Chemical substances have been used excessively in order to increase the agricultural productivity since the 1940s. Applications initially led to an apparent increase in yield. However, in the later process, effectiveness of these substances decreased due to the development of resistance against chemicals, particularly used in combating agricultural pests, thus this situation resulted in either excessive use of them to obtain better response or development of new drugs with high expenses. Moreover, in this course, human, animal and environmental health problems are reached much more serious extent besides the economic losses [1]. This situation, particularly, in the developed countries has led people to consume more safe products. The current approach is more comprehensive, which ensure the dissemination of sustainable practices in every production area in order to leave a healthier world for future generations. Organic farming, emerged in this context, is accepted as the farming not allowing the use of any of the substances/applications such as growth promoters, antibiotics, genetically modified organisms and irradiation, which are considered to be harmful to human health, and providing safer foods concerning nitrates, pesticides and harmful elements (heavy metals, particularly cadmium) and rich in phenolic compounds and vitamins [2, 3].
Organic farming refers to breeding systems that do not use chemical inputs in which the priority is given to animal welfare and quality of healthy products [4]. In organic livestock production system, vaccination is subjected to conditional permission [5]. Organic farming has increased intensely for the last 10 years in Europe. However, difficulties in the treatment of animal diseases due to failure in achieving the standards of organic farming has led to insufficient development of organic farming and to have a small share in the overall agriculture [4]. Although milk is the most commonly produced products among the organic animal products, its production amount is still considerably lower than that produced by the conventional method. The organic meat production has been recently introduced; therefore, it is difficult to find certified breeders [6]. According to 2001 data, concerning the organic animal breeding, Europe takes the first place with 57.9%, which is followed by the North (15.5%) and South America (13.9%). Organic animal product quality varies depending on various factors such as animal species and diet types. Although, concerning some parameters, organic animal products are superior to conventional animal products, generally, they are considered not to be superior to conventional ones in terms of quality [7]. Despite all this, the organic products are generally regarded as excellent products. For this reason, researches on the contamination in organic products, especially, organic animal products are limited [8]. However, unlike the conventional farming, lack of the use of protective products in organic products can lead to early deterioration of a product, to the risk for mold formation and to the emergence of harmful pathogens. On the other hand, despite all the strict rules of organic farming, inevitable factors such as atmospheric conditions, soil properties, climatic conditions, continuation of permanent pollutants for years may cause the residues in organic vegetables and cereals thus indirectly (with food intake) results in negative factors/residues in animal products [9].
\nIn organic farming, various factors such as use of animal manure, the prohibition of the usage of certain food additives and antibacterials, keeping animals on pasture for longer duration, preferring slow-growing breeds and small slaughterhouses makes organic products vulnerable to bacterial contamination [2, 10, 11]. Studies on bacterial contamination of organically grown animals and animal products are very limited. In fact, concerning the risk of bacterial contamination among organic products, plant products have priority. In terms of organic animal products, poultry meat seems to be more risky. Salmonella and Campylobacter are the most important foodborne bacterial contaminants [10]. Salmonella can lead to disease in humans through consumption of contaminated beef, pork, poultry meat and eggs or vegetables contaminated with animal faces [12]. Differences are seen between the results obtained from the conventional and organic products in terms of contamination with bacteria. In a study, Salmonella was seen in none of the organic chicken farms (layers and broilers), whereas it is evident in approximately 10% of conventional farms, but Campylobacter was observed in all organic broiler farms [13]. Cui et al. [10] analyzed organic and conventional eggs collected from Maryland (USA) retail stores for Campylobacter and Salmonella, and detected Campylobacter in most of the organic (76%) and conventional (74%) chickens and Salmonella was seen in 61 and 44% of organic and conventional chicken, respectively. In the United Kingdom, Campylobacter was found in 80% of organically grown chicken. In a study conducted in Germany, it had been reported that organic chicken meat was contaminated with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) as much as conventional poultry meat [14, 15]. In organic or free-range hen breeding contamination of eggs with the faces and thus the risk of bacterial contamination of eggs is higher than the conventional cage breeding [16]. Antibiotic resistance of the bacteria isolated from organic and conventional chicken and also eggs derived from them differ. In a study, no difference was determined between organic and conventionally grown chickens regarding sensitivity of Campylobacter isolates to antibiotics [15]. In another study investigating antibiotic resistance against Gram-negative bacterial isolates, the resistance in isolates obtained from organically reared chicken is lower because of the limited use of antibiotics in organic farming [17]. Isolates obtained from Campylobacter and Salmonella positive organic chicken eggs were found sensitive to antimicrobial agents, whereas isolates derived from conventional chicken eggs were resistant to five or more antibacterial agents [10]. Similarly, in the Netherlands, antibiotic resistance was lower in microorganisms (except Campylobacter) isolated from faeces samples of organic broilers [13].
\nIt was observed that Salmonella contamination status varies in organic fattening pig farms depending on the breeding experience of the farms [12].
\nOrganically grown animals have a lower risk of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, mad cow disease) just because they are fed with organic feed [7]. In cattle breeding, there is no basis (evidence) associated with organic production systems in terms of
The bacterial count in raw milk is considered as an indicator of hygienic management of the farm. According to the European Union (EU) Council Directive (EC 92/46/EEC) for the production of heat-treated drinking milk, plate count (30°C) for per ml of milk should be ≤100,000, somatic cell count-SSC for per ml of milk should be ≤400,000 in cows’ milk and plate count (30°C) for per ml of milk should be ≤1,500,000 in goat’s and sheep’s milk [20]. In a comparative study, total mesophilic bacteria count-TMBC (×103 CFU/mL) and coliform bacteria count-CBC (×101 CFU/ml) content of organic milk samples (for mesophilic n = 218; for coliform n = 101) were higher than conventional milk (for mesophilic n = 1168; for coliform n = 473) [21]. In one of the two different studies conducted in USA, no difference was present between organic and conventional (sum of grazing and not grazing) milk regarding SSC [22], and in the other study, very little difference was determined in terms of SSC and standard plate count [23]. Although no difference was found between organic and conventional milk samples concerning the diversity of spore forming aerobic bacteria, bacteria isolated from milk obtained from conventional farms were found to be more resistant to heat, and
Mycotoxins are toxic molecules, which are synthesized by molds growing on plants. These highly toxic and heat-resistant toxins are transferred to animals with plants, and to humans with animal products through the food chain. Among the mycotoxins, particularly aflatoxin (AFL), ochratoxin (OTA), fumonisins, deoxynivalenol (DON), patulin and zearalenone are the most important mycotoxins for public health. Mycotoxin contamination in animal products is lower than in those from plant origin. Studies comparing the organic and conventional animal products concerning mycotoxin contamination is limited [25].
\nIn Latvia, mold strains belonging to 15 genera were identified in the raw milk samples collected from organic farms between December 2011 and November 2012. Among these strains, the most common ones were
An OTA contamination (mean 0.05 μg/kg) in organic pork (4/7) was determined by a study conducted in Denmark between 1993 and 1994 [30].
Although, mineral supplementation in organic animal husbandry is not a routine practice, mineral supplements can be applicable. The diet of the animals in organic farming must be 100% organic [31]. Since organic animals depend on the mineral content in the soil, unlike the expectation, mineral deficiencies can occur in animals. This condition usually results in lower essential elements levels in organic animal products compare to conventional animal products. A study conducted in Spain investigating the levels of essential elements such as Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Ferrous (Fe2+), Iodine (I), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Nickel (Ni), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn) and toxic elements such as Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg) and Lead (Pb) in organic and conventional milk samples has revealed that levels of essential elements in organic milk is lower than conventional milk and toxic element concentrations are lower in both without any significant difference [32]. The analysis of pork obtained from slaughterhouses (n: 20) has shown that As, Pb and Hg (excluding one sample, 0.008 mg/kg) are below the detection limit (0.1, 0.05 and 0.005 mg/kg, respectively). In the same samples, Cd levels were between 0.005 and 0.38 mg/kg (median: 0.11 mg/kg), which were lower than the limits set by the EU (1 mg/kg) [13].
\nHeavy metals are persistent pollutants like organic chlorine and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) pesticides. Since heavy metals still exist in production processes for different purposes, they can be found in high levels in various environmental samples especially in pastures close to industrial areas [6]. Heavy metals enter the body through inhalation of their dust, drinking of the contaminated water or ingestion of the products grown in the contaminated regions (food chain) [33].
\nSome researchers have shown that levels of harmful elements such as Pb, As, Cd and Ni in organic products are not lower than those found in conventional products [6, 34, 35]. In a study evaluating a total of 156 organic and conventional milk and meat products (78 samples in each group), the mean Pb levels were detected as 1.85 and 1.68 µg/L and the mean Cd levels were detected as 0.09 and 0.16 µg/L in organic and conventional milk samples, respectively. In meat samples, the means of 5.91 and 14.81 µg/L Pb and the means of 0.49 and 1.31 µg/L Cd were detected in organic and conventional samples, respectively. Pb levels in organic and conventional milk samples were not higher than the 20 µg/L, which was set by EU Regulation 466/2001. There is no maximum residue limit (MRL) value for Cd-concerning milk. In the case of meat samples, Pb and Cd levels were lower than 100 and 50 µg/kg, which were set by EU Regulation 466/2001, respectively [6].
\nIn Poland, milk and hair samples obtained from Holstein cow on organic farms were analyzed for Aluminum (Al), As, Barium (Ba), Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg and Pb, and the mean values of these elements in milk samples were 63.64, 12.27, 26.36, 1.130, 15.76, 157.6, 785.7, 0.396 and 6.210 µg/kg, and the mean values in hairs were 14224, 34.82, 298.7, 2.700, 75.76, 2263, 15925, 82.78 and 32.67 µg/kg, respectively [36].
\nIn Turkey, in a study conducted on milk and milk products offered to consumption between March 2010 and February 2011, samples of conventional and organic products were collected at three monthly intervals and analyzed by Graphite Furnace AAS for Al, As, Cd and phosphorus (P), and the levels of these elements were found lower than limit of detection-LOD values, which were 0.02, 0.001, 0.001 and 0.02 µg/L for Al, As, Cd and Pb, respectively. Mean Pb levels were found as 0.001 ppm in organic milk (n:3) while 0.008 ppm in organic cheeses (n:7). There is not a maximal limit set by Turkish authorities for organic products, therefore, when 0.02 ppm, which was set as maximal acceptable value for the milk according to Turkish Food Codex “Communiqué on Determination of Maximum Level of Certain Contaminants” (Communiqué No: 2002/63) in foodstuffs, was taken as the basis, the Pb levels determined in one organic cheese and in one organic butter were above the maximum acceptable level [37, 38].
\nIn a study performed in Turkey (Aegean Region) for determining the mineral content of the organic and conventional chicken eggs, compare to conventional chicken eggs, P and Zn levels in the edible portion of organic chicken eggs were lower, whereas Mg was higher in shell, and there was no difference between organic and conventional eggs concerning calcium (Ca), Fe and Cu contents [39]. In Turkey, 0.020, 0.055 and 0.020 mg/L of Cd, Pb and Cu, respectively, were found below the LOD in all of the organically and conventionally produced flower honey and eggs by analysis, whereas Fe concentrations were found at higher levels in organic compared to conventional products [40].
\nIn Greece, in a controlled study, Cu, Vanadium (V), Cr, Ni, As and Cd contents were determined in conventional, organic and free-range (in the courtyard) chicken eggs, and mean values for these elements were determined as 1357, 12.5, 66.2, 63.3, 13.9, 1.4 ng/g in conventional, as 1233, 13.2, 82.9, 58.4, 12.5, 1.6 ng/g in organic and as 1282, 12.6, 90.5, 59.2, 15.4 and 1.5 ng/g in free-range chicken eggs, respectively. The values were lower in white than those in brown eggs [41]. In Egypt, in the analysis of organic eggs for Cd, Pb and Al showed that Cd and Pb were present in 34 and 40% of the organic eggs, respectively. The Cd and Pb contents of the eggs were above the maximum permissible levels. It was emphasized that although, when calculated according to target hazard quotients (THQ) organic eggs appear to have a low health risk, they are not safer than conventional ones [42].
\nAnalysis of Cd levels in liver, kidney and fecal samples as well as feed, soil and water samples collected from a pig farm in which organic (outdoor) and conventional (indoor) breeding systems implemented together showed that Cd levels in organically and conventionally produced feedstuffs were 39.9 and 51.8 µg/kg, respectively. Cadmium content in 38% of the feed given to conventionally reared animals was found to be associated with the Cd content of beet fibers, which was included in to diet at a rate of 5%. No difference was determined between liver samples collected from the animals on organic and conventional feeding systems concerning Cd levels (15.4 ± 3.0 µg/kg). Despite the low amount of Cd in feed, more Cd was found in kidney of pigs fed with organic feed. In addition, Cd levels were higher in the feces of organic pigs, which were attributed to environmental exposures such as soil [43].
Organic products contain more phytochemicals, which are protective against pests, therefore, use of pesticides is not required, thus the risk of pesticide residues in organic products is low [34]. However, from time to time, pesticides such as DDT and its degradation products, DDE may be found in foods such as organic-grown grain, grain products (biscuits, bread, etc.), meat and dairy products. Despite the use of pesticides in organic farming is not allowed, the reason for the existence of these substances in organic farming is attributed to the ability of them to remain in environment for a long time without disintegration [44]. Pesticides can be encountered in most of the animal products (meat, milk and fish) depending on bioaccumulation. Dioxin and dioxin-like compounds (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins-PCDD, polychlorinated dibenzofurans-PCDF, and polychlorinated biphenyls-PCBs), which are a general problem of the places in where industrialization is intense or intensely populated create similar problems for organic or conventional farming [45]. It has been stated that 4% of dioxin received by people per day comes from the eggs [46]. It has also been claimed that more dioxin was determined in eggs obtained from free-range hens compared to those obtained from hens grown indoors [45]. In a study conducted on honey for the evaluation of pesticides, it has been emphasized that there is no significant difference between organically and conventionally produced honeys [47]. In northern Italy, in the analysis of conventional and organic animal meat and milk samples for organochlorine pesticides and PCBs, pesticides and PCBs have been found below legal limits in both organic and conventional samples [6]. In another study conducted in Italy, the residues of persistent pollutants and pesticides were determined by GC-MS/MS analysis in most of the 59 organic honey samples. However, levels were below the MRL. This result was attributed to geographical conditions [48]. According to the findings of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) pesticide data program (PDP), the market place surveillance program of the California Dept. of Pesticide Regulation (CDPR) and a Consumers Union private residue-testing program, conventional/organic pesticide residue ratios have been found as 3.2, 4.8 and 2.9, respectively. These results seem to relieve the 70% of people who prefer the consumption of organic products to avoid from pesticides [49].
Outdoor rearing of animals in organic livestock production system may increase the risk of animals to contact with environmental pathogens that cause foot diseases (especially in pigs) as well as infectious diseases and helminthiasis. Lack of use of the curative and preventive conventional medicines (antibiotics) in organic farming leads to concerns about the treatment of the diseases. Mastitis is one of the most common diseases seen in dairy animals. Mastitis incidence is reported to be higher in organic production than in conventional production in England, Germany, to a lesser extent in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. However, it has been indicated that the difference between conventional and organic farming is decreased with the increasing awareness of animal production [4]. Since the use of veterinary drugs has not been allowed in organic livestock production, screening organic animal products for veterinary drug residues is at negligible levels. However, in a study conducted by Ghidini et al. [6], the antibiotic residues have been found at low levels, approximately 0.3%, in milk. In a study conducted before 1997, no difference was reported between conventional and organic honey in terms of veterinary drug residues [47]. In the analysis of kidney and meat samples of organic pigs (n = 20) taken from slaughterhouses, solely one sample showed a slight bacterial inhibitory effect against macrolide antibiotics. All of the organic and conventional eggs were found negative by the analyses for toltrazuril aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, beta-lactam antibiotics, tetracyclines, quinolones and colistin residues [13].
Developments in medicine, industry and agriculture have caused the world’s population to increase and as a result of the need to feed the increasing population and urbanization, it became a necessity to produce more in agriculture and industry. This necessity caused widely use of different chemicals (pesticides, heavy metals, veterinary medicines, etc.) in various areas of production and this caused high amount of disposals of wastes in an uncontrolled manner to the environment, which results pollution. In parallel with the increase in pollution, the contaminants in food resources caused significant health problems in humans as a result of food chain [50].
\nHeavy metals are the elements with an atomic weight between 63,546 and 200,590 and with a specific gravity more than 4.0 [51]. Metals are dispersed in the nature through geological and biological cycles [52] and then can penetrate to the food chain by contaminating the cereals from the environment, the animals and animal products from contaminated cereals and herbs, and fish from the polluted waters [52, 53].
\nMetals have harmful effects on most of our organs due to their elementary structure and their affination with organic ligands through biological cycles. Since metals are strongly bound to tissues, they are disposed very slowly and accumulated in the body. Samples of blood, urine and hair are usually used as indicators in evaluating the level of exposure to metals [52]. Although soil is the primary source of toxic metals in edible plants, the level of contamination increases more with metal wastes, consumption heavy metal wastes, leaded fuels and paints, fertilization of soil, animal fertilizers, sewage wastes, pesticides, irrigation with waste water, wastes of coal burning, spillage of petrochemicals, atmospheric accumulation, volcanic activities, etc. [54, 55]. It was revealed in the study of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was conducted on various food samples taken from 12 countries, that Pb, Cd, Hg and As are important in terms of health and contamination risk, whereas antimony (Sb), Fe, Cu and Zn are less important [56]. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has specified Cd and Cd components as Group I carcinogen for human health (they induce lung tumors) [57]. Heavy metals, such as As, Cd, Hg, Cu, Pb, etc. that contaminate water through any means can accumulate within fish and then cause health problems in humans [58].
\nMaximum limits of Cd, Pb and Hg in some animal products are given in European Commission (EC) and Turkish Food Codex (TFC) [56]. There is also information about daily consumption amounts of metals that humans can take. Daily consumption amount of Sb is specified as 0.25–1.25 mg for children in the USA. The USA has determined that Al consumption should not exceed 12–14 mg/day for young and adult men and 9 mg/day for young and adult women [52]. Although, Zn is an essential element for human body, according to animal experiments, high doses of Zn is toxic and carcinogenic [53, 59]. The amount that can be taken with food is set as 0.23 mg/kg/day by the FDA [59]. Contaminated seafood with industrial wastes may contain high level of Zn, and entry of these products into the food chain can pose a danger to human health. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) and has determined that maximum amount of daily allowable consumption of as should be 2 µg/kg of body weight [60].
\nMost of the foods other than fish contain <0.25 mg/g As, but many fish species contain As between 1 and 10 mg/g. However, the amount of As found in marine crustaceans and deep sea fish was found as 100 mg/g or more [51]. Although the amount of As consumed is 10–200 µg/day, this amount can reach to several thousand µg/day in those that consume fish a lot in their diet [58]. The accumulated amount of As is 3–10 ppm in oyster, 42–174 ppm in mussels and 42–174 ppm in shrimps. Thus, most of the As taken with food by human is originated from sea foods [51]. However, As poisoning due to consumption of animal products is also possible. It was seen in early summer of 1955 that the babies younger than 12 months in western Japan had symptoms of anorexia, skin pigmentation, diarrhea, vomiting and distention and more than 100 babies showing these symptoms died and then it was found that the case was caused by consumption of powdered milk (popular and brand), which contains approximately 21–34 µg As per gram and As was found in the babies that consumed this powdered milk. It was also found that the origin of As was disodium phosphate, which was added to cow milks as a stabilizer [51, 61].
\nCadmium, one of 25 substances that have a certain potential of danger against human health, cannot be disposed from and is accumulated within the body [57]. Foods usually contain Cd less than 0.05 ppm. However, WHO announced that the highest level of Cd was found in crustaceans as well as the kidneys of various animals, such as cow, chicken, pig, sheep and turkey as a result of analyses. Daily tolerable amount of consumption of Cd is 1 µg/kg of body weight [52]. The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) stated that Hg and Hg components, which cause kidney cancer in experimental animals, may also cause cancer in humans [53].The amount of Hg ranges between <1 and 50 μg in many food and beverage. However, the most important source of Hg in diet is the fisheries, caught from contaminated waters. Since crustaceans, such as mussel and oyster, feed by filtering water, they accumulate Hg components in their bodies. Mercury exists in bigger fishes in higher concentrations, compared to smaller ones. According to a research conducted by FDA, the amount of Hg in big tuna fishes was 0.25 ppm, whereas it was found as 0.13 ppm in average in smaller tuna fishes. The type of Hg that is found most in sea foods (>90%) is methyl mercury. FDA determined maximum allowable level of Hg in fish and crustaceans as 0.5 ppm [51]. Methyl mercury poisoning or Minamata disease, seen in Japan in 1954, is the most important example of Hg poisoning due to animal products. This disease was caused by consumption of fishes, living in water that was heavily contaminated with industrial wastewater. Similarly, serious muscle and neurological dysfunctions were seen in humans living in the city of Nigata and close to Minamata Bay in 1970 and 50 of 120 hospitalized persons died [51, 62].
Pesticides are chemicals, most of which are highly toxic and are used against pests. These substances are toxically effective not only against pests but also other living organisms. Pesticides cause behavior disorders, immunosuppression, allergic reactions, estrogenic, teratogenec, mutagenic and genotoxic effects on living organisms. The duration of stay of pesticides in the natural environment, depend on their chemical structure. Pesticides, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons are resistant against biological degradation and they can stay in soil for years and penetrate to the food chain through various means. These fat soluble pesticides can be accumulated in the fat tissue of humans and animals as well as in their livers, kidneys and neural systems. Residues in the body of lactating animals can easily penetrate to the animal’s milk [51, 52]. Contamination of animal products, such as meat and milk, with permanent pesticide residues is a frequently encountered problem. In a study conducted in Jordan, in which eggs as well as meats of chicken, sheep and cow were scanned for OCP residues, it was found that 28% of eggs, 20% of chicken meat, and 49% of red meat were contaminated with OCP [63].
\nChlorinated compounds, such as PCBs, aldrin, DDT, DDD, DDE, BHC, heptachlor, etc., which enter the body of fishes through various means, can accumulate within the fishes and cause health problems in humans that consume these fishes. There is a linear relationship between accumulation of chlorinated compounds, such as PCBs, within fishes and their fat contents. The experiments showed that half-lives of PCBs in fishes are quite long. Despite the fact that utilization of PCBs was banned, they were still found in fish samples, analyzed in Ontario, Canada in 1992–1993, and in fish samples collected from 15 different countries in 1994–1995 [58].
Milk is considered sterile (free from microorganism) because of its compounds and chemical properties. But milk is a suitable medium for most microorganisms. In general, it is not expected that milk has microorganisms and toxins unless there is a systemic or local infection. But clinical and subclinical mastitis, which are associated with local or systemic infections are common problems for animals [64, 65]. The milk flora of dairy animals consists of lactic acid bacteria (LAB;
Mycotoxins are very toxic compounds that are produced by fungi and yeast [70]. Diseases due to the consumption of contaminated food with mycotoxins and molds are known worldwide. Grain and milk products are the most sensitive ones to contamination with mycotoxins among foods [71]. In mycotoxicosis cases, consumption of animal products (milk and dairy products, meat and meat products, egg, liver, kidney) has a major role as well as consumption of grain and grain products. Mycotoxins cause respiratory and neurological disorders, cancer, nephrotoxicity and hepatoxicity. Diseases such as Alzheimer’s, multiple scleroses, etc. are considered to be related to mycotoxicosis. In pregnant women, mycotoxins that are taken with contaminated products can affect baby through placenta. Especially, infant and children are very sensitive to mycotoxins [72]. As a result of research in infant foods (rice flour, grain flour and milk powder)
First mycotoxin (aflatoxin M1) contamination in dairy products was recorded in 1960s. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a metabolite of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and it forms in liver. 0.3–6.2% of AFB1 in animal feeds is metabolized, biotransformed, and secreted in milk in the form of AFM1. Mycotoxins such as OTA, zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin and DON were also detected in milk. But these are not taken into account in importance as much as AFB1. One of the main reasons of DON and ZEN contamination is silage that is added into animal food [70]. Contamination with fungi and mycotoxin formation are not necessarily related to each other. Even when fungi contamination and variety is high mycotoxin can form less. According to a research in infant foods aflatoxin was detected only in 2.4% (19–70 µg/kg) of specimens despite of high fungus contamination [71]. In the European Union and some other countries accepted limits of AFM1 varies for raw milk is between 0.05 and 10 µg/kg, for dairy products is between 0.02 and 10 µg/kg [70].
\nIn a study where fungal contamination variety’s being analyzed of cow, goat and sheep milk, turned out that cow milk samples the highest diversity, and it was recorded that identified species were belonged to
Poultry meat can also be contaminated by mycotoxins. A study showed that most common mold genuses are
Packaging is an indispensable part of the food production process. Today lots of plastics are being used as packaging material. Also, antioxidants, stabilizers, lubricants, antistatic and antiblocker materials can be used to increase the performance of package material. Additives, monomers, oligomers and contaminants can get transferred to food from packaging material. There are concerns about plasticizers (phthalates), thermal stabilizers, slip additives, light stabilizers, antioxidants, melamine, styrene, vinyl chloride, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, isocyanate, caprolactam, polyethylene terephthalate oligomer, decomposition products, benzene and other volatiles, environmental contaminants, processing agents and other contaminants getting transferred to food [75, 76]. Studies on contamination in milk products related to this issue are limited [76].
\nEspecially heavy metal pollution can occur in canned milk products and this is related to storage temperature and duration [77]. Also heavy metal pollution can occur during packaging process. As a result of a study, high amount of Pb was detected on bread packages [78]. In another study, high amount of Pb was detected on candy packages, which children consumed often, and this result was backed up by FDA [79, 80].
\nBecause of that Cd got high dissolution in organic acids, human food chain’s Cd pollution is very common. Studies showed that Cd, which is used for making food packages, can get transferred to high-acidic foods by getting dissolved. Wrapping foods with antimony foil, keeping in antimony containers and cooking in them causes foods get contaminated with high amount of Sb [51, 52]. Zinc can get transferred through galvanized containers to humans [56].
Nowadays, various veterinary drugs and food additives are being used as therapeutic and prophylactic in animals. Foods of animal origin that contains drug residue consumed by human can cause allergic reactions, drug resistant microorganisms, toxicities in organs and tissue, hormonal disorders, teratogenic effects, etc. Animal originated milk and dairy products can contain veterinary drug residues as contaminants such as antimicrobials (like antibiotics), hormones, anthelmintics and pesticides. Beta-lactams, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, macrolides and sulfonamides are the most commonly used antibiotics [81]. The result of a study made by USDA showed 5.3% of 529 carcasses have antibiotic residue. In these tests, chlortetracyclines, oxytetracyline, tetracycline, streptomycin, neomycin and erythromycin antibiotics had been detected [52]. In a study conducted in Croatia, 1259 raw milk samples were analyzed for antibiotic residue (chloramphenicol, penicillins, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, beta-lactams, quinolones, aminoglycosides and macrolides) and 37 positive samples were found, but because of low levels it was stated that this would not cause any health problems [82]. The usage of chloramphenicol, which causes bone marrow suppression and aplastic anemia, is prohibited for animals. In Brazil where its usage prohibited in 1998, study made with ELISA showed 28.6% 84 raw milk samples were positive for chloramphenicol [83]. In Egypt, after antibiotic analyzes on broiler fillets, which were collected from markets, it turned out there were problems especially about detecting withdrawal times of oxytetracyline residues [84].
\nSteroid hormone can be in milk. Food production processes do not have any effect on milk and dairy products. Testosterone was detected in fresh cheese (0.1–0.5 mg/kg). Benzimidazole anthelmintics are being used commonly on animals thus benzimidazole anthelmintics and their metabolites (albendazole sulfoxide, albendazole sulfone, etc.) can be in dairy products [81]. The result of a study conducted in Macedonia analyzes showed only one of 55 bovine meat samples was positive for clenbuterol [85]. For preventing and curing diseases in fishes, veterinary drugs such as antibiotics mainly, anthelmintics and hormones are being used. Sometimes nonprescription or prohibited drugs can be used. In Canada, after analyzes made with sea, fresh water and canned fish, as ng/g level furazolidone metabolite 3-amino-2-oxazolidinone (AOZ), enrofloxacin, leucomalachite green, oxolinic acid and chloramphenicol residues were detected. In 28 eel samples, which were collected from markets in Tokyo, 0.07 ppm oxolinic acid was detected. Again in Tokyo, in flounder sample, which was collected from markets, 360 µg/kg oxytetracyline was detected on the skin [86].
In the case of therapeutic drugs, before using the product, implementation of withdrawal time for the drug residues has been made mandatory. The obligation of drug applications to sick animals requires the disposal of the products containing residues of during this period, which means economic losses. Withdrawal time of drug residues in animal products is usually determined on unprocessed products. However, most of the animal products are consumed after certain treatments (such as cooking or storing in cooler at a certain time). Such processes may affect the drug residues in the products. Some previous studies have shown that processes applied to the product containing residue may result in changes in the level (quantity) of drug residues [87–90]. This suggests that, in inevitable conditions, the product containing residue is subjected to conditional consumption. Most of the researches on the subject are related to conventional animal products. The obtained results may vary depending on various factors such as quality of the animal products, the sample site on the same animal, the kind and duration of the applied processes. Studies have shown that tetracycline residues were decreased by 35–94% in muscle (cattle and sheep) and liver (cattle) through cooking (microwave, boiling, roasting, grilling and frying). Residues of penicillin (penicillin G-benzylpenicillin and cloxacillin) in milk have been reported to be decreased by the boiling and yogurt production (fermentation). On the other hand, since penicillinase released by microorganisms found in raw milk is deteriorated in the milk produced by UHT, benzylpenicillin is more stable (not disintegrated) in milk produced with this technique. Cooking cannot reduce the residues of oxolinic acid, flumequine, enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin, which are belonging to Quinolone group, in fish. However, such residues can be removed by discarding the meat broth containing the residues, which are transferred into boiling water through boiling [87]. A similar situation has been observed in broilers concerning some drugs belonging to sulfonamides (sulfadiazine) and quinolone (danofloxacin) groups [88, 89]. Cooking decreases sulfamethazine residues in tissues (muscles and liver) of broiler at different rates. The most significant decrease occurs in boiling because during the boiling process drug in the tissue passes to water. Similarly, cooking (boiling and grilling, equally effective) may also be effective on sulfachloropyridazine-trimethoprim combinations in broiler tissues (muscle and liver) but these drugs cannot be transferred into boiled water in contrast to sulfamethazine [89]. Concentration of levamisole residues in broiler tissues (muscle, liver) can be diminished by different cooking processes (through disintegration and passing to water), whereas the effectiveness of deep freezing is time-dependent and the most losses occur on day 30th [90].
\nEspecially washing as well as applications such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, acetic acid, peracetic acid, hydroxy, iprodione can significantly reduce the pesticide residues in foods. Processes such as pasteurization, boiling, steaming and canning can reduce the levels of pesticide residues depending on the treatment type and time as in veterinary drug residues. In contrast, the implementation of food preservation techniques such as drying or dehydration increases the concentration of pesticides (due to a reduction in weight of product resulting from drying) [91].
\nExcept the studies investigating the effects of processing on pesticide residues mostly in vegetables and cereals processing have diverse effects on pesticide residues in animal products such as milk (pasteurization) dairy products (cheese and yoghurt production) and eggs (boiling and scrambling). When reduction in pesticide residues in dairy products were compared, the reduction in foods made of sheep and goat’s milk may be 50% less than in those made of cow’s milk. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) residues show a gradual decline by yoghurt production and by keeping at refrigerator [91]. Sausage making can lead to a significant reduction in organochlorine (hexachlorobenzene-HCB, α-, β-, γ-hexachlorocyclohexane-HCH and p,p’-DDE) pesticide residues [92].
\nAccumulation of organochlorine insecticides in fish is 10–10,000 fold higher than water [52]. Boling process is very effective in reducing DDT and heptachlor concentrations in dried fish (Bombay duck-loittya, ribbon fish-chhuri, shrimp-chingri, Chinese pomfret-rupchanda and Indian salmon-lakhua) [93]. It has been reported that frying process is effective in reducing α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, heptachlor, aldrin, heptachlor epoxide isomer B, pp′-DDE, endrin and pp’-DDT residues in commonly consumed fish (
Maximum residue limit (MRL) is defined as the highest concentration of a chemical residue that is legally permitted or accepted in a food, and acceptable daily intake (ADI) is defined as the amount of a residue that can be ingested on a daily basis over a lifetime without health risk [52]. National/international information concerning the maximum level of contaminants allowed in conventional product is available. Maximum levels for contaminants in conventional food of animal origin were determined by the EU. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) makes risk assessment for pesticides and European Commission determines appropriate MRLs [95]. Food Additives FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee (JECFA) determines the tolerable weekly intake levels of heavy metals in order to prevent heavy metal contamination in foods whereas EFSA and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) offer proposals for the exposure and tolerance limits of the heavy metals [50]. The EU directive No. 1881/2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs entered into force following its publication in 2006. The MRLs in foodstuffs for nitrates, mycotoxins, metals, 3-monochloropropenes-1,2-diol (3-MCPD), dioxins and PCBs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are specified in the relevant directive. The veterinary drug residue limits (MRLs) for a variety of foods including animal origin are determined by Committee for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use (CVMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) [95]. The first directive that concern to protect consumers from harmful substances coming from packaging materials was published by Commission of the European Communities (CEC) in 1976. Analysis methods for the official control of the vinyl chloride monomer levels in food packaging materials were identified in 1980. According to the regulations made by the EU, countries can make their own private arrangements at the national level [75].
\nThe beginning of legal regulations on organic farming dates back to the 1970s. Studies conducted, independently, on organic farming in different countries became organized under a roof with the establishment of International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) that was headquartered in Germany in 1972. IFOAM is the first organization that defines the rules for ecological production worldwide. The rules, initially developed as the series of Basic Principles were modified as IFOAM Basic Standards, adopted by the General Assembly and entered into force in 1998 [96].
\nThe first EU directive relevant to organic products was published on June 24, 1991. This directive, No 2092/91, was established solely for organic vegetable production [97]. In 1999, EU directive on animal production and general standards, “Codex Alimentarius”, that was jointly prepared by the FAO and the WHO was published. The Codex Committee on Food Labelling, which was under CAC, lays down the standards pertaining to organically produced and labeled herbal and animal foodstuffs. Moreover, standards deal with plants and plant products, livestock and animal products, sources of animals, the prevention and treatment of animal diseases, such as fertilizer and pest management issues have been implemented [98]. In the following years, directives with different scopes and contents have been prepared and entered into force by the EU [97]. Directives issued by the EU are either accepted as they are by the countries of world or adopted according to their national conditions to create their own regulations.
\nThe presence of any contaminant in organic products is normally not expected due to strict principles of organic farming. However, because some substances are the natural ingredients of the earth, they can be found naturally in organic products like happens in the elements (copper, iron, etc.). The levels of these substances in organic human and animal food (feed and feed ingredients) can vary depending on various factors such as geographical conditions and soil properties. On the other hand, despite the high precision of the organic farming, persistent environmental contaminants resulting from industrial and other activities can be involuntarily reflected in the organic products [99]. Legal regulations regarding the evaluation of organic products for contaminants are considered to be in their early stages. Although this situation varies among countries of the world, the EU seeks to create long-term control programs, especially, on pesticide residues with the issued regulations [100].
Food contaminants can cause consumer illness such as allergy, immunosuppression, cancer, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, genotoxicity. Therefore, monitoring of food contaminant is an important issue for the protection of public health. In order to protect public health use of many veterinary drugs for prophylactic purposes is prohibited by most of the countries. However, significant differences can arise among countries concerning the types of prohibited drugs and MRL values. This situation results in problems particularly for imported/exported products. On the other hand, there are still some veterinary drugs that have no MRLs for even conventional animal products. In addition, animal products may include environmental contaminants associated with industrial and agricultural activities. This situation raises concerns about the presence of residues/contaminants in animal products despite strict policy of the legal authorities. Therefore, people, especially in developed countries, tended to consume organic products. However, difficulties in production of organic products thus their high prices result in the consumption of them by only certain populations, which leads to social inequality in society. On the other hand, contamination may arise due to the failure to provide the required standard in organic products. Therefore, the regulative arrangements that are launched by the EU for organic products should be expanded and put into practice at countries basis as in conventional products.
In the refurbishment of old buildings, especially in the area of monuments [1, 2], capillary building materials, for example, consisting of brick masonry are found very often. Since the building materials of old buildings are often capillary-active materials [3, 4, 5], there is distinctive water absorption and release as well as water transport behaviour on this material. This process is called capillarity. Investigating the capillarity of old building materials can be of considerable relevance. The water absorption and release behaviour is, for example, crucially important for moisture transport and the moisture penetration of components.
The possibilities that result from examining the capillarity of a material in the Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) are explained in this abstract, using a subsequent sealing with injection agents on capillary masonry.
In many cases when renovating old buildings [6], sealing has to be carried out later because no sealing was installed when the object was built or the sealing is no longer adequately functional now. The proof of capillarity and the description of the moisture behaviour of the building materials play a major role here.
A good example is the construction of a subsequent cross-section sealing with injection agents. Although already known from antiquity, the regular use of functioning building waterproofing at capillary building materials began around 1890. Nevertheless, there were no uniform rules for the execution of structural waterproofing at that time. Only in the 1930s, structural waterproofing was normatively regulated. Although the cross-section sealing in massive walls had already a higher priority than other seals on buildings at the end of the nineteenth century, cross-section seals were regularly installed in masonry walls since 1930 onwards. In the old building area, there are very often buildings to find that have a cellar, even if the space requirements made this cellar unnecessary. This is related to the previous construction use, in which the basement was due to lack of sealing technology while permanently moist, but served as a ‘buffer’ to the upper floors, which thereby could be kept sufficiently dry. In this way, the buildings were built without a cross-sectional sealing. For these reasons, solid brick walls in cellars are often encountered in old building renovation and monument preservation, in which there is rising masonry moisture due to non-existent cross-sectional sealing. However, due to usage or conversion requirements of a value retention, there is a great need to permanently seal capillary masonry walls against increasing moisture in the wall cross section in the refurbishment in the renovation of historical monuments. A main group in the retrofitting of masonry cross-section seals is the masonry injection methods, which do not require static interventions [7, 8].
There are currently about 150 different injection agents [7] available for the subsequent cross-sectional sealing of capillary masonry. All injection agents have in common that they are applied by the production of borehole chains in the masonry. The injection agents react chemically. The sealant layer in the masonry is physically formed. There are pressurized and non-pressurized processes to apply the injection medium into the masonry.
However, all injection agents work in the same way: they change the capillarity of the building material and thus also the water transport properties of the material [9]. Therefore, the capillarity of a capillary-active substance that is changed by the injection agent can be used as a reference for the investigations in the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) in the ESEM mode. The investigations with the SEM in the ESEM mode can provide information about the efficiency of such a subsequent sealing by means of injection. In order to be able to monitor the injection procedure and to be able to demonstrate the effectiveness of the injection medium, it is therefore necessary to monitor the quality and quantity of the actually changed capillarity on the object [10].
The detection method presented here is based on the contact angle method in the Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope, ESEM. The ESEM is a modified version of a Scanning Electron Microscope, SEM [11, 12]. In contrast to the SEM, the ESEM can be used in low-vacuum mode. This circumstance allows the supply of a medium (here water steam) during the investigation. A cooling table in the chamber allows the sample to be refrigerated while the air in the chamber is at 100% relative humidity. Changing the chamber pressure causes condensation in the ESEM chamber [13]. During the investigation in the ESEM, condensation water droplets are formed on the sample. The contact angles can be determined on the formed drops of water [14]. When measuring the contact angle, one makes use of the interfacial tension of the water. Both static contact angles and dynamic contact angles can be measured in the ESEM. The contact angles provide information about the changed capillarity of the sample material on which the drops were formed. The contact angle can be measured directly in the ESEM or afterwards. The data obtained from this show a geometrically differentiated picture of the changed capillarity of the examined material. The method can provide information about the quality of the injection as well as about the geometric penetration with the injection agent.
The Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) is a special variant of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The main difference to a conventional Scanning Electron Microscope lies in the lower vacuum in the measuring chamber [15]. Moreover, a special detector is installed for the operation of the ESEM. Due to the lower vacuum (low vac mode), a medium can be supplied to the chamber in ESEM mode. For the examination of building materials, the supplied medium is usually water/water vapour. The gas pressure in the chamber of the ESEM is usually 130–1.300 pascals. In the same way as when using the SEM, the sample is scanned by a focused electron beam in the ESEM. The signal resulting from an interaction with the sample is picked up by the detector and used to generate the image. The ESEM uses the generation of low-energy secondary electrons (0–50 eV), which are emitted from the sample surface as slow electrons. For signal amplification, the ESEM uses the gas in the sample chamber, which generates an amplification cascade through ionization. This system also neutralizes charges on the samples. The most important difference between the ESEM and operation in high vacuum (= SEM) is that in low vacuum the water is not ‘expelled’ from the sample and condensation processes (droplet formation) and can thus be made visible. For this purpose, the detector of the ESEM is not sensitive to light or temperature. In order to be able to visualize the water wetting and drying processes in the ESEM, different aggregate states of the medium, here water, which are pressure- and temperature-dependent, are used.
For this purpose, a cooling table connected to a recirculating cooler is arranged in the chamber of the ESEM. The sample is glued to this cooling table with carbon or conductive silver to ensure optimal temperature conductivity. As part of the investigations in the ESEM, the temperature conditions of the cooling table are fixed while the chamber pressure is changed. This causes a change in the state of aggregation of the medium in the chamber (from gaseous to liquid). If the dew point is reached on the sample, the water condenses out on the sample surface. This process is recorded with the help of pictures. In the ESEM, the forming contact angle of a drop can be measured in situ using the contact angle measurement method. Progressive, receding or static contact angles can be measured on ripe droplets. If a drying process is to be shown, the condensation water that has formed can be evaporated by reducing the chamber pressure, and the drying process is made visible. Technically, the ESEM is very well suited to show dynamic condensation in situ [16, 17, 18, 19, 20] (Figure 1).
Phase diagram of water, P. Körber.
The figure above shows the limit curves of the three phases: gaseous (water vapour), liquid (water) and solid (water-ice). These phase areas meet at the triple point. At this point, the three phases are in thermodynamic equilibrium. The formation of condensation is related to the dependence of the state of aggregation of the phases on temperature and pressure.
Due to the change in the pressure conditions in the ESEM, the dew point inevitably occurs during the investigation in the ESEM, and the water that is gaseous in the medium becomes liquid in the form of droplets on the sample surface (Figures 2 and 3).
Cooling table with circulation cooler, P. Körber.
ESEM chamber: Cooling table with circulation cooler, P. Körber.
The contact angle θ is the angle between the liquid surface and the outline of the contact surface at an interface between a liquid and a solid. The external stress of a liquid is defined by the imbalance of molecules within the liquid and at the liquid boundary (interface between liquid and gas). This intermolecular force that contacts the surface is called surface tension. A drop is formed due to the surface tension of a liquid. In addition, external influences such as gravity play a role shaping the drop. The contact angle of a drop occurs at the contact surface of the drop on a solid and also depends on the shape of the drop. The contact angle can provide information about the wettability of a solid with a liquid. The contact angle of a drop of water placed on a component surface can be measured macroscopically or microscopically. Water is well suited for carrying out a contact angle measurement, as it is characterized by a relatively high surface tension (=0.072 n/m). The principle of the contact angle measurement is illustrated in the Figure 4. The static contact angle is measured by applying a tangent to the point where the water droplet touches the solid surface and the ambient phase (here it is air). The contact angle decreases with increasing wettability of the solid (building material surface). The contact angle θ is defined as an angle at the phase boundary of the gaseous, liquid and solid phases of liquids on a solid surface surrounded by gas [21, 22]. This relationship was already defined in 1805 by Thomas Young.
Contact angle measurement with the tangent method, P. Körber.
Eq. (1): Interfacial tension between solid and gaseous:
In Young’s equation, the solid-gas interfacial tension is calculated by adding the solid-liquid interfacial tension to the liquid-gas interfacial tension and multiplying it by the contact angle. The equation below is used to calculate the Young’s contact angle.
Eq. (2): Young’s equation for calculating the contact angle:
Surface and interfacial tension defines the ‘work’ required to increase the interface area. Within the liquid, the molecules interact in all directions (cohesion), while at the interface there is no interaction of the liquid molecules with the outside (adhesion). Young’s equation describes the balance of these forces. This is viewed at the three-phase contact line and exists when the contact line is balanced and at rest. Then the horizontal forces acting on the contact line exactly cancel each other out. The interfacial tension is temperature-dependent, so the contact angles also depend on the temperature and, for most substances, decrease with increasing temperature. However, because there are other forces acting on the contact line in addition to surface tension, the Young’s contact angle cannot be measured per se. If there are movements of the contact line, one speaks of ‘dynamic contact angles’. When the drop volume increases, one speaks of ‘advancing contact angles’, while when liquids evaporate, one speaks of ‘receding contact angles’. In this context, it can be assumed that the advancing contact angle is always greater than the receding contact angle. The difference between these two contact angles is called ‘contact angle hysteresis’.
The hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties of substances can be precisely determined using the ‘Drop Shape Analysis System’. In this method, a droplet illuminated from behind is observed with a camera and displayed on a monitor. With this method a static contact angle is measured by assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that static conditions are present for the contact angle measurement. In fact, this is not the case, because contact angles determined in this way are also subject to certain, very small, changes during the measurement. However, this inaccuracy is included in the tolerance to be estimated and can therefore remain irrelevant for the purposes considered here.
The static contact angle can be measured using the tangent method, as shown above. The results of the contact angle measurements on building materials are differentiated using the 90° limit in A) hydrophobic > 90° and B) hydrophilic < 90°. In addition to this 90° angle definition, the angle measurements also provide information about the gradual water absorption capacity of the substance being examined. If a dynamic condensation/evaporation process is present, static contact angles can only be measured when the dynamic equilibrium between condensation and evaporation is reached. The contact angle method described here for determining the capillarity of a building material can also be applied macroscopically. In the present case, however, this method is applied microscopically in the ESEM. A reliable optical method for drop shape measurement can be carried out on the drops measured in the ESEM: The Drop Shape Analysis (DSA).
In the Drop Shape Analysis (DSA), images are taken of the droplets that are formed and then examined by using computer software. The contact angle is determined by the use of an image. The software can sharpen the captured image and recognize the contour of the drop. The measurement is computer-aided utilizing a geometric model. In the next step, the surface tension can be calculated applying the ‘Young-Laplace-Fit’ if the density difference and thus the imaging scale between the droplet phase and the surrounding phase are known. Accuracies of ±0.2° can be achieved here.
The optically measured drop contour can be calculated using a conic section equation =>Conic Section Method. The conic section method is based on the assumption that the contour of the drop to be measured describes an arc of an ellipse.
The term ‘hydrophobe’ (hydrophobic) is borrowed from ancient Greek (hẏdor = water and phob = repellent). Hydrophobic describes a water-repellent property of a substance. This means that the substance does not dissolve in water and cannot be wetted by water. The term ‘hydrophil’ (hydrophilic) is also borrowed from the ancient Greek (hẏdor = water and phílos = loving). Hydrophilic means that a substance is water-friendly, water-loving. Hydrophilic describes a water-accepting property of a substance. This means that the substance can be dissolved in water and wetted with water (Figures 5–7).
Contact angle measurement: superhydrophobic, P. Körber.
Contact angle measurement: hydrophobic, P. Körber.
Contact angle measurement: hydrophilic, P. Körber.
The examination method described here for building materials in the ESEM can be used in particular for the question in the hydrophobicity of the substance to be examined. During the investigation in the ESEM, condensation processes are carried out, which provide information on how water-absorbent the examined substance is [23].
The procedure for examining building materials in the ESEM is explained below on the basis of a subsequent waterproofing of capillary building materials using injection agents. Such an injection method is used in particular in historic buildings made of solid building materials and in renovations [9].
Investigations in the ESEM are particularly useful when the question arises to what extent a building material is capillary-active or to what extent the capillarity of the building material has changed. Such changes are conceivable, for example, through the use of injection agents in building waterproofing. In the case of injection agent seals, for example, on brick masonry, the penetration of the injection agent changes the capillarity of the building material in such a way that the transfer of water in the building material is impeded or prevented. In this way, it is possible to subsequently create a cross-section seal in masonry walls. For such a procedure, it is necessary to prove the changed capillarity of the building material. This proof documents the sealing success. In this respect, the condensation in the ESEM is predestined to provide evidence for the use of injection agents for the subsequent sealing. The advantage of the examination method in the ESEM is that very small sample quantities can be evaluated in a very short time. The ESEM investigations on building materials are therefore qualitative, microscopic (imaging) detection methods. In addition to these microscopic methods, there are also macroscopic detection methods to investigate the changed capillarity in building materials [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
The qualitative microscopic (imaging) detection method in the ESEM as described here can also be used by verifying the macroscopic, also qualitative, detection methods. It can provide comprehensive information about the changes in the capillary building material under the influence of the injection agent used.
Furthermore, the extent to which an injection material was used at all and to which the building material now exhibits hydrophobic properties after use can be verified. With the exact measurements, the hydrophobicity of the building material can be gradually verified. A comparative examination of the building material before and after injection is possible. With the qualitative microscopic (imaging) detection method, as with the macroscopic investigations, local samples are taken from the injection level using mini core drillings and are analysed in the laboratory in the ESEM.
Essentially, significantly less material has to be removed from the structure for the verification method described here.
To examine the building material in the ESEM, samples are to be taken from the injection level. In addition, reference samples of the masonry without adding the injection agent are required.
The reference samples and the samples from the injection level are subjected to condensation in the ESEM. In the ESEM mode, condensation on a microscopic scale can be brought about within the pores of the building material (bricks and mortar). The condensation process is recorded using pictures and, if necessary, using film. During the condensation process, there is a time window in which the contact angle of the forming water droplets can be measured. The measurement of the contact angle can be carried out directly in the ESEM.
In addition, the measurement can also be carried out retrospectively on the images generated in the ESEM. The measured contact angles can be used to determine whether the substance is hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The examination results consist of an imaging procedure that can be evaluated afterwards. In particular, comparisons with the reference samples are possible.
The qualitative microscopic, imaging detection method described here can be flanked and verified by macroscopic examinations. The macroscopic investigations can serve as a calibration function for the ESEM measurements. In this way, serial tests can be carried out, in which differentiated proof of the sealing success of the subsequent building sealing with injection agents can be provided [29].
In Figure 8a–f, shown below, it becomes clear how the condensation water droplets form in the ESEM. After the time window for the formation of the drops has expired, these attract each other and then merge into one another, so that the time window for the measurement is over. The maximum achievable contact angle is relevant for the measurement.
Condensation process on a brick sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.
The following figures show examples of the formation of condensation water droplets in the ESEM on brick and mortar samples (Figures 9–11). Figure 12 shows the contact angle measurement, which takes place directly in the ESEM.
Condensation process on a brick sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.
Condensation process on a mortar sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.
Condensation process on a brick sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.
Measurement of the contact angle in the ESEM, P. Körber.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Technology for Micropollutant Decomposition",slug:"electrical-discharge-in-water-treatment-technology-for-micropollutant-decomposition",totalDownloads:4988,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Hazardous micropollutants are increasingly detected worldwide in wastewater treatment plant effluent. As this indicates, their removal is insufficient by means of conventional modern water treatment techniques. In the search for a cost-effective solution, advanced oxidation processes have recently gained more attention since they are the most effective available techniques to decompose biorecalcitrant organics. As a main drawback, however, their energy costs are high up to now, preventing their implementation on large scale. For the specific case of water treatment by means of electrical discharge, further optimization is a complex task due to the wide variety in reactor design and materials, discharge types, and operational parameters. In this chapter, an extended overview is given on plasma reactor types, based on their design and materials. Influence of design and materials on energy efficiency is investigated, as well as the influence of operational parameters. The collected data can be used for the optimization of existing reactor types and for development of novel reactors.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Patrick Vanraes, Anton Y. Nikiforov and Christophe Leys",authors:[{id:"49112",title:"Prof.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Leys",slug:"christophe-leys",fullName:"Christophe Leys"},{id:"176861",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Nikiforov",slug:"anton-nikiforov",fullName:"Anton Nikiforov"},{id:"176862",title:"Mr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Vanraes",slug:"patrick-vanraes",fullName:"Patrick Vanraes"}]},{id:"62462",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79055",title:"Plasmonics in Sensing: From Colorimetry to SERS Analytics",slug:"plasmonics-in-sensing-from-colorimetry-to-sers-analytics",totalDownloads:1661,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"This chapter gives a brief overview of plasmonic nanoparticle (NP)-based sensing concepts ranging from classical spectral-shift colorimetry to the highly active field of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy. In the last two decades, colloidal approaches have developed significantly. This is seen with, for example, refractive-index sensing, detection of ad−/desorption and ligand-exchange processes, as well as ultrasensitive chemical sensing utilizing well-defined nanocrystals or discrete self-assembled superstructures in 2D and 3D. Apart from individual NPs, the rational design of self-assembled nanostructures grants spectroscopic access to unprecedented physicochemical information. This involves selected research examples on molecular trapping, ligand corona analysis, SERS-encoding, and biosensing. The origin of the SERS effect, also in regard to hot spot formation by off-resonant excitation, is reviewed and discussed in the context of the current challenge to formulate a generalized metric for high SERS efficiency. Special emphasis lies in addressing the fundamental design criteria and the specific challenges of these particle-based sensing techniques.",book:{id:"6861",slug:"plasmonics",title:"Plasmonics",fullTitle:"Plasmonics"},signatures:"Christian Kuttner",authors:[{id:"247741",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Kuttner",slug:"christian-kuttner",fullName:"Christian Kuttner"}]},{id:"49562",doi:"10.5772/61784",title:"Laser-Induced Plasma and its Applications",slug:"laser-induced-plasma-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:4711,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The laser irradiation have shown a range of applications from fabricating, melting, and evaporating nanoparticles to changing their shape, structure, size, and size distribution. Laser induced plasma has used for different diagnostic and technological applications as detection, thin film deposition, and elemental identification. The possible interferences of atomic or molecular species are used to specify organic, inorganic or biological materials which allows critical applications in defense (landmines, explosive, forensic (trace of explosive or organic materials), public health (toxic substances pharmaceutical products), or environment (organic wastes). Laser induced plasma for organic material potentially provide fast sensor systems for explosive trace and pathogen biological agent detection and analysis. The laser ablation process starts with electronic energy absorption (~fs) and ends at particle recondensation (~ms). Then, the ablation process can be governed by thermal, non-thermal processes or a combination of both. There are several types of models, i.e., thermal, mechanical, photophysical, photochemical and defect models, which describe the ablation process by one dominant mechanism only. Plasma ignition process includes bond breaking and plasma shielding during the laser pulse. Bond breaking mechanisms influence the quantity and form of energy (kinetic, ionization and excitation) that atoms and ions can acquire. Plasma expansion depends on the initial mass and energy in the plume. The process is governed by initial plasma properties (electron density, temperature, velocity) after the laser pulse and the expansion medium. During first microsecond after the laser pulse, plume expansion is adiabatic afterwards line radiation becomes the dominant mechanism of energy loss.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi and Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"},{id:"176867",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Zuhaib",middleName:null,surname:"Haider Rizivi",slug:"syed-zuhaib-haider-rizivi",fullName:"Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizivi"},{id:"176868",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalil",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"jalil-ali",fullName:"Jalil Ali"}]},{id:"63194",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80433",title:"Electrical Diagnostics of Dielectric Barrier Discharges",slug:"electrical-diagnostics-of-dielectric-barrier-discharges",totalDownloads:2e3,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Atmospheric pressure dielectric barrier discharges (DBD) has many industrial applications and remains a focus of academic research. This chapter provides a thorough overview of electrical diagnostics for DBD, with a specific focus on charge-voltage measurement techniques. These methods are often underutilised in the existing scientific literature, despite the fact that they can provide useful insights into plasma behaviour. Both optimization of the electrical measurement setup and the interpretation of results are treated in-depth. The diagnostic techniques are discussed for a range of applications, from classic planar DBDs, to catalyst packed beds, plasma actuators, as well as techniques for measuring single microdischarges.",book:{id:"7393",slug:"atmospheric-pressure-plasma-from-diagnostics-to-applications",title:"Atmospheric Pressure Plasma",fullTitle:"Atmospheric Pressure Plasma - from Diagnostics to Applications"},signatures:"Floran Peeters and Tom Butterworth",authors:null},{id:"64351",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80798",title:"Progress in Plasma-Assisted Catalysis for Carbon Dioxide Reduction",slug:"progress-in-plasma-assisted-catalysis-for-carbon-dioxide-reduction",totalDownloads:1913,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Production of chemicals and fuels based on CO2 conversion is attracting a special attention nowadays, especially regarding the fast depletion of fossil resources and increase of CO2 emissions into the Earth’s atmosphere. Recently, plasma technology has gained increasing interest as a non-equilibrium medium suitable for CO2 conversion, which provides a promising alternative to the conventional pathway for greenhouse gas conversion. The combination of plasma and catalysis is of great interest for turning plasma chemistry in applications related to pollution and energy issues. In this chapter a short review of the current progress in plasma-assisted catalytic processes for CO2 reduction is given. The most widely used discharges for CO2 conversion are presented and briefly discussed, illustrating how to achieve a better energy and conversion efficiency. The chapter includes the recent status and advances of the most promising candidates (plasma catalysis) to obtain efficient CO2 conversion, along with the future outlook of this plasma-assisted catalytic process for further improvement.",book:{id:"7502",slug:"plasma-chemistry-and-gas-conversion",title:"Plasma Chemistry and Gas Conversion",fullTitle:"Plasma Chemistry and Gas Conversion"},signatures:"Guoxing Chen, Ling Wang, Thomas Godfroid and Rony Snyders",authors:[{id:"199226",title:"Mr.",name:"Guoxing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"guoxing-chen",fullName:"Guoxing Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49562",title:"Laser-Induced Plasma and its Applications",slug:"laser-induced-plasma-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:4711,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The laser irradiation have shown a range of applications from fabricating, melting, and evaporating nanoparticles to changing their shape, structure, size, and size distribution. Laser induced plasma has used for different diagnostic and technological applications as detection, thin film deposition, and elemental identification. The possible interferences of atomic or molecular species are used to specify organic, inorganic or biological materials which allows critical applications in defense (landmines, explosive, forensic (trace of explosive or organic materials), public health (toxic substances pharmaceutical products), or environment (organic wastes). Laser induced plasma for organic material potentially provide fast sensor systems for explosive trace and pathogen biological agent detection and analysis. The laser ablation process starts with electronic energy absorption (~fs) and ends at particle recondensation (~ms). Then, the ablation process can be governed by thermal, non-thermal processes or a combination of both. There are several types of models, i.e., thermal, mechanical, photophysical, photochemical and defect models, which describe the ablation process by one dominant mechanism only. Plasma ignition process includes bond breaking and plasma shielding during the laser pulse. Bond breaking mechanisms influence the quantity and form of energy (kinetic, ionization and excitation) that atoms and ions can acquire. Plasma expansion depends on the initial mass and energy in the plume. The process is governed by initial plasma properties (electron density, temperature, velocity) after the laser pulse and the expansion medium. During first microsecond after the laser pulse, plume expansion is adiabatic afterwards line radiation becomes the dominant mechanism of energy loss.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi and Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"},{id:"176867",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Zuhaib",middleName:null,surname:"Haider Rizivi",slug:"syed-zuhaib-haider-rizivi",fullName:"Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizivi"},{id:"176868",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalil",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"jalil-ali",fullName:"Jalil Ali"}]},{id:"67663",title:"Electrical Breakdown Behaviors in Microgaps",slug:"electrical-breakdown-behaviors-in-microgaps",totalDownloads:1205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The study of electrical breakdown behaviors in microgaps has drawn intensive attention around the world due to the miniaturization of electronic devices that allows electronic circuits to be packaged more densely, making possible compact computers, advanced radar and navigation systems, and other devices that use very large numbers of components. Therefore, a clear understanding of the electrical breakdown behaviors in microgaps is required to avoid the dielectric breakdown or to trigger the breakdown at microscale. This chapter introduces the significance of understanding breakdown characterization and reliability assessment for electrostatically actuated devices, magnetic recording devices, photomasks, RF MEMS switches, and micromachines and points out the derivation of the classical Paschen’s law at microscale. Then it summarizes the state-of-the-art research work on the methodology, influencing factors, dynamics, and physical mechanisms of electrical breakdown in microgaps, which is expected to expand the general knowledge of electrical breakdown to the microscale regime or more and benefits the reliability assessment and ESD protection of microscale and nanoscale devices.",book:{id:"8856",slug:"electrostatic-discharge-from-electrical-breakdown-in-micro-gaps-to-nano-generators",title:"Electrostatic Discharge",fullTitle:"Electrostatic Discharge - From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators"},signatures:"Guodong Meng and Yonghong Cheng",authors:null},{id:"66524",title:"Low-C ESD Protection Design in CMOS Technology",slug:"low-c-esd-protection-design-in-cmos-technology",totalDownloads:1627,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection design is needed for integrated circuits in CMOS technology. The choice for ESD protection devices in the CMOS technology includes diode, MOSFET, and silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). These ESD protection devices cause signal losses at high-frequency input/output (I/O) pads due to the parasitic capacitance. To minimize the impacts from ESD protection circuit on high-frequency performances, ESD protection circuit at I/O pads must be carefully designed. A review on ESD protection designs with low parasitic capacitance for high-frequency applications in CMOS technology is presented in this chapter. With the reduced parasitic capacitance, ESD protection circuit can be easily combined or co-designed with high-frequency circuits. As the operating frequencies of high-frequency circuits increase, on-chip ESD protection designs for high-frequency applications will continuously be an important design task.",book:{id:"8856",slug:"electrostatic-discharge-from-electrical-breakdown-in-micro-gaps-to-nano-generators",title:"Electrostatic Discharge",fullTitle:"Electrostatic Discharge - From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators"},signatures:"Chun-Yu Lin",authors:null},{id:"67235",title:"Nanogenerators from Electrical Discharge",slug:"nanogenerators-from-electrical-discharge",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Electrical discharge is generally considered as a negative effect in the electronic industry and often causes electrostatic discharge (ESD) and thus failure of electronic components and integrated circuits (IC). However, this effect was recently used to develop a new energy-harvesting technology, direct-current triboelectric nanogenerator (DC-TENG). In this chapter, its fundamental mechanism and the working modes of the nanogenerator will be presented. They are different from the general alternating current TENG (AC-TENG) invented in 2012, which is based on triboelectrification and electrostatic induction. Taking advantage of the electrostatic discharge, it can not only promote the miniaturization trend of TENG and self-powered systems, but also provide a paradigm shifting technique to in situ gain electrical energy.",book:{id:"8856",slug:"electrostatic-discharge-from-electrical-breakdown-in-micro-gaps-to-nano-generators",title:"Electrostatic Discharge",fullTitle:"Electrostatic Discharge - From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators"},signatures:"Jie Wang, Di Liu, Linglin Zhou and Zhong Lin Wang",authors:null},{id:"62567",title:"Plasma Damage on Low-k Dielectric Materials",slug:"plasma-damage-on-low-k-dielectric-materials",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Low dielectric constant (low-k) materials as an interconnecting insulator in integrated circuits are essential for resistance-capacitance (RC) time delay reduction. Plasma technology is widely used for the fabrication of the interconnects, such as dielectric etching, resisting ashing or stripping, barrier metal deposition, and surface treatment. During these processes, low-k dielectric materials may be exposed to the plasma environments. The generated reactive species from the plasma react with the low-k dielectric materials. The reaction involves physical and chemical effects, causing degradations for low-k dielectric materials. This is called “plasma damage” on low-k dielectric materials. Therefore, this chapter is an attempt to provide an overview of plasma damage on the low-k dielectric materials.",book:{id:"6735",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-basic-fundamentals-and-modern-applications",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Basic Fundamentals and Modern Applications"},signatures:"Yi-Lung Cheng, Chih-Yen Lee and Chiao-Wei Haung",authors:[{id:"59549",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi-Lung",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",slug:"yi-lung-cheng",fullName:"Yi-Lung Cheng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"229",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",value:9,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",value:8,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",value:7,count:9}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:3}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"87",type:"subseries",title:"Economics",keywords:"Globalization, Economic integration, Growth and development, International trade, Environmental development, Developed countries, Developing countries, Technical innovation, Knowledge management, Political economy analysis, Banking and financial markets",scope:"
\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11971,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. 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