--\x3eb/a can be studied. For instance, the variation of the effective potential force constants has a behavior like that in Figure 6, for the particular case a=120 nm and L=10 nm. Both kx and ky were determined from the potentials derived by spin alignment with a position constraint. Their geometric mean k¯, which determines gyrotropic frequencies, is also shown. The curves for these force constants do not go below a minimum value of \x3c!----\x3eb/a, where the vortex becomes unstable.\n
The corresponding gyrotropic frequencies ωG for L=10 nm and also for L=5.0 nm are shown in Figure 7, versus \x3c!----\x3eb/a. These were obtained from simulations the same as those described for circular nanodisks. Note that the shapes of these curves are very similar to the curves of k¯ in Figure 6, which is to be expected if the Thiele theory (43) is valid. The additional results for L=5.0 nm are included to demonstrate the dependence on disk thickness. With thicker disks having a greater restoring force and k¯∝L2, due to the extra area on the disk edges, the dependence of G∝L results is gyrotropic frequencies increasing roughly linearly in L. The results can be presented in another view in Figure 8, showing ωG/k¯ versus ellipticity for different L. One again gets a clear and quantitative verification of the Thiele theory result (43), seeing that ωG/k¯∝λex/L with the correct constant of proportionality.
\n
Figure 8.
Gyrotropic frequency magnitudes (from dynamics) scaled by mean force constants (from statics), versus geometric ellipticity b/a, for elliptic nanodisks with a=120 nm and two different thicknesses. The results confirm the predictions from the Thiele theory, dashed lines from Eq. (43), using exchange length λex=5.3 nm, with no adjustable parameters.
\n\n\n
5. Spontaneous gyrotropic motion from thermal fluctuations
\n
Now we consider the effects of temperature on a vortex. Specifically, the temperature effectively acts as a bath of random magnetic fields that exchange torques and energy with the vortex. Even though that exchange is somewhat random, one sees that it is able to spontaneously initiate the organized gyrotropic motion of the vortex. That motion proceeds over a noisy background of spin waves. Even so, it is readily apparent and persistent. Here, we show typical time evolutions, and then later discuss statistical properties.
\n
5.1. Simulation of a vortex initially at disk center
\n
A vortex that has been relaxed to its minimum energy configuration (e.g., by the spin alignment scheme) is situated in the disk center, whether it be circular or elliptical. This assumes that a quasi-single-domain state is not lower in energy. Then, in the absence of any external forces or forces due to a thermal environment, it would statically remain centered in the disk and exhibit no dynamics. However, Machado et al. [25] noticed that finite temperature micromagnetics simulations demonstrate the spontaneous motion of the vortex, even if it starts in it minimum energy location. This is rather surprising, although it is really not much different than any spin wave mode from being excited thermally in an equilibrium system with temperature. From the point of view of statistical mechanics, any excitable modes (i.e., independent degrees of freedom) should share equally in available thermal energy, and because the energy present in the vortex gyrotropic motion is quite small, rather large orbital motions can develop solely due to the effects of temperature.
\n
In the numerical solution [13] of the magnetic Langevin equation (21), the dimensionless temperature is required. For the simulation units being used, J=2AL determines the energy scale and depends on the disk thickness. As an example, we consider a disk with a=60 nm, b=30 nm, and thickness L=5.0 nm, at temperature T=300 K. For Py parameters (A=13 pJ/m), the energy unit is J=130 zJ, while the thermal energy scale is kT=4.14 zJ, which gives the dimensionless temperature,
\n
T=kT2AL=0.032,forT=300K,L=5.0nm.E47
\n
This was used to determine the variance of the random magnetic fields, Eq. (37), together with a damping parameter α=0.02. A dimensionless time step Δτ=0.01 for the second-order Heun method was used. The resulting vortex core coordinates (X(τ),Y(τ)) are displayed in Figure 9, out to a time of τ=50,000. From Figure 9, a clockwise orbital motion takes place, together with a noisy background, and there are about 15 complete orbits for τ<50,000 (period τG≈3300). The period is somewhat longer than that found at zero temperature, τG≈2970. This softening of the mode with temperature is to be expected. In addition, the amplitudes of X and Y motions are not equal, as expected from the elliptical disk shape. The gyrotropic orbital motion continues indefinitely; it was followed out to τ=2.5×105 to get vortex statistics.
\n
For comparison, an identical simulation but with the disk thickness increased by a factor of 2 to L=10 nm in shown in Figure 10, again starting the vortex from the disk center. The greater thickness approximately quadruples k¯, but also doubles the gyrovector, thereby resulting in the frequency being double that for L=5.0 nm. It is also clearly apparent that the amplitude of the thermally induced motion is reduced in the thicker nanodisk (the graphs have different vertical scales). These differences then are primarily driven by the modifications to the force constants and to G.
\n
Figure 9.
Spontaneous vortex core motion caused by thermal fluctuations, as found by H2 integration of the LLG-Langevin equations (21) for a nanodisk with thickness L=5.0 nm. The vortex was initiated at the disk center, X=Y=0. This graph shows only 1/5 of the total data generated and used subsequently for analysis of vortex statistics, corresponding to hundreds of gyrotropic periods.
\n
Figure 10.
Spontaneous vortex core motion caused by thermal fluctuations, for a nanodisk simulation identical to that in Figure 9, but with double the thickness, L=10 nm. Note the considerably smaller amplitude of gyrotropic oscillations, and the much higher frequency.
\n
\n
5.2. Thermal vortex motion as described by the Thiele equation
\n
Next, we consider the statistical mechanics of the vortex core position R=(X,Y), based on an effective Lagrangian and Hamiltonian that give back the Thiele equation. The analysis [7] makes use of the general elliptic potential U(R) in Eq. (4). It is straightforward to check that a Lagrangian whose Euler-Lagrange variations gives back the Thiele equation is [13]
\n
L=−12G(XY˙−YX˙)−12(kxX2+kyY2)E48
\n
This is a particular choice of gauge and this Lagrangian is not unique (see Ref. [26] for a different choice). To transform to the associated Hamiltonian, one finds the canonical momentum for this symmetric gauge,
\n
P=∂L∂V=12(GY,−GX).E49
\n
This shows that the Lagrangian can be expressed as L=P⋅V−U. As P is determined by X and Y, without any time derivatives, one can interpret this as a pair of constraint relations between components of P and R. It means that of four original coordinates plus momenta, only two are independent.
\n
The Hamiltonian is obtained in the usual way,
\n
H=P⋅V−L=U=12(kxX2+kyY2)=12k¯ρ2.E50
\n
Curiously, this has no momenta present. This strange situation seems to imply that there is no dynamics, because the Hamilton equations of motion are
\n
P=−∂H∂R,X=∂H∂P.E51
\n
That would give V=R˙=0, which is clearly wrong. This singular situation comes about because of the constraint (49) between momentum and position components. In order to get a true dynamics, one needs to rewrite the Hamiltonian half as a potential part and half as a kinetic part, that is,
\n
H=14(kxX2+kyY2)+14(2G)2(kxPy2+kyPx2).E52
\n
This is exactly equal to H in Eq. (50), but now it does give back the Thiele equation when its time dynamics is found from Eq. (51). Because of the constraint, the vortex motion depends on only two independent coordinates, or degrees of freedom, rather than four. For the purposes of statistical mechanics, then, the thermalized vortex motion contains an average energy, 〈H〉=2×12kT.
\n
\n
5.3. Thermalized vortex probability distributions from the Thiele equation
\n
One can assume that any of the coordinates, X,Y,PX,PY, as well as effective circular coordinate ρ→=(ρx,ρy), obey a Boltzmann distribution, whose parameters are determined by the average energy,
\n
〈H〉=kT.E53
\n
This directly gives the mean squared effective circular radius for an elliptic disk,
\n
〈ρ2〉=〈2H/k¯〉=2kT/k¯.E54
\n
This becomes the usual mean squared radius, 〈ρ2〉→〈R2〉, in the limit of a circular disk. Using expression (50) for H, with the energy shared equally between X and Y motions (equipartition theorem for quadratic degrees of freedom) implies that each coordinate has a mean square value,
\n
〈X2〉=kT/kx,〈Y2〉=kT/ky.E55
\n
For the systems we study, with \x3c!----\x3eb < a and kx<ky, this implies a wider range of motion for the X coordinate, as could obviously be expected. These relations for the mean square values indicate the importance of the force constants for describing the statistical distribution of vortex position.
\n
Now consider determining the probability distributions for the vortex core location. The Hamiltonian is circularly symmetric when expressed in terms of the square of the effective circular coordinate ρ→. We can suppose that each possible location has a probability determined from a Boltzmann factor, e−βH, where β=(kT)−1. Employing the circular symmetry for this coordinate, the probability p(ρ)dρ of finding the vortex core within some range dρ centered at radius ρ is proportional to the area 2πρdρ in a ring of radius ρ, and the Boltzmann factor e−βH:
\n
p(ρ)dρ∝2πρdρe−βH=2πρdρe−12βk¯ρ2.E56
\n
By including a normalization constant, the unit normalized probability distribution function is easily found to be
\n
p(ρ)=βk¯ρe−12k¯ρ2.E57
\n
The root-mean-square radius ρrms=2kT/k¯ implied from relation (54) can be verified with this probability function. One can also get the mean radius and the most probable radius:
\n
〈ρ〉=12πkT/k¯,ρmax=kT/k¯.E58
\n
For the simulations shown in Figures 9 and 10, with a=60 nm, b=30 nm, T=300 K, position data out to τ=2.5×105 was used to find histograms of vortex core position, and thereby get the radial probability distribution to compare with Eq. (57). The results are shown in Figure 11. To compare with theory, the force constants from spin alignment relaxations were used (see the Figure 11 caption). Note also that as the gyrotropic frequency is considerably larger for L=10. nm, those data correspond to many more orbits of the vortex, equivalent to a more complete averaging. Even so, the distributions for both thicknesses follow very closely to the expected form that depends on the validity of the Thiele equation, with no adjustable parameters (see Figure 12).
\n
Figure 11.
The radial distribution of vortex core positions for the simulations in Figures 9 and 10, with a=60 nm, b=30, and thicknesses L=5.0,10 nm. Data out to final time τ=2.5×105 was used. The solid curves are the theory expression (57), using force constants k¯=0.1753 k0 for L=5.0 nm and k¯=0.6832 k0 for L=10 nm, as obtained from spin alignment calculations, with force constant unit k0=A/λex.
\n
Using H expressed in terms of both X and Y, the probability to find the vortex core within some range dX and dY of the location (X,Y) is p(X,Y)dXdY∝e−βHdXdY, where the normalized probability function is found to be
\n
p(X,Y)=βkx2πe−12βkxX2βky2πe−12βkyY2.E59
\n
This is a product of Gaussian distributions in each coordinate, p(X,Y)=p(X)p(Y), with zero mean values, but variances given by
\n
σx=kT/kx,σy=kT/ky.E60
\n
The distributions p(X) and p(Y) found from the simulation data of Fig. 9 are shown in Fig. 12, and compare closely to the theoretical expression (59).
\n
Figure 12.
Distributions of vortex core coordinates for the LLG-Langevin simulation in Figure 9 with a=60 nm, b=30, and thickness L=5.0 nm. The solid curves are the theory expressions from Eq. (59) based on the Thiele theory for vortex motion, using force constants kx=0.1156 k0 and ky=0.2657 k0 from spin alignment relaxation, where k0=A/λex.
\n
Clearly one could also find the corresponding distributions of the momentum components by similar reasoning.
\n
Instead of looking at the momentum components, we can equivalently calculate a theoretical speed distribution for the vortex core [13]. This is simplest if we use the effective circular coordinate ρ→, and consider that fact that its velocity in Eq. (36) implies a speed u≡|ρ˙| given by
\n
u=|ωG|ρ.E61
\n
As u is proportional to ρ, so are their probability distributions. If g(u) is the desired speed probability distribution, then conservation of probability states that
\n
g(u)du=p(ρ)dρ=p(u/|ωG|)du/|ωG|.E62
\n
Thus, the speed distribution is derived from the effective circular coordinate distribution by
\n
g(u)=|ωG|−1p(u/|ωG|).E63
\n
With |ωG|=k¯/G, one obtains
\n
g(u)=βG2k¯ue−12βG2u2/k¯=2uurms2e−u2/urms2.E64
\n
This depends on the root-mean-square speed, determined from ρrms,
\n
urms=|ωG|ρrms=2kTk¯/G.E65
\n
The function g(u) is a Maxwellian speed distribution similar to that for an ideal gas. One could consider the factor in the exponent as depending on a kinetic energy term 12mGu2 for a particle, where mG is some mass associated with that particle in gyrotropic motion. From Eq. (64), one can read off the value needed for this mass,
\n
mG=G2/k¯.E66
\n
This curious result gives a kind of effective mass that depends on the potential experienced by the vortex. Thus, it should not be consider an intrinsic vortex mass. Generally, G is linearly proportional to thickness L [see expression (25)], whereas k¯ tends to increase approximately with L2 [see expression (41) and also Section 4.2], making this mass nearly independent of L. Probably, mG is more strongly determined by the disk area, πab. In the case of circular disks, using the approximate expression (41) for k¯=kF and the definition (25) of G gives a quantitative result,
\n
mG≈(2π)2a0.878μ0γ2.E67
\n
Thus, the mass is determined primarily by the disk radius a, and it does not depend on the material parameters such as the exchange stiffness or saturation magnetization. For a radius a=100 nm, the mass is 1.2×10−22 kg, an extremely small value. Even so, the mass can be taken to represent how a vortex responds dynamically to the potential. With the gyrotropic frequency given by |ωG|=k¯/G, the mass is written equivalently as
\n
mG=G/|ωG|∝L/|ωG|.E68
\n
With mG depending only on disk radius or possibly area in the xy plane, and the gyrovector proportional to L, this re-expresses that |ωG| is also proportional to L, as shown implicitly in Figures 5 and 7.
\n
\n
\n
6. Summary and interpretation of results
\n
This chapter has provided an overview of some methods for finding the static, dynamic, and statistical properties of vortex excitations in thin nanodisks of soft magnetic material. By assuming the thickness is much less than the principal radius, L ≪ a, the magnetization points primarily within the plane of the disk, except within the vortex core, and it has only weak dependence on the coordinate z perpendicular to the plane. This allowed for the transformation to an equivalent 2D problem, which has been studied here using a form of micromagnetics, converting the continuum problem to one on a square grid.
\n
The Lagrange-constrained spin alignment scheme was used to find static vortex energies while securing the vortex in a desired location R, thereby allowing for the calculation of vortex potential U(R) within the disk. For a vortex near the center of an elliptic disk, the force constants kx and ky for displacements along the principal axes \x3c!----\x3ea, b are found, with kx≤ky when b≤a. However, the disk ellipticity b/a must be above a lower limiting value for a vortex to stable; a very narrow disk will prefer the formation of a quasi-single-domain state, or even a multi-domain state, but not a vortex. A vortex energetically prefers a displacement along the longer axis of the disk; that is consistent with the shape of its elliptic orbits, which have the same ellipticity as the disk itself [see Eq. (33)].
\n
The vortex gyrotropic orbits can be described very well through the use of the Thiele equation (24), which replaces the dynamics of the many degrees of freedom in the magnetization field M(r,t) by the dynamics of only two Cartesian components in the vortex core location, R=(X(t),Y(t)). This works best for a vortex near the disk center, where it is unlikely to be destabilized by deformations caused by the boundaries. For zero temperature, the dynamics from RK4 integration of the LLG equations is completely consistent with that from the Thiele equation. The Thiele equation predicts the vortex gyrotropic frequencies to be ωG=−k¯/G, which is confirmed in the dynamics simulations while using force constants from the Lagrange-constrained static vortex structures. Generally, the zero-temperature gyrotropic frequencies are roughly proportional to L/a with only a weak dependence on disk ellipticity, as can be concluded from the results in Figure 7. The frequencies are determined by the geometric mean force constant, k¯=kxky, which shows why knowledge of the vortex potential is important for this problem.
\n
Thermal effects for nonzero temperature have been included by introducing a Langevin equation (21) that results from including stochastic magnetic fields into the LLG equation. This Langevin equation gives the time evolution in the presence of thermal fluctuations. Solved numerically using a second-order Heun algorithm, a vortex initially at the disk center (the minimum energy point) will spontaneously undergo gyrotropic orbital motion, on top of a noisy spin wave background. The orbital motion takes place at a slightly lower frequency compared with its motion for T=0, because the presence of spin waves weakens the exchange stiffness of the system. The resulting distribution of vortex position can be predicted using an effective Lagrangian and Hamiltonian that result from the Thiele equation. That Hamiltonian can be expressed in a form in Eq. (50) containing only a potential energy. This then shows that the distributions (and variances) of effective radial coordinate ρ and Cartesian coordinates X and Y depend on kT/kF, where kF is either k¯ or kx or ky, respectively [see Eqs. (57) and (60)]. Surprisingly, large vortex rms displacements on the order of 1–10 nm can result, with the larger values taking place in the weaker potentials of thinner disks (Figure 11) and in disks with larger radii a. However, these noisy elliptical motions simply reflect the equipartition of energy into the two collective degrees of freedom available to the vortex (X,Y), with each receiving an average thermal energy of 12kT. The radial coordinate, in contrast, receives a full kT of energy on average. The theoretical probability distributions are confirmed in simulations provided the time evolution averages over a large number of gyrotropic orbits.
\n
A vortex speed distribution can also be derived from the position distribution, essentially because the momentum and position coordinates of a vortex are not independent. The speed distribution g(u) can be characterized by a mass mG proportional to the disk radius a, but independent of material properties. The mass has the sense that as the vortex position fluctuates, it has some Maxwellian speed distribution, with a kinetic energy 12mGu2 that enters in the Boltzmann factor. This is in contrast to the Thiele equation, which has been used here with no intrinsic mass term. Indeed, the vortex gyrotropic frequency is the same as that for a corresponding 2D harmonic oscillator of mass mG and spring constant k¯, that is, ωG=k¯/mG
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Portions of this work benefited substantially from discussions with Afranio Pereira and Winder Moura-Melo at the Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, and Wagner Figueiredo at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil, and from use of computation facilities at both universities.
\n
\n',keywords:"magnetic vortex, topological charge, vortex potential, magnetic resonance, magnetic dots",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52381.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52381.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52381",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52381",totalDownloads:823,totalViews:249,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 21st 2016",dateReviewed:"July 8th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 1st 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Topological vortex excitations in thin magnetic nanodisks have attracted a lot of attention because of their dynamic stability and various charge-like properties, which make them suitable objects for data storage. They also have a natural gyrotropic orbital motion that can be described rather well by an approximate Thiele gyrotropic equation for the magnetization dynamics. The gyrotropic oscillation makes them available as a basis for natural oscillators at close to gigahertz frequencies. This gyrotropic motion is excited naturally even by thermal fluctuations. In addition, the gyrotropic oscillation frequency can be affected by external perturbations, which allows possibilities for the design of nanoscale detectors. The vortex moves in an effective potential, strongly determined by the shape anisotropy of the magnetic disk, which then determines the force appearing in the Thiele equation of motion. The motion of an individual vortex within a disk of circular or elliptical shape is considered theoretically, including stochastic thermal effects together with the deterministic gyrotropic effects. From simulations of the motion at different parameter values, a picture of the typical vortex position and velocity distribution within the disk is developed and compared with what is expected from the Thiele equation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52381",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52381",book:{slug:"vortex-structures-in-fluid-dynamic-problems"},signatures:"Gary Matthew Wysin",authors:[{id:"186904",title:"Prof.",name:"Gary Matthew",middleName:null,surname:"Wysin",fullName:"Gary Matthew Wysin",slug:"gary-matthew-wysin",email:"wysin@phys.ksu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Kansas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction: vortices in thin submicron magnetic disks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Vortex charges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Vortex potential and forces",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Analysis of quasi-stationary vortices in a nanodisk",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1. Energetics of a continuum nanomagnet",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2. The demagnetization field H→M in a thin magnetic film",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3. Discretization and micromagnetics for simulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4. Static vortex configurations from a relaxation scheme",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.5. Effective potentials of a vortex in a nanodisk",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Magnetic dynamics and the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert-Langevin equations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1. The Thiele equation for vortex core motion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2. Numerical methods for magnetization dynamics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.1. Zero temperature: fourth-order Runge-Kutta",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.2. Finite temperature: Langevin dynamics via second-order Heun method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Vortex gyrotropic motion at zero temperature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.1. Circular nanodisks simulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.2. Elliptical nanodisk simulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Spontaneous gyrotropic motion from thermal fluctuations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.1. Simulation of a vortex initially at disk center",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.2. Thermal vortex motion as described by the Thiele equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.3. Thermalized vortex probability distributions from the Thiele equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"6. Summary and interpretation of results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'N.A. Usov and S.E. Peschany, Magnetization curling in a fine cylindrical particle. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 118, 290 (1993).'},{id:"B2",body:'J. Raabe, R. Pulwey, S. Sattler, T. Schweinbock, J. Zweck and D. Weiss, Magnetization pattern of ferromagnetic nanodisks. 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Galkina and A.Yu Galkin, Quantum dynamics of vortices in small magnetic particles. Low Temp. Phys. 36, 747 (2010).'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gary Matthew Wysin",address:"wysin@phys.ksu.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Physics, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
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Sola, Julia Marín-Sáez, Warein\nHolgado and Jesús Atencia",authors:[{id:"186587",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Atencia",fullName:"Jesús Atencia",slug:"jesus-atencia"},{id:"186862",title:"Dr.",name:"María Victoria",middleName:null,surname:"Collados",fullName:"María Victoria Collados",slug:"maria-victoria-collados"},{id:"186863",title:"Dr.",name:"Iñigo",middleName:null,surname:"Sola",fullName:"Iñigo Sola",slug:"inigo-sola"},{id:"186864",title:"MSc.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Marín-Sáez",fullName:"Julia Marín-Sáez",slug:"julia-marin-saez"},{id:"194462",title:"Dr.",name:"Warein",middleName:null,surname:"Holgado",fullName:"Warein Holgado",slug:"warein-holgado"}]},{id:"52478",title:"Ultrashort Extreme Ultraviolet Vortices",slug:"ultrashort-extreme-ultraviolet-vortices",signatures:"Laura Rego, Julio San Román, Luis Plaja, Antonio Picón and Carlos\nHernández-García",authors:[{id:"186282",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Garcia",fullName:"Carlos Hernandez-Garcia",slug:"carlos-hernandez-garcia"},{id:"194247",title:"Ms.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Rego",fullName:"Laura Rego",slug:"laura-rego"},{id:"194248",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"San Román",fullName:"Julio San Román",slug:"julio-san-roman"},{id:"194249",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Picón",fullName:"Antonio Picón",slug:"antonio-picon"},{id:"194250",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Plaja",fullName:"Luis Plaja",slug:"luis-plaja"}]},{id:"53153",title:"Fractal Light Vortices",slug:"fractal-light-vortices",signatures:"Federico J. 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\n
1. Introduction
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For a long time, essential oils were well-known for their therapeutic importance. They were used as perfumes and flavors for foods and beverages or to heal both the body and mind for many years [1, 2, 3, 4]. They were used in ancient civilizations as Chinese, Indian, and ancient Egyptian and show their uses in many treatments in different forms. The ancient Chinese were the first culture to use aromatherapy in folk medicine, and then the ancient Egyptians created undeveloped distillation machine that is used for the crude extraction. Greece learned a large deal from the ancient Egyptians, and they also learned the therapeutic and aromatic advantages of the aromatic plants [5, 6, 7, 8].
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Volatile oils consist of very small aromatic molecules that are easily absorbed through the skin and respiratory system. These medicinal compounds next enter the bloodstream and then spread all over the whole body where they can create their useful curing powers. As they are too concentrated, even a small amount of volatile oil is effective. Nowadays aromatherapy is one of the most popular complementary therapies, offering a highly effective treatment to both the acute and chronic diseases. In addition, the continuous use of aromatherapy and home-use products helps our immune system [9].
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\n
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2. Definition and localization of essential oils
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Volatile oils are aromatic compounds which occur only in 10% of the plant kingdom and are stored in plants in specific secretory cells such as glands, hairs, ducts, cavities, or resin ducts [10, 11, 12, 13]. Essential oils are hydrophobic in nature; they can be dissolved by polar solvent like alcohols and nonpolar solvents, waxes, and oils. Most of them are pale yellow or with no color with the exception of the blue volatile oil of Matricaria chamomilla L., and most are liquid and of low density than water except the essential oil of Cinnamomum verum Blume. and Syzygium aromaticum L. [14, 15].
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Volatile oils are easily oxidizable by light, heat, and air due to the presence of olefenic double bonds and functional groups such as hydroxyl, aldehyde, and ester [16, 17].
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3. Extraction of volatile oils
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The oils contained within the plant cells are liberated through heat and compression from different organs of the plant, for example, the leaves, flowers, fruit, bark, and gums. The extraction of the oils from different plant organs is achieved by different methods, such as hydro-distillation, which is the most common method of extraction [18, 19]. Essential oils are composed of a mixture of volatile components and consist of about 20–60 individual compounds, and some may contain more than 100 components as jasmine, lemon, and cinnamon volatile oils [20, 21, 22, 23].
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4. Factors affecting chemical composition of volatile oils
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The fragrance and chemical composition of the oils can vary according to different factors as the geo-climatic location and growing conditions (soil type, climate, altitude, and amount of water available), season, and time of day when harvesting is done. Therefore, these factors influence the biochemical synthesis of the oils in a plant, so that the same species of the plant make the same volatile oil but maybe of different chemical compounds, which will affect their therapeutic activities. These different chemical compositions led to different chemotypes. Chemotype is in general a different population of the same species of plant which produces many chemical profiles for a particular class of secondary metabolites. Examples of some chemotypes are shown in Table 1 [24, 25, 26, 27].
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\n\n
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Plant name
\n
Chemotype 1
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Chemotype 2
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Chemotype 3
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\n\n\n
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Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.)
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Thymol
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Thujanol
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Linalool
\n
\n
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Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.)
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Menthol
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Carvone
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Limonene
\n
\n
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Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.)
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1,8 Camphor
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Cineole
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Verbenone
\n
\n
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Dill (Anethum graveolens L.)
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Carvone
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Limonene
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Phellandrene
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\n
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Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)
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Linalool
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Linalyl acetate
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β-Caryophyllene
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Examples of different chemotypes.
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5. Distribution of the volatile oils in the plant kingdom
\n
Although only 100 species are widely known for their volatile oils, there are over 2000 plant species widespread over 60 families such as Lamiaceae, which is also called the mint family. It is one of most important plant families in the plant kingdom. This family is rich in essential oils, especially menthol thyme, Rosemary, and Oregano. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae is a family of mostly aromatic flowering plants, which contains economically important plants as caraway, coriander, cumin, and fennel [28, 29, 30, 31]. Volatile oils contribute in a lot of industries as food products, drinks, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics [32, 33, 34]. The production and consumption of essential oils increase rapidly all over the world [35]. Regardless of the high costs because of the large amounts of plant material needed, volatile oil production has been increasing. The expected world production of the oils ranges from 40,000 to 60,000 tons/year and represents a market of approximately 700 million US$ [36, 37]. Examples of some classes of essential oils their medical uses and structures are illustrated in (Table 2), (Figures 1 and 2) [26, 38, 39, 40, 41].
Different classes of volatile oils and their biological activities.
\n
Figure 1.
Different classes of volatile oil.
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Figure 2.
Different classes of volatile oil.
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6. Therapeutic benefits of essential oils
\n
Many plant essential oils are used as medicine for hundreds of years and have demonstrated several health benefits, including effects on infectious, chronic, and acute diseases. The medical preparations made with plant essential oils as well as their single constituents applied in the therapy of human infectious diseases are well documented. However, the selection of suitable safe oil and the determination of the best efficient dose should be taken into consideration to avoid any side effects when they are applied [41]. The action of volatile oils begins by entering the human body through three possible ways including direct absorption through inhalation, ingestion, or diffusion through the skin tissue.
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6.1 Absorption through the skin
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Volatile oil components are lipid soluble, so they have the ability to penetrate the membranes of the skin before being captured by the micro-circulation and drained into the systemic circulation, reaching all target organs [42, 43]. An example of this are the inflammatory disorders which are associated with pain, redness, and swelling, leading to loss of vital functions. Tea tree oil has been shown to increase monocytic differentiation in vitro and reduce inflammation, therefore assisting the healing of chronic wounds [44].
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6.2 Inhalation
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Volatile oils enter the body through the respiratory system. Due to their volatile ability, they can be inhaled easily through the upper respiratory tract and enter the lungs, by which it can be spread to the blood stream. In general, the respiratory tract is considered to be the most easiest way of entry, followed by the dermal pathway [45]. Inhalation of essential oils has given rise to olfactory aromatherapy, where simple inhalation has resulted in enhanced emotional wellness, calmness, relaxation, or rejuvenation of the human body. The release of stress is welded with pleasurable scents which unlock odor memories. Essential oils are complemented to medical treatment and can never be taken as a replacement for it [46, 47, 48].
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6.3 Ingestion
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Oral ingestion of essential oils needs to be done carefully due to the possible toxicity of some oils. Ingested volatile oil compounds and/or their metabolites may then be absorbed and delivered to the rest of the body and then distributed to different organs. Once volatile oil are entered in to the body, they create their therapeutic effect through physiological functions (Table 3). For example, Roman chamomile is extensively used to relieve pain from physical conditions, menstrual cramps, and tension with its application on the lower abdomen [49, 50, 51, 52].
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Chamomile essential oil (Matricaria chamomilla L.)
There is a significant and growing interest to find safe and effective methods of treatment. Aromatherapy is one of the most usable methods across the world. It has gained popularity due to its safety, easy accessibility, and effective effects. From previous data we can notice that essential oils have a lot of pharmacological effects and can help in the treatment of many diseases.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"aromatherapy, complementary medicine, essential oils, therapeutic benefits, ketones, ancient civilization, biological activities, distribution",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72122.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72122.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72122",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72122",totalDownloads:210,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 20th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 5th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 11th 2020",datePublished:"September 9th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Aromatherapy is the practice of using the natural oils extracted from bark, flowers, stems, roots, leaves, or other parts of a plant to enhance psychological and physical well-being. It is a type of complementary medicine that uses volatile oils and other aromatic compounds with the aim of changing a person’s mind and mood. Volatile oils are hydrophobic in nature. Essential oils are extracted by different methods as steam distillation. Some evidence exists that volatile oils may have therapeutic potential. Volatile oils are often absorbed through the skin, where they travel through the bloodstream and might promote whole-body healing. Essential oils are showing a spread of applications, including pain treatments, enhancement of mood, and increased cognitive function. Essential oils are available in a large number, each with its own healing properties.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72122",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72122",signatures:"Amira Ahmed Kamal El-din El-Anssary",book:{id:"9482",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Bioactive Compounds, New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Bioactive Compounds, New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"essential-oils-bioactive-compounds-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira, Wanessa Almeida da Costa and Sebastião Gomes Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9482.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Dr.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana de Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",email:"amiraelanssary@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Definition and localization of essential oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Extraction of volatile oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Factors affecting chemical composition of volatile oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Distribution of the volatile oils in the plant kingdom",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Therapeutic benefits of essential oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 Absorption through the skin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 Inhalation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 Ingestion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBaris O, Güllüce M, Sahin F, Ozer H, Kılıc H, Ozkan H, et al. Biological activities of the volatile oil and methanol extract of Achillea biebersteini Afan. (Asteraceae). Turkish Journal of Biology. 2006;30:65-73\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nMargaris N, Koedam A, Vokou D. Aromatic Plants: Basic and Applied Aspects. The Hague, London, Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers; 1982\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nTisserand RB. In the Art of Aromatherapy. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press; 1997\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nShibamoto K, Mochizuki M, Kusuhara M. Aroma therapy in anti-aging medicine. Anti-Aging Medicine. 2010;7:55-59\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nBurt S. Volatile oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2004;94:223-253\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nSuaib L, Dwivedi GR, Darokar MP, Kaira A, Khanuja SPS. Potential of rosemary oil to be used in drug-resistant infection. Alternative Therapies. 2007;13:54-59\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nShirley Price’s Aromatherapy Workbook. London, UK: Thorsons; 1993\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nLawless J. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Rockport, MA: Element Books, Inc.; 1995\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nSaeidi K, Moosavi M, Lorigooini Z, Maggi F. Chemical characterization of the essential oil compositions and antioxidant activity from Iranian populations of Achillea wilhelmsii K. Koch. Industrial Crops and Products. 2018;112:274-280\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nAhmadi L, Mirza M, Shahmir F. The volatile constituents of Artemisia marschaliana Sprengel and its secretory elements. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 2002;17:141-143\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nBezić N, Šamanić I, Dunkić V, Besendorfer V, Puizina J. Volatile oil composition and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence variability of four south-Croatian Satureja species (Lamiaceae). Molecules. 2009;14:925-938\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nCiccarelli D, Garbari F, Pagni AM. The flower of Myrtus communis (Myrtaceae): Secretory structures, unicellular papillae, and their ecological role. Flora. 2008;203:85-93\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nGershenzon J. Metabolic costs of terpenoid accumulation in higher plants. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 1994;20:1281-1328\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nGupta V, Mittal P, Bansal P, Khokra SL, Kaushik D. Pharmacological potential of Matricaria recutita. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research. 2010;2:12-16\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nMartín A, Varona S, Navarrete A, Cocero MJ. Encapsulation and co precipitation processes with supercritical fluids: Applications with volatile oils. The Open Chemical Engineering Journal. 2010;4:31-41\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nSkold M, Karlberg AT, Matura M, Borje A. The fragrance chemical caryophyllene air oxidation and skin sensitization. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2006;44:538-545\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nSkold M, Hagvall L, Karlberg AT. Autoxidation of linalyl acetate, the main compound of lavender oil, creates potent contact allergens. Contact Dermatitis. 2008;58:9-14\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nBowles EJ. The Chemistry of Aromatherapeutic Oils. 3rd ed. Griffin: Press; 2003\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nSurburg H, Panten J. In: Svoboda K, Hampson J, Hunter T, editors. Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials. Preparation, Properties and Uses. 5th ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 1999. p. 2006\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nMiguel MG. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of volatile oils. Molecules. 2010;15:9252-9287\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nSell CS. The Chemistry of Fragrance. From Perfumer to Consumer. 2nd ed. Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry; 2006. p. 329\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nSkaltsa HD, Demetzos C, Lazari D, Sokovic M. Volatile oil analysis and antimicrobial activity of eight Stachys species from Greece. Phytochemistry. 2003;64:743-752\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nThormar H. Lipids and Volatile Oils as Antimicrobial Agents. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons; 2011\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nAndrade EHA, Alves CN, Guimarães EF, Carreira LMM, Maia JGS. Variability in volatile oil composition of Piper dilatatum L.C. Rich. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 2011;39:669-675\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nZehra Küçükbay F, Kuyumcu E, Çelen S, Azaz AD, Arabac T. Chemical composition of the essential oils of three Thymus Taxa from Turkey with antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Records of Natural Products. 2014;8:110-120\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nPengelly A. The Constituents of Medicinal Plants: An Introduction of the Chemistry and Therapeutics of Herbal Medicine. Australia, Sydney: Allen and Unwin; 2004\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nSangwan NS, Farooqi AHA, Shabih F, Sangwan RS. Regulation of volatile oil production in plants. Plant Growth Regulation. 2001;34:3-21\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nBaylac S, Racine P. Inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase by volatile oils and other natural fragrant extracts. International Journal of Aromatherapy. 2003;13:138-142\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nDelamare APL, Moschen-Pistorello IT, Artico L, Atti-Serafini L, Echeverrigaray S. Antibacterial activity of the volatile oils of Salthrough officinalis L. and Salthrough triloba L. cultivated in South Brazil. Food Chemistry. 2007;100:603-608\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nSivropoulou A, Nikolau C, Papanikolau E, Kokkini S, Lanaras T, Arsenakis M. Antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and antiviral activities of Salthrough fruticosa volatile oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1997;45:3197-3201\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nSivropoulou A, Papanikolaou E, Nikolau C, Kokkini S, Lanaras T, Arsenakis M. Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of origanum volatile oils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1996;44:1202-1205\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nAnwar F, Hussain AI, Sherazi STH, Bhanger MI. Changes in composition and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of volatile oil of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare mill.) fruit at several, stages of maturity. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinals Plants. 2009;15:1-16\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nCeliktas OY, Kocabas EEH, Bedir E, Sukan FV, Ozek T, Baser KHC. Antimicrobial activities of methanol extracts and volatile oils of Rosmarinus officinalis, depending on location and seasonal variations. Food Chemistry. 2007;100:553-559\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nHammer KA, Carson CF, Dunstan JA, Hale J, Lehmann H, Robinson CJ, et al. Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity of five Taxandria fragrans oils in vitro. Microbiology and Immunology. 2008;52:522-530\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nLawless J. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Volatile Oils: The Complete Illustrated Guide to the Use of Oils in Aromatherapy and Herbalism. Shaftesbury, Dorset, UK: Element; 1995\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nVerlet N. Huiles essentielles: Production mondiale, échanges internationaux et évolution des prix. Res. Mediterranea Magazine. 1994;1:4-9\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nHunter M. Volatile Oils: Art, Agriculture, Science, Industry and Entrepreneurship. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.; 2009\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nGali-Muhtasib H, Hilan C, Khater C. Traditional uses of Salthrough libanotica (East Mediterranean sage) and the effects of its volatile oils. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2000;71:513-520\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nDe Sousa DP, Júnior GA, Andrade LN, Calasans FR, Nunes XP, Barbosa-Filho JM, et al. Structure and spasmolytic activity relationships of analogues found in many aromatic plants. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung. Section C. 2008;63:808-812\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nDe Sousa DP, Júnir GAS, Andrade LN, Batista JS. Spasmolytic activity of chiral monoterpene esters. Records of Natural Products. 2011;5:117-122\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nElshafie HS, Camele I. An overview of the biological effects of some mediterranean essential oils on human health. Biomed Research International. (Review article). 2017:14. Article ID: 9268468. DOI: 10.1155/2017/9268468\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nAdorjan B, Buchbauer G. Biological properties of volatile oils: An updated review. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 2010;25:407-426\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nBaser KHC, Buchbauer G. Handbook of Volatile Oils: Science, Technology, and Applications. NW: CRC Press; 2010\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nMart-nez-Pérez EF, Juárez ZN, Hernández LR, Bach H. Natural antispasmodics: Source, stereochemical configuration, and biological activity. (Review article). BioMed Research International. 2018:32. Article ID: 3819714. DOI: 10.1155/2018/3819714\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nMoss M, Cook J, Wesnes K, Duckett P. Aromas of rosemary and lavender volatile oils several, ially affect cognition and mood in healthy adults. International Journal of Neuroscience. 2003;113:15-38\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nMaxwell-Hudson C. Aromatherapy Massage Book Dorling. London: Kindersley; 1995\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nPrice S. Aromatherapy for Common Ailments. London: Fireside; 1991\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nPrice S. The Aromatherapy Workbook. London: Thorsons; 1993\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nBuchbauer G. Molecular interaction: Biological effects and modes of action of volatile oils. International Journal of Aromatherapy. 1993;5:11-14\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nJohnson AJ. Cognitive facilitation following intentional odor exposure. Sensors. 2011;11:5469-5488\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nWei A, Shibamoto T. Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected volatile oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010;58:7218-7225\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nLawless J. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The Complete Guide to the Use of Oils in Aromatherapy & Herbalism. Rockport: Element Books Ltd.; 1995\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nCemek M, Kaga S, Simsek N, Buyukokuroglu ME, Konuk M. Antihyperglycemic and antioxidative potential of Matricaria chamomilla L. in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Natural Medicines. 2008;62:284-293\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nKamatou GPP, Viljoen AM. A review of the application and pharmacological properties of -bisabolol and -bisabolol-rich oils. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 2010;87:1-7\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nJarić S, Kostić O, Mataruga Z, Pavlović D, Pavlović P. Traditional wound-healing plants used in theBalkan region (Southeast Europe). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2018;211:311-328\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nTolouee M, Alinezhad S, Saberi R, Eslamifar A, Zad SJ, Jaimand K, et al. Effect of Matricaria chamomilla L. flower volatile oil on the growth and ultrastructure of Aspergillus nigervan Tieghem. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2010;139:127-133\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nShoara R, Hashempur MH, Ashraf A, Salehi A, Dehshahri S, Habibagahi Z. Efficacy and safety of topical Matricaria chamomilla L. (chamomile) oil for knee osteoarthritis: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice. 2015;21:181-187\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nEl-Salam MA, Ammar NM, Yassin N, Ezzeldin N, Ziki E, El-Anssary AK, et al. A clinico-pharmacological assessment of a herbal preparation for treatment of bronchial asthma. World Journal of Medical Sciences. 2015;12:115-124\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nMosaffa-Jahromi M, Lankarani KB, Pasalar M, Afsharypuor S. Efficacy and safety of enteric coated capsules of anise oil to treat irritable bowel syndrome. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;194:937-946\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nIannarelli R, Marinelli O, Morelli MB, Santoni G, Maggi F. Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum L.) essential oils reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines and stimulates mucus secretion in primary airway bronchial and tracheal epithelial cell lines. Industrial Crops and Products. 2018;114:81-86\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nMuchtaridi, Subarnas A, Apriyantono A, Mustarichien R. Identification of compounds in the volatile oil of nutmeg seeds (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) that inhibit locomotor activity in mice. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2010;11:4771-4781\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nTomaino A, Cimino F, Zimbalatti V, Venuti V, Sulfaro V, De Pasquale A, et al. Influence of heating on antioxidant activity and the chemical composition of some spice volatile oils. Food Chemistry. 2005;89:549-554\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nPiaru SP, Mahmud R, Majid AMSA, Nassar ZDM. Antioxidant and antiangiogenic activities of the essential oils of Myristica fragrans and Morinda citrifolia. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2012;5:294-298\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nCetin H, Kurt Y, Isik K, Yanikoglu A. Larvicidal effect of Cedrus libani seed oils on mosquito Culex pipiens. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2009;47:665-668\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nDharmagadda VSS, Naik SN, Mittal PK, Vasudevan P. Larvicidal activity of Tagetes patula volatile oil against three mosquito species. Bioresource Technology. 2005;96:1235-1240\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nKizil M, Kizil G, Yavuz M, Aytekin C. Antimicrobial activity of resins obtained from the roots and stems of Cedrus libani and Abies Cilicia. Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology. 2002;38:144-146\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nBehbahani BAZ, Fooladi AAI. Evaluation of phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activities Allium essential oil against the growth of some microbial pathogens. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2018;114:299-303\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nThomson M, Ali M. Garlic (Allium sativum): A review of its potential use as an anti-cancer agent. Current Cancer Drug Targets. 2003;3:67-81\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nKlevenhusen F, Zeitz JO, Duval S, Kreuzer M, Soliva CR. Garlic oil and its principal component diallyl disulfide fail to mitigate methane, but improve digestibility in sheep. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2011;166-167:356-363\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nBading Taika B, Bouckandou M, Souza A, Bourobou Bourobou HP, MacKenzie LS, Lione L. An overview of anti-diabetic plants used in Gabon: Pharmacology and toxicology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2018;216:203-228\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nSilva NCC, Fernandes JA. Biological properties of medicinal plants: A review of their antimicrobial activity. The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases. 2010;16:402-413\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nFichi G, Flamini G, Giovanelli F, Otranto D, Perrucci S. Efficacy of an volatile oil of Eugenia caryophyllata against Psoroptes cuniculi. Experimental Parasitology. 2007;115:168-172\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nKoba K, Nenonene AY, Raynaud C, Chaumont JP, Sanda K. Antibacterial activities of the buds volatile oil of Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. and Perry from Togo. Journal of Biologically Active Products from Nature. 2011;1:42-51\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nMachado M, Dinis AM, Salgueiro L, Custódio JBA, Cavaleiro C, Sousa MC. Anti-Giardia activity of Syzygium aromaticum volatile oil and eugenol: Effects on growth, throughbility, adherence and ultrastructure. Experimental Parasitology. 2011;127:732-739\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nHseini S, Kahouadji A. Étude ethnobotanique de la flore médicinale dans la région de Rabat (Maroc occidental). Lazaroa. 2007;28:79-93\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nVyawahare NS, Deshmukh VV, Gadkari MR, Kagathara VG. Plants with antiulcer activity. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2009;3:118-125\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nGeng S, Cui Z, Huang X, Chen Y, Xu D, Xiong P. Variations in volatile oil yield and composition during Cinnamomum cassia bark growth. Industrial Crops and Products. 2011;33:248-252\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nCheng SS, Liu JY, Tsai KH, Chen WJ, Chang ST. Chemical composition and mosquito larvicidal activity of volatile oils from leaves of several, Cinnamomum osmophloeum provenances. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2004;52:4395-4400\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nNerio LS, Olivero-Verbel J, Stashenko EE. Repellent activity of volatile oils from seven aromatic plants grown in Colombia against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera). Journal of Stored Products Research. 2009;45:212-214\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nVilela GR, de Almeida GS, Moraes MHD, Brito JD, Da Silva MF, Silva SC, et al. Activity of volatile oil and its major compound, 1,8-cineole, from Eucalyptus globulus Labill., against the storage fungi Aspergillus flavus Link and Aspergillus parasiticus Speare. Journal of Stored Products Research. 2009;45:108-111\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nBen-Arye E, Dudai N, Eini A, Torem M, Schiff E, Rakover Y. Treatment of upper respiratory tract infections in primary care: A randomized study using aromatic herbs. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2011:7. Article ID 690346\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nCaballero-Gallardo K, Olivero-Verbel J, Stashenko EE. Repellent activity of volatile oils and some of their individual constituents against Tribolium castaneum Herbst. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59:1690-1696\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nAlexopoulos A, Kimbaris AC, Plessas S, Mantzourani I, Theodoridou I, Stavropoulou E, et al. Antibacterial activities of volatile oils from eight Greek aromatic plants against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Anaerobe. 2011;17(6):399-402\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nSala H. Aromatherapy: Current and emerging applications. Alternative and Complementary Therapies. 2011;17:26-31\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nSabzghabaee AM, Nili F, Ghannadi A, Eizadi-Mood N, Maryam AM. Role of menthol in treatment of candidial napkin dermatitis. World Journal of Pediatrics. 2011;7:167-170\n'},{id:"B86",body:'\nKumar P, Mishra S, Malik A, Satya S. Insecticidal properties of Mentha species. Industrial Crops and Products. 2011;34:802-817\n'},{id:"B87",body:'\nLee YL, Wu Y, Tsang WH, Leung AY, Cheung WM. A systematic review on the anxiolytic effects of aromatherapy in people with anxiety symptoms. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 2011;17:101-108\n'},{id:"B88",body:'\nHajhashemi V, Ghannadi A, Sharif B. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and volatile oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2003;89:67-71\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nWoronuk G, Demissie Z, Rheault M, Mahmoud S. Biosynthesis and therapeutic properties of Lavandula volatile oil constituents. Planta Medica. 2011;77:7-15\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nZuzarte M, Gonçalves MJ, Cavaleiro C, Canhoto J, Vale-Silva L, Silva MJ, et al. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of the volatile oils of Lavandula viridis L’Hér. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2011;60:612-618\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nVan Vuuren SF, Suliman S, Viljoen AM. The antimicrobial activity of four commercial volatile oils in combination with conventional antimicrobials. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2009;48:440-446\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nGarozzo A, Timpanaro R, Bisignano B, Furneri PM, Bisignano G, Castro A. In vitro antiviral activity of Melaleuca alternifolia. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2009;49:806-808\n'},{id:"B93",body:'\nLobo R, Prabhu K, Shirwaikar A, Shirwaikar A, Ballal M. Formulation and evaluation of antiseptic activity of the herbal cream containing Curcuma longa and tea tree oil. Journal of Biologically Active Products from Nature. 2011;1:27-32\n'},{id:"B94",body:'\nMickienė R, Bakutis B, Baliu Konienė V. Antimicrobial activity of two volatile oils. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 2011;18:139-144\n'},{id:"B95",body:'\nBacanlı PM, Başaran AA, Başaran N. The antioxidant and antigenotoxic properties of citrus phenolics limonene and naringin. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2015;81:160-170\n'},{id:"B96",body:'\nFisher K, Phillips C. Potential antimicrobial uses of volatile oils in food: Is citrus the answer. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2008;19:156-164\n'},{id:"B97",body:'\nKoul O, Walia S, Dhaliwal GS. Volatile oils as green pesticides: Potential and constraints. Biopesticides International. 2008;4:63-84\n'},{id:"B98",body:'\nPavela R. Insecticidal properties of several volatile oils on the house fly (Musca domestica L.). Phytotherapy Research. 2008;22:274-278\n'},{id:"B99",body:'\nPavela R. Insecticidal activity of some volatile oils against larvae of Spodoptera littoralis. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:691-696\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Amira Ahmed Kamal El-din El-Anssary",address:"amiraelanssary@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Pharmacognosy Department, Pharmaceutical Science Division, National Research Center, Giza, Egypt
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9482",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Bioactive Compounds, New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Bioactive Compounds, New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"essential-oils-bioactive-compounds-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira, Wanessa Almeida da Costa and Sebastião Gomes Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9482.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Dr.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana de Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",email:"mkyeh2004@gmail.com",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",position:null,biography:"Ming-Kung Yeh gained his bachelor and master degree from the National Defense Medical Center, Taiwan in 1986 and 1988, respectively. He completed his PhD at the University of Nottingham, UK in 1996. From 1988 to 2008, he worked in the Tri-service General Hospital, Taiwan from a basic pharmacist to a chief pharmacist and became a professor of Preventive Medicine in 2008. He was the Head of the Pharmaceutical Administration, Ministry of National Defense, Taiwan from 2011 to 2013. He was the General Director of the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare (MOHW) from 2013 to 2014, and a superintendent in MOHW from 2014 to 2016. His research focuses on public food and drug safety and takes an active interest in pharmacy education, practice and policy.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180299/images/6423_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalEditedBooks:"1",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Food and Drug Administration",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Thailand"}}},booksEdited:[{type:"book",slug:"biopharmaceuticals",title:"Biopharmaceuticals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6787.jpg",abstract:"Biopharmaceuticals are derived from biological sources, either live organisms or their active components; nowadays, they are mainly produced by biotechnologies. Biopharmaceuticals are extensively used in the treatment of various diseases such as cardiovascular, metabolic, neurological diseases, cancer, and others for which there are no available therapeutic methods. With the advance of science, biopharmaceuticals have revolutionized the treatment, prevention, and diagnosis of many patients with disabling and life-threatening diseases. Innovative biopharmaceuticals definitely improve the life quality of patients and enhance the effectiveness of the healthcare system. This book encompasses the discovery, production, application, and regulation of biopharmaceuticals to demonstrate their research achievement, prospects, and challenges. We expect the significance of biopharmaceuticals to be revealed and emphasized by this book.",editors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",surname:"Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Nanotechnologies Applied in Biomedical Vaccines",slug:"nanotechnologies-applied-in-biomedical-vaccines",abstract:"Vaccination, one of the most effective strategies to prevent infectious diseases, is the administration of antigenic materials to stimulate an individual’s immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a specific pathogen. Though it is so advantageous for diseases control and prevention, vaccines still have some limitations. Nanotechnology is an approach to prepare a novel biomedicine vaccine with the vaccine consumption and side effects significantly decreased. Regulation is the most important criterion for the development of nanovaccines. All marketing products have to meet the requirement of regulation. The fast-track designation potentially aids in the development and expedites the review of nanovaccines that show promises in an unmet medical need. Here, some successful nanovaccine products are introduced—Inflexal® V, Epaxal®, GardasilTM, and CervarixTM have been widely used for the clinical applications, which are delivered either in the form of virosomes or virus-like particles. Vaccines based on nanotechnology may overcome their original disadvantages and lead to the development of painless, safer, and more effective products.",signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen, Hwei-Fang Cheng, Yi-Chen Yang and Ming-\nKung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",surname:"Yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",email:"mkyeh2004@gmail.com"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",email:"yuchuan1022@gmail.com"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",email:"rmhfcheng@fda.gov.tw"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",surname:"Yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",email:"ycyang@fda.gov.tw"}],book:{title:"Micro and Nanotechnologies for Biotechnology",slug:"micro-and-nanotechnologies-for-biotechnology",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"The Regulation Requirement of Dengue Vaccines",slug:"the-regulation-requirement-of-dengue-vaccines",abstract:"Dengue fever (dengue), a mosquito-borne disease caused by dengue viruses (DENVs), represents severe public health problems in Southeast Asia, Latin America, Africa and other subtropical regions. Many regulatory issues arise along with the development of dengue vaccines. It is required to follow the regulatory pathway for the license application. Dengue vaccines can be approved without local clinical phase III data. The national regulatory authorities (NRAs) must have the information, training and ability to review and approve the application. A novel vaccine product Dengvaxia® for dengue has been approved in many countries. The approval is based on clinical trials that show the vaccine could reduce about 60% dengue, prevented 90% of severe cases and 80% of hospitalizations. Several other DNA, live-attenuated, purified inactivated, subunit, vectored and chimeric vaccine candidates are currently developing in clinical phases. Although there are still some challenges for the development and regulation of vaccine, the prospects of dengue vaccines are promising provided that we can overcome the difficulty.",signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen, Hwei-Fang Cheng, Yi-Chen Yang and Ming-\nKung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",surname:"Yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",email:"mkyeh2004@gmail.com"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",email:"yuchuan1022@gmail.com"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",email:"rmhfcheng@fda.gov.tw"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",surname:"Yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",email:"ycyang@fda.gov.tw"}],book:{title:"Dengue",slug:"dengue-immunopathology-and-control-strategies",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Biotechnologies Applied in Biomedical Vaccines",slug:"biotechnologies-applied-in-biomedical-vaccines",abstract:"Vaccination, the administration of an antigenic material (vaccine), is considered to be the most effective method for disease prevention and control. A vaccine usually contains an agent that resembles a diseases‐causing pathogen and is often made from inactivated microbes, live attenuated microbes, its toxins, or part of surface antigens (subunit). However, the modern biotechnological tools and genomics have opened a new era to develop novel vaccines and many products are successfully marketing around the world. It is important to formulate and deliver these vaccines appropriately to maximize the potential advances in prevention, therapy, and vaccinology. New vaccines employing biotechnological innovations are helping us to change the way for illness prevention. The clinical application of vaccines will be diversified along with the development of biotechnologies. In modern society, the outbreak of many infectious diseases has decreased through vaccination, but the burden of noninfectious diseases is growing. The new biotechnologies may result in not only the appreciation of vaccines which are critical in inducing protection against an infectious disease but also the production of therapeutic vaccines which are effective for alldiseases including infectious and noninfectious diseases.",signatures:"Yuan‐Chuan Chen, Hwei‐Fang Cheng, Yi‐Chen Yang and Ming‐\nKung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",surname:"Yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",email:"mkyeh2004@gmail.com"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",email:"yuchuan1022@gmail.com"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",email:"rmhfcheng@fda.gov.tw"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",surname:"Yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",email:"ycyang@fda.gov.tw"}],book:{title:"Vaccines",slug:"vaccines",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Introductory Chapter: Biopharmaceuticals",slug:"introductory-chapter-biopharmaceuticals",abstract:null,signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Ming-Kung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",surname:"Yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",email:"mkyeh2004@gmail.com"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",email:"yuchuan1022@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Biopharmaceuticals",slug:"biopharmaceuticals",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"181275",title:"Dr.",name:"Camilla",surname:"Thorling",slug:"camilla-thorling",fullName:"Camilla Thorling",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"181596",title:"Prof.",name:"Maja",surname:"Leitgeb",slug:"maja-leitgeb",fullName:"Maja Leitgeb",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Maribor",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"181687",title:"Prof.",name:"Željko",surname:"Knez",slug:"zeljko-knez",fullName:"Željko Knez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Maribor",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"181688",title:"BSc.",name:"Katja",surname:"Vasić",slug:"katja-vasic",fullName:"Katja Vasić",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"181706",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Roberts",slug:"michael-roberts",fullName:"Michael Roberts",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183560",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",surname:"Latterini",slug:"loredana-latterini",fullName:"Loredana Latterini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Perugia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"183561",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",surname:"Tarpani",slug:"luigi-tarpani",fullName:"Luigi Tarpani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"185822",title:"Dr.",name:"Amy",surname:"Holmes",slug:"amy-holmes",fullName:"Amy Holmes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"185823",title:"Dr.",name:"Hauke",surname:"Studier",slug:"hauke-studier",fullName:"Hauke Studier",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"185824",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaowen",surname:"Liang",slug:"xiaowen-liang",fullName:"Xiaowen Liang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+4,800 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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