrogels are shown in Figures 12–15 and Table 4.
\nHydrogel | \nTm (°C) | \ntan δ | \n
---|---|---|
Comp. 1 (PVP/1 wt% agar) | \n−33.9 | \n0.5752 | \n
Comp. 2 (PVP/3 wt% agar) | \n−22.8 | \n0.7540 | \n
Comp. 3 (PVP/PVAl/1 wt% agar) | \n−38.7 | \n0.4045 | \n
Comp. 4 (PVP/PVAl/3 wt% agar) | \n−24.6 | \n0.5202 | \n
Comp. 5 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/1 wt% agar) | \n1.5 | \n0.1953 | \n
Comp. 6 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/3 wt% agar) | \n6.6 | \n0.2439 | \n
Comp. 7 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/1 wt% agar) | \n−24.5 | \n0.4280 | \n
Comp. 8 (PVP/PVAl/chitosan/PSB/3 wt% agar) | \n2.7 | \n0.2699 | \n
Results obtained from Tm and tan δ of the studied hydrogels.
The results show that when comparing Comp. 1 and Comp. 2 hydrogels, the presence of a higher concentration of agar decreases the Tm value, causing an increase in the viscoelasticity of the material. This result can also be observed for the Comp. 4 hydrogels.
\nWhen comparing Comp. 1 and Comp. 3 hydrogels (Figures 12 and 13), the presence of PVAl causes an increase in Tm, and consequently, a decrease in the viscoelasticity of the material.
\nThe presence of chitosan and pseudoboehmite in the hydrogels causes an increase in the Tm of the material, reducing its viscoelasticity (Figures 14 and 15). It is observed that the effect of chitosan is more effective in process. Probably, the chitosan structure, containing several hydroxyl groups (which may form hydrogen bonds), causes a bigger decrease in the viscoelasticity in the hydrogel of than the pseudoboehmite.
\nAccording to the results, the conclusions are as follows
It is possible to obtain hydrogels based on PVP, PVAl and chitosan containing pseudoboehmite nanoparticles in the studied concentrations;
The presence of chitosan makes the hydrogels less transparent and makes the hydrogels more adherent;
The association of chitosan with increasing percentage of agar promotes the higher elongation at rupture of hydrogels;
The hydrogels containing pseudoboehmite presented lower results of tensile strength and lower results for elongation at rupture. Probably, the pseudoboehmite absorbs part of the free radicals during the irradiation process by decreasing the formation of cross-links;
The presence of PVAl increases the tensile strength and causes higher elongation at the rupture;
In general, membranes containing 3 wt% of agar in the composition presented higher tensile strength and higher elongation at break than their versions containing 1 wt% of agar;
The association of chitosan with increasing percentage of agar may have favored the elongation of the membranes;
How much bigger the concentration of agar in the hydrogel, higher is the tensile strength and the higher is the elongation at break. Probably, the agar promotes the increase of the cross-link formation.
The hydrogels containing PVAl, chitosan and pseudoboehmite presented the smallest percentage of gel fraction. The presence of PVAl, chitosan and pseudoboehmite, probably, absorb part of the free radicals during the irradiation process, decreasing the cross-links formation;
All hydrogels’ compositions studied showed higher percentages of swelling after 30 days of irradiation;
Hydrogels based on PVP and agar had a low percentage of swelling after 7 days of irradiation, and after 30 days of irradiation, they had a significant increase in swelling percentage;
For the hydrogel based on PVP, PVAl and agar, the presence of agar in a higher concentration promote a higher absorption of water in the hydrogel structure;
The hydrogels containing PVP, PVAl, agar and chitosan had low percentages of swelling after 7 days of irradiation and the increase was not representative for the assay after 30 days of irradiation;
The hydrogels based on PVP, PVAl, chitosan and pseudoboehmite containing agar in lower concentration presented the highest percentage of swelling after 7 days of irradiation, but the increase was not significant after 30 days of irradiation. The same hydrogels, containing agar in higher concentration presented low water absorption after 7 days of irradiation and significant increase after 30 days of irradiation;
Comparing the hydrogels based on PVP and agar, the presence of a higher concentration of agar decreases the Tm, causing an increase in the viscoelasticity of the material. This result can also be observed for the hydrogels based on PVP, PVAl and agar;
Comparing the hydrogels based on PVP and agar with the hydrogels based on PVP, PVAl and agar, the presence of PVAl causes an increase in Tm, that is, there is a decrease in the viscoelasticity of the material;
The presence of chitosan and pseudoboehmite in the hydrogels causes an increase in the Tm of the material, reducing your viscoelasticity. It is observed that the effect of chitosan is greater. Probably, the structure of the chitosan, containing several hydroxyl groups promotes a pronounced decrease in the viscoelasticity of the material than the pseudoboehmite; and
As the pseudoboehmite probably absorbs free radicals, to obtain hydrogels with higher mechanical properties, the dose irradiation must be increased to increase the density of cross-links.
This research has been supported by the Mack Pesquisa, Mackenzie Presbyterian University. We are grateful for the support.
\nDrug addiction is a chronic brain disease with a high rate of relapse [1, 2, 3]. Despite years of abstinence from drugs, relapse can occur when addicts encounter cues, including people or places, associated with their prior drug use [4]. Drug-associated memory can persist throughout the lifetime of a patient; therefore, the elimination of this kind of memory is considered to be crucial for the treatment of drug addiction.
In organism and human models, drug reward can be assessed using a Pavlovian conditioning procedure known as conditioned place preference/conditioned place aversion (CPP/CPA) [5, 6, 7]. CPP for the drug-paired environment is predicted by self-reported measures of drug liking in humans [6]. CPA for the drug-paired environment is used to infer the dysphoric properties of drugs, including opioid receptor antagonists [8]. Many neurotransmitters, neurotrophic factors, and protein kinases have been delineated in the regulation of the formation and expression of drug-associated reward memories and withdrawal-associated aversive memories [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) in the brain plays a critical role in reward- and aversion-driven associative learning. However, it is not clear whether it does this by a common mechanism or by separated mechanisms that can be dissociated. The knowledge of these mechanisms could lead to more effective treatments for addictive processes. CRF and its CRF1 receptor (CRF1R) are widely distributed and in a highly conserved way in several brain regions, including the hippocampal formation, involved in reward reinforcement, craving and aversive effects of drug of abuse [14, 15, 16, 17]. At the extrahypothalamic level, CRF acts as a neuroregulator of the behavioral and emotional integration of environmental and endogenous stimuli associated with drug dependence [18, 19]. In the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG), an important brain region involved in saving similar experiences and contexts [20], CRF is released from inhibitory interneurons [21] through CRF1R [14] by environmental signals. CRF1R activation stimulates Gαs protein, promoting the induction of the protein kinase A/cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) pathway [22]. CREB activity in the brain is critical for learning and memory processes [23], and it has been reported to be involved in the expression of opioid dependence. The activation of CREB, as one of the main downstream effectors of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), accelerates the transcription of CREB-dependent genes such as the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). With respect to hypothalamus, CRF release from paraventricular nucleus (PVN) controls the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses to stress and drug addiction [24, 25, 26]. CRF neurons in the PVN and CRF fibber in DG have direct connexion with dopaminergic neurons located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) projecting to nucleus accumbens (NAc) [27, 28].
CPP is an animal model widely used to evaluate the correlation between contexts and drugs. Different substances of abuse display differential ability to produce CPP. Opiates induce strong CPP over a wide range of experimental conditions [5]. Previous studies from our laboratory [29, 30, 31, 32] and others [33, 34] have demonstrated that morphine administration evokes significant CPP for the drug-associated environment. Different neurobiological substrates have been involved in the rewarding properties of drugs of abuse, although the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway has been pointed out to be the critical system for drug reward. Recently, it has been suggested that PVN may have a role in the reinforcing effects of opioids [35]. Various studies have elucidated the mechanisms underlying the formation and expression of drug-related cue memories. CRF in the brain plays a critical role in reward-driven associative learning. During the formation or consolidation process (CPP expression), the majority of the CRF-positive neurons in the PVN, central nucleus of amygdale (CeA), and bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST) coexpresses pCREB after morphine-induced CPP, suggesting that drug-paired context could trigger neuronal activity in the brain stress system [29]. Morphine-treated mice in their home cage do not show any changes in total CRF/CREB positive neurons, indicating that the exposure to drug-paired environments is necessary for CRF activation in the brain stress system [29]. Anatomical and functional studies reveal connections between CRF and the mesolimbic dopaminergic system. Thus, VTA and NAc receive CRF-positive projections from the PVN and stress extrahypothalamic areas [36, 37], which have been proposed to regulate dopamine release. The rewarding effect of morphine (CPP expression) is decreased by pretreatment with CP-154,526, a selective CRF1 antagonist, suggesting an important role of CRF/CRF1 receptor in memory formation and consolidation [30].
Hippocampus is a brain region known to participate in associative processes such as declarative memory, and PVN is an important stress area. Both structures are related with mesolimbic pathways [38]. Our group has studied the implication of different signaling pathways in both areas, because the understanding of how the formation of drug-reward memories alters the neurobiology of the hippocampal DG and PVN, and may shed light on the later and more persistent aspect of addiction.
The transcription factor CREB is critical in the conversion from short-term to long-term memory, and it is involved in the creation of long-term memory. Learning and memory and drug addiction share certain intracellular signaling pathways and depend on activation of CREB [39]. According to previous studies [40, 41], our laboratory has demonstrated that the number of pCREB positive neurons in PVN and DG is significantly increased after morphine-induced CPP expression (Figure 1). Since CRF1R is coupled to stimulatory G protein Gαs and can thus activate PKA and, subsequently, CREB [22], our group has investigated if CRF1R signaling is involved in CREB activity after morphine-induced CPP. Administration of the CRF1R antagonist, CP-154,526, completely revoked pCREB positive neuron enhancement induced by morphine in PVN and slightly in DG. CREB involvement in morphine dependence has been previously supported by studies demonstrating that CREB mutant mice do not respond to the reinforcing properties of morphine in a conditioned place preference paradigm [42], suggesting that specific CREB functions are necessary for the rewarding properties of this drug.
CREB activation in PVN (A) and DG (C) after morphine-induced CPP. Scale bar 100 μm. Quantitative analysis of pCREB immunodetection in PVN (B) and DG (D). Data are expressed as mean ± SEM. **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 versus vehicle (veh) + saline (S); +p < 0.05, +++p < 0.001 versus veh + morphine (M). CP-154,526 (CP). Optical density (OD).
Although it is known that CRF signaling is involved in the drug withdrawal-induced anxiogenic-like and negative behavioral response [43], no definitive data are available about the role in the positive reinforcing properties of opiates. CRF-immunoreactive fibers densely innervate many intrahypothalamic and extrahypothalamic brain areas, such as hippocampus. Besides, CRF, through CRF1R, increases neuronal activity propagation from DG, the classical hippocampal input region, to the hypothalamic structure CA1 [44]. CRF is present in GABAergic hippocampal neurons of the pyramidal cells [14]. The supramammillary (SuM) region of the hypothalamus acts a connection nucleus between limbic and hypothalamic structures involved in controlling cognitive aspects [45]. Thus, SuM sends robust and direct inputs to DG. For example, it has been shown that mild stress could activate the SuM cells that project to the hippocampus [46]. Our group has previously shown that most of the CRF positive neurons in PVN coexpresses pCREB during morphine CPP. In addition, we have observed an enhancement in CRF fibers density in DG after morphine administration. Both changes were antagonized by injection of CP-154,526 (Figure 2). CRF binding to CRF1R results in activation of heterotrimeric G-proteins. The physiological functions of CRF1R in the central nervous system and in the periphery have been mainly associated to an increase in intracellular cAMP levels. This is consistent with a predominant coupling to Gαs (cAMP/PKA/CREB). However, CRF through CRFR1 is capable of activating other Gα types such as Gαs and activate inositol triphosphate (IP3) cascade. An enhancement in the concentration of secondary messengers (cAMP, IP3, and Ca2+) in cells, induced by CRF1R agonists, promotes the activation of several transcriptional factors such as CREB, AP-1, NF-κB, and the calcium response element (CARE) [47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. In this sense, the antagonist of the CRF1R, CP-154,526, by blocking the postsynaptic CRF1R, inhibited CREB phosphorylation in PVN and DG. Moreover, morphine treatment induced an increase in CRF fiber immunodetection in DG, suggesting an elevated CRF release, which was prevented by pretreatment with this antagonist. Since CRF1R activation increases Ca2+ levels, it is possible that CP-154,526 inhibits CRF release by blocking presynaptic CRF1R in PVN.
CRF/pCREB double-labeling photomicrographs in PVN (A). The upper right side of the figure shows the quantitative analysis of double-labeled neurons (B). CRF fiber photomicrographs in the DG (C). The down right side of the figure shows the CRF fiber density in the DG (D). Scale bar 100 or 50 μm. Data are expressed as mean ± SEM. ***p < 0.001 versus vehicle (veh) + saline (S); ++p < 0.01, +++p < 0.001 versus veh + morphine (M). CP-154,526 (CP). Optical density (OD).
Several evidences suggest that CREB phosphorylation represents a site of convergence for various signaling pathways and alters gene expression [40]. CREB activation can also be regulated by the family of the redox protein Trx-1 [54]. In addition to its antioxidant activity, Trx-1 has been shown to play a crucial role in cellular signaling by controlling several important members of the signal transduction pathway. Thus, NF-κB, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases, activator protein-1, CREB (as mentioned before), estrogen receptor, glucocorticoid receptor, and p53 are the targets of Trx-1 [55]. Data from our laboratory have shown that morphine-induced CPP increases Trx-1 expression in DG (Figure 3). Trx-1 might activate CREB phosphorylation, thus increasing the rewarding effects of morphine. In agreement with our results, other studies have also observed an increased Trx-1 expression following morphine or methamphetamine administration [56]. Upregulation of CREB activity induced by methamphetamine was suppressed by Trx-1siRNA, which suggests that Trx-1 is necessary for CREB activation [55, 56]. Moreover, morphine-induced Trx-1 expression is blocked by naloxone, indicating that morphine induces Trx-1 expression via activating opioid receptors [57]. Results from our laboratory showing a positive relationship between morphine rewarding effects, and Trx-1 expression are in contrast with another study [58] demonstrating that geranylgeranylacetone induces Trx-1 and, concomitantly, reduces morphine-induced CPP. These variations could be explained by the differential regulating roles of NAc and hippocampus. Besides, CREB expression has been shown to be increased in hippocampus but decreased in NAc after morphine conditioning [40], which suggests that CREB activity is differently regulated depending on the brain area studied. Our investigations have demonstrated a large number of pCREB/Trx-1 double-labeled neurons in DG (Figure 3). These neuron colocalizations in DG suggest that CREB might be activated by Trx-1 in this brain nucleus involved in memory consolidation processes. Due to the important role of TRX-1 in regulating the cellular redox balance, the induction of TRX-1 expression following morphine CPP could be associated to a mechanism of neural protection against a stressful situation.
Characterization of pCREB and Trx-1 immunostaining in the dentate gyrus (DG) after morphine-induced CPP. (A) Schematic illustration showing the analyzed region of the DG (diagram modified from Franklin & Paxinos) [59]. Coordinate −1.94 mm from Bregma. (B) High-magnification image of a mouse midbrain coronal section immunostained for pCREB and Trx-1. Scale bar 100 μm. Representative confocal images of pCREB (red) (C–F) and Trx-1 (green) (C′–F′). Colocalization (pCREB/Trx-1) is shown in C″–F″ by yellow-orange neurons in the merged images. Scale bar 20 μm. Graphs on the right indicate the mean total number of pCREB (G), Trx-1 (H), and double-labeled (pCREB/Trx-1) neurons (I). Data are expressed as mean ± SEM. ***p < 0.001 versus vehicle (veh) + saline (S); +p < 0.05, ++p < 0.01 versus veh + morphine (M). CP-154,526 (CP).
Pretreatment with CP-154,526 completely blocks morphine-induced CPP elevation of Trx-1 expression in DG (Figure 3).
We have also shown an increase in the number of pCREB neurons coexpressing Trx-1 following morphine-induced CPP, so CRF1R could be involved in CREB phosphorylation, probably through a Trx-1-dependent way. The exact mechanism by which the CRF system participates in Trx-1 signaling regulation in DG is not completely understood. One possible explanation could indicate that pCREB binds to CRE in the 5′-upstream sequence of Trx-1 gene, thus inducing Trx-1 expression to regulate its phosphorylation. In agreement with this hypothesis, other authors have demonstrated that ephedrine promotes Trx-1 expression via the β-adrenergic receptor/cyclic AMP/PKA/DARPP-32 signaling pathway [60]. Besides, methamphetamine-induced CREB activity in rat pheochromocytoma cells was shown to be regulated by Trx-1 [56].
As shown in Figure 4, morphine-induced CPP increases the number of pCREB-positive neurons in PVN, an increase that was blocked by CP-154,526 treatment. However, there are no changes in the number of Trx-1 positive neurons or in the double labeled neurons (pCREB/Trx-1).
Characterization of pCREB and Trx-1 immunostaining in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) after morphine-induced CPP. (A) Schematic illustration showing the analyzed region of the PVN (diagram modified from Franklin & Paxinos) [59]. Coordinate −0.82 mm from Bregma. (B) High-magnification image of a mouse midbrain coronal section immunostained for pCREB and Trx-1. Scale bar 100 μm. Representative confocal images of pCREB (red) (C–F) and Trx-1 (green) (C′–F′). Colocalization (pCREB/Trx-1) is shown in C″–F″ by yellow-orange neurons in the merged images. Scale bar 20 μm. Graphs on the right indicate the mean total number of pCREB (G), Trx-1 (H), and double-labeled (pCREB/Trx-1) neurons (I). Data are expressed as mean ± SEM. **p < 0.01, versus vehicle (veh) + saline (S); ++p < 0.01, versus veh + morphine (M). CP-154,526 (CP).
On the other hand, BDNF, an important neurotrophin for synaptic plasticity, is one of the molecular candidates underlying the development of persistent neuroplastic adaptation that regulates drug addiction [61]. Several lines of evidence indicate that chronic morphine treatment triggers ERK activation in different brain regions [62]. ERK phosphorylates CREB and active (phosphorylated) CREB stimulates the expression of target genes, including BDNF [63, 64, 65]. Chronic morphine use has been shown to increase the expression of BDNF in the NAc and hippocampus [61, 66, 67]. According to these data, our findings demonstrated that morphine-induced CPP activates BDNF signaling in the DG without any changes in the saline group (Figure 5), demonstrating that repeated morphine with context exposure, but not merely the context, increases BDNF expression in DG, suggesting that BDNF is implicated in drug-induced contextual memory formation. Therefore, BDNF is a crucial signal molecule involved in morphine dependence. However, whether this molecule is regulated in a CRF1R-dependent manner remains largely unknown: CP-154,526 attenuated CREB-BDNF expression (Figures 4 and 5) and prevented morphine-induced CPP [29]. Taken together, CRF1R-mediated CREB-BDNF signaling changes may regulate morphine reward through modulating contextual memory in the hippocampus.
Western-blotting analysis of BDNF in the dentate gyrus (DG) and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) from animals pretreated with vehicle (veh) or CP-154,526 (CP) before saline or morphine. The immunoreactivity corresponding to BDNF is expressed as a percentage of that in the control group defined as 100% value. ***p < 0.001 versus morphine + CP; +p < 0.05 versus saline + veh.
The physical component of morphine withdrawal syndrome can be assessed by scoring some somatic withdrawal signs after morphine exposure [68]. Recent results from our group have demonstrated significant alterations in some morphine withdrawal signs such as body weight loss, rearing, rubbing, grooming, diarrhea, freezing, and time to first immobility in wild type morphine-withdrawn animals compared with controls treated with saline (Figure 6). Besides, and in agreement with previous studies [69, 70, 71], our laboratory has shown that body weight loss (Figure 6H), freezing (Figure 6F), and diarrhea (Figure 6E) are significantly attenuated in CRF1R KO mice although an increase in jumping in CRF1R KO mice was observed (Figure 6A), as it has been described previously by other authors [72]. Jumping is a sensitive and commonly used index of naloxone-induced withdrawal [73, 74, 75, 76]. However, it is important to clarify that different neural elements mediate several withdrawal behaviors [77, 78]. Thus, it is not easy to extrapolate naloxone-precipitated jumping in CRF1R KO mice to other physical symptoms like body weight loss.
Behavior effects by naloxone (nx)-precipitated morphine withdrawal in wild type (WT) or knockout (CRF1R KO) mice. The following somatic signs, (A) jumping, (B) rearing, (C) rubbing, (D) grooming, (E) diarrhea, (F) freezing behavior, and (H) body weight loss, induced after nx (1 mg/kg, s.c.)-injection to morphine or saline-treated mice during 18 min, were evaluated. The time to first immobilization (G) was also evaluated. Data are expressed as the mean ± SEM. $$p < 0.01 versus WT mice treated with morphine + nx; **p < 0.01 versus WT mice treated with saline + nx; +p < 0.05, ++p < 0.01, +++p < 0.001 versus WT mice treated with saline+nx; ##p < 0.01, ###p < 0.001 versus KO mice treated with saline + nx; &&&p < 0.001 versus WT mice treated with morphine + nx.
It is commonly accepted that affective drug withdrawal symptoms are of major motivational significance in contributing to relapse and continued drug use; thus, it is important to understand the mechanisms that mediate affective behaviors during morphine withdrawal. CPA paradigm is a highly sensitive animal model for the measurement of the negative affective component of drug withdrawal as well as to investigate the neural substrates underlying the aversive memory associated with drug withdrawal [79, 80]. In this model, a morphine-dependent animal undergoing withdrawal is exposed to a particular environment for a period of time. When later is given the opportunity to freely explore the apparatus, animals trained in this way tend to avoid the previously paired context due to the association between the context and aversive memories of drug withdrawal [79].
The extinction of this aversion occurs if the association is weakened by repeated exposure to the withdrawal-associated context in the absence of the conditioned stimulus, and the initial response (CPA) can be reinstated by a drug priming injection, stress or by conditioned cues. Extinction is complete when animals no longer avoid the previously cue-paired compartment. Typically, while memory reconsolidation requires single context reexposure, extinction requires multiple cue reexposures [81]. For example, fear conditioning studies suggest that the extinction process does not eliminate the initial context, but the organism learns that this cue does not cause the previous stimulus [82]. Thus, extinction requires associative learning, consolidation, and the formation of a new memory [83].
Recently, our group has investigated the mechanism underlying CPA expression and extinction. These experiments showed that morphine administration induced a significant place aversion for the naloxone-paired compartment, compared to the saline group. However, CRF1R KO mice presented less aversion than wild type mice (Figure 7A).
(A) CPA expression induced by naloxone (nx, 1 mg/kg, s.c.) in wild type (WT) or knockout (CRF1R KO) mice treated with morphine or saline. The score was calculated for each mouse as the difference between the postconditioning and the preconditioning time spent in the naloxone-paired compartment. (B) Extinction of CPA training. Aversion scores from day 5 to 13 for WT and CRF1R KO mice are shown. Data are expressed as the mean ± SEM. +++p < 0.001 versus WT mice treated with saline + nx, &p < 0.05, &&p < 0.01, &&&p < 0.001 versus WT mice treated with morphine + nx.
There is much information about the neurobiological mechanisms involving extinction of reward memory of drug taking [84, 85, 86]. However, little information is known about extinction of aversive memory of drug withdrawal [87]. Previous studies have demonstrated that the aversive effects of opiates might be related to basal genotype differences in the brain systems [88]. Accordingly, we have clearly demonstrated that the genetic disruption of the CRF/CRF1R pathway decreases the period of CPA extinction (Figure 7B).
Thus, results obtained by our laboratory regarding CPA expression and extinction suggest an important role for CRF1R in aversive memory.
It is well established that acute withdrawal of all major drugs of abuse dysregulates the HPA axis and alters CRF activity in the PVN of the hypothalamus, with a common response of increased adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone [89], which mediate somatic and aversive components of withdrawal [72, 90, 91, 92]. To evaluate whether a causal link exists between CRF1R activation and HPA axis, our group has measured plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels in wild type and CRF1R KO mice after naloxone-induced CPA expression and CPA extinction (Figure 8). Our investigations have shown that plasma ACTH levels are increased in wild type mice although plasma corticosterone levels are not changed following CPA expression. These results indicate that ACTH-independent mechanisms could have an important role in the regulation of the adrenal stress system to appropriately adapt its response to physiological necessities, and even the presence of pituitary ACTH is basic for adrenocortical function. Numerous lines of evidence indicate that a large number of neuropeptides, neurotransmitters, growth factors, and bacterial ligands can influence the release of adrenal glucocorticoids independently of pituitary ACTH [93]. Adrenocortical cells express a large diversity of receptors for these factors, thus triggering potential direct actions on glucocorticoids release. Damage in the upstream stress regulating pathways in the brain leads to a rupture between ACTH and corticosterone, which suggests that central nervous system neurocircuits can regulate HPA axis response at both pituitary and adrenal sites [94]. Our results also indicate that CPA expression-induced ACTH release is attenuated in CRF1R KO mice. In agreement with these observations, it has been reported fewer ACTH levels in morphine withdrawn animals treated with CRF1R antagonists [70]. Besides, a role for the HPA axis and extra-hypothalamic brain circuitry in somatic, molecular, and endocrine changes induced during opioid withdrawal has been described [72]. ACTH plasma levels returned to basal in wild type and CRF1R KO mice after CPA extinction. These results suggest that CPA expression is, at least, partially due to an increase in plasma ACTH levels which can be decreased after naloxone CPA extinction.
Effect of CPA expression and CPA extinction training on ACTH (A and B) and corticosterone (C and D) plasma levels in wild type (WT) and knockout (CRF1R KO) mice. Data are expressed as the mean ± SEM. +++p < 0.001 versus WT mice treated with saline + nx, &&&p < 0.001 versus WT mice treated with morphine + nx.
CP-154,526 administration or genetic deletion of CRF1R impairs CPP and CPA learning, suggesting that the expression of reward and aversive learning and memory shares some common neural circuits related with CRF/CRF1R signaling. During the formation or consolidation process (CPP expression), the majority of phospho-CREB positive neurons in DG coexpresses Trx-1, in parallel with an increased expression of BDNF, suggesting that Trx-1 could activate CREB and this in turn accelerates the transcription of CREB-dependent genes such as BDNF. However, CP-154,526 diminishes CPP expression, in parallel with a block of phospho-CREB/Trx-1 colocalization and BDNF expression, suggesting that Trx-1-CREB-BDNF signaling could be essential for memory formation or consolidation. In addition, CPA expression training increases plasma ACTH levels, which is critical for the maintenance of aversive memories associated with drug withdrawal. Genetic deletion of CRF1R (KO mice) induces a reduction in CPA expression accompanied with a higher decrease in ACTH plasma levels. CPA extinction period is reduced in KO mice, indicating a role for CRF1R in the aversive memory retrieval. Altogether, these results indicate a critical role for CRF, through CRF1R, in molecular changes involved in reward memory-associated behaviors and in aversive memory expression and extinction. The disruption of these processes by CRF1 antagonists might lead to effective treatments in drug addiction.
This research was supported by a grant from the Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad (SAF2017-85679-R).
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"25"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b6091426454b1c484f4d38efc722d6dd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Feed Additives in Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af14229738af402c3b595d7e124dce82",slug:"banking-and-finance",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1182",title:"Clinical Pharmacology",slug:"clinical-pharmacology",parent:{title:"Drug Discovery",slug:"drug-discovery"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:123,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitations:100,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"clinical-pharmacology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",slug:"antioxidants",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7258",title:"Resveratrol",subtitle:"Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b02655d4c4df83b50688fa1a22661d49",slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7258.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"716",title:"Clinical Use of Local Anesthetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8e4b699b914aa5fa2cf49f0ce8c42b9",slug:"clinical-use-of-local-anesthetics",bookSignature:"Asadolah Saadatniaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/716.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88079",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Asadoliah",middleName:null,surname:"Saadatniaki",slug:"asadoliah-saadatniaki",fullName:"Asadoliah Saadatniaki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:4740,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:39,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"65331",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83731",title:"Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids as Potential Natural Antioxidants",slug:"flavonoids-and-phenolic-acids-as-potential-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:1743,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Biljana Kaurinovic and Djendji Vastag",authors:[{id:"142369",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaurinovic",slug:"biljana-kaurinovic",fullName:"Biljana Kaurinovic"},{id:"286918",title:"Prof.",name:"Djendji",middleName:null,surname:"Vastag",slug:"djendji-vastag",fullName:"Djendji Vastag"}]},{id:"62084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78977",title:"Resveratrol and SIRT1 Activators for the Treatment of Aging and Age-Related Diseases",slug:"resveratrol-and-sirt1-activators-for-the-treatment-of-aging-and-age-related-diseases",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Alessandra Stacchiotti, Gaia Favero and Rita Rezzani",authors:[{id:"175171",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Rezzani",slug:"rita-rezzani",fullName:"Rita Rezzani"},{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"},{id:"245898",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Stacchiotti",slug:"alessandra-stacchiotti",fullName:"Alessandra Stacchiotti"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66259",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:4740,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:39,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"65067",title:"Diseases Related to Types of Free Radicals",slug:"diseases-related-to-types-of-free-radicals",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Narendra Maddu",authors:[{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu"}]},{id:"62579",title:"Where and How in the mTOR Pathway Inhibitors Fight Aging: Rapamycin, Resveratrol, and Metformin",slug:"where-and-how-in-the-mtor-pathway-inhibitors-fight-aging-rapamycin-resveratrol-and-metformin",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Sage Arbor",authors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",middleName:null,surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}]},{id:"62084",title:"Resveratrol and SIRT1 Activators for the Treatment of Aging and Age-Related Diseases",slug:"resveratrol-and-sirt1-activators-for-the-treatment-of-aging-and-age-related-diseases",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Alessandra Stacchiotti, Gaia Favero and Rita Rezzani",authors:[{id:"175171",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Rezzani",slug:"rita-rezzani",fullName:"Rita Rezzani"},{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"},{id:"245898",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Stacchiotti",slug:"alessandra-stacchiotti",fullName:"Alessandra Stacchiotti"}]},{id:"66504",title:"Antioxidants as a Double-Edged Sword in the Treatment of Cancer",slug:"antioxidants-as-a-double-edged-sword-in-the-treatment-of-cancer",totalDownloads:873,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Majid Asadi-Samani, Najmeh Kaffash Farkhad, Mohammad Reza Mahmoudian-Sani and Hedayatollah Shirzad",authors:[{id:"237542",title:"Dr.",name:"Majid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi-Samani",slug:"majid-asadi-samani",fullName:"Majid Asadi-Samani"},{id:"275475",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Reza Mahmoudian-Sani",slug:"mohammad-reza-mahmoudian-sani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Mahmoudian-Sani"},{id:"295230",title:"Dr.",name:"Najmeh",middleName:null,surname:"Kafash Farkhad",slug:"najmeh-kafash-farkhad",fullName:"Najmeh Kafash Farkhad"},{id:"295231",title:"Dr.",name:"Hedayatollah",middleName:null,surname:"Shirzad",slug:"hedayatollah-shirzad",fullName:"Hedayatollah Shirzad"}]},{id:"65331",title:"Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids as Potential Natural Antioxidants",slug:"flavonoids-and-phenolic-acids-as-potential-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:1743,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Biljana Kaurinovic and Djendji Vastag",authors:[{id:"142369",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaurinovic",slug:"biljana-kaurinovic",fullName:"Biljana Kaurinovic"},{id:"286918",title:"Prof.",name:"Djendji",middleName:null,surname:"Vastag",slug:"djendji-vastag",fullName:"Djendji Vastag"}]},{id:"65225",title:"Antioxidant Categories and Mode of Action",slug:"antioxidant-categories-and-mode-of-action",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Manal Azat Aziz, Abdulkareem Shehab Diab and Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed",authors:[{id:"276717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Manal",middleName:null,surname:"Azat Aziz",slug:"manal-azat-aziz",fullName:"Manal Azat Aziz"},{id:"286369",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulkareem",middleName:null,surname:"Shehab Diab",slug:"abdulkareem-shehab-diab",fullName:"Abdulkareem Shehab Diab"},{id:"312155",title:"Dr.",name:"Abeer Abdulrazak",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"abeer-abdulrazak-mohammed",fullName:"Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed"}]},{id:"62439",title:"Protective Activity of Resveratrol in Cardio- and Cerebrovascular Diseases",slug:"protective-activity-of-resveratrol-in-cardio-and-cerebrovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:689,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Albino Carrizzo, Carmine Izzo and Carmine Vecchione",authors:[{id:"209420",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Vecchione",slug:"carmine-vecchione",fullName:"Carmine Vecchione"},{id:"210626",title:"MSc.",name:"Albino",middleName:null,surname:"Carrizzo",slug:"albino-carrizzo",fullName:"Albino Carrizzo"},{id:"219305",title:"Mr.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Izzo",slug:"carmine-izzo",fullName:"Carmine Izzo"}]},{id:"66809",title:"Dietary Antioxidants in the Chemoprevention of Prostate Cancer",slug:"dietary-antioxidants-in-the-chemoprevention-of-prostate-cancer",totalDownloads:465,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Dwayne Tucker, Melisa Anderson, Fabian Miller, Kurt Vaz, Lennox Anderson-Jackson and Donovan McGrowder",authors:[{id:"155804",title:"Dr.",name:"Donovan",middleName:null,surname:"McGrowder",slug:"donovan-mcgrowder",fullName:"Donovan McGrowder"},{id:"158092",title:"Mr.",name:"Lennox",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson-Jackson",slug:"lennox-anderson-jackson",fullName:"Lennox Anderson-Jackson"},{id:"280661",title:"Mr.",name:"Dwayne",middleName:null,surname:"Tucker",slug:"dwayne-tucker",fullName:"Dwayne Tucker"},{id:"280662",title:"Ms.",name:"Melisa",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"melisa-anderson",fullName:"Melisa Anderson"},{id:"280664",title:"Mr.",name:"Fabian",middleName:null,surname:"Miller",slug:"fabian-miller",fullName:"Fabian Miller"},{id:"291987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kurt",middleName:null,surname:"Vaz",slug:"kurt-vaz",fullName:"Kurt Vaz"}]},{id:"65762",title:"Antioxidants in Date Fruits and the Extent of the Variability of the Total Phenolic Content: Review and Analysis",slug:"antioxidants-in-date-fruits-and-the-extent-of-the-variability-of-the-total-phenolic-content-review-a",totalDownloads:627,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Abdulameer Allaith",authors:[{id:"277441",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdulameer",middleName:null,surname:"Allaith",slug:"abdulameer-allaith",fullName:"Abdulameer Allaith"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"clinical-pharmacology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/184202/fatima-rodriguez-fornes",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"184202",slug:"fatima-rodriguez-fornes"},fullPath:"/profiles/184202/fatima-rodriguez-fornes",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()