\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). 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Increasing the machining speed was required to get beyond the limits of the interval, where unwanted temperature increases. Some researchers define high-speed machining as machining whereby conventional cutting speeds are exceeded by a factor of 5–10. Increased machining speed has advantages. The ability to benefit the advantages of high-speed cutting in steel, cast iron, and nickel-based alloys can be obtained with spindle speeds in the range of 8k to 12k rpm. High-speed cutting of nonferrous materials such as brass, aluminum, and engineered plastics demands a significantly higher rpm capability. For these materials, we must focus on milling equipment capable of operating at high-speed spindle speeds of 25k to 50k rpm or more. High-speed machining can also include grinding and turning.
\nLet us now notice the machine tool spindles. Roller bearings support these spindles. Prestressed ball or tapered roller bearings are used to eliminate play. This chapter focuses on plain radial bearings, namely, hydrodynamic bearings. Plain bearings of this type require a clearance for their function, which is selected in the range of 0.1–0.3% of the journal diameter.
\nJournal hydrodynamic bearings are a standard solution to support rotors. Their advantage is a possibility to carry the high radial load and to operate at high rotational speeds. The disadvantage of the journal bearings is the excitation of unwanted rotor vibrations by whirling of the journal in the bearing bushing. The bearing journal becomes unstable as the journal axis begins to perform a circular motion that is bounded only by the walls of the bearing bushing. When the speed threshold is exceeded, the axis of the bearing journal starts to circulate, causing the rotor to vibrate. These vibrations are called whirl. A passive way of how to suppress vibrations consists in adjusting the shape of the bearing bushing, such as lemon or elliptical bore of the bushing, or the use of tilting pads. Even though there are several solutions based on mentioned passive improvements, this article deals with the use of active vibration control (AVC) with piezo-actuators as a measure to prevent instability.
\nThe disadvantage of bearings of this type is whirl instability, which can cause machine tool vibrations. The following chapter describes the possible operating range of the spindle speed.
\nSpecial oil for high-speed spindle bearing of the OL-P03 type was used for testing (VG 10 grade, viscosity \n
Side-view technical drawing and a photo of bearing housing.
The operating conditions of the hydrodynamic bearing are described by the Sommerfeld number [1]:
\nwhere \n
The value of the Sommerfeld number for the given bearing size and the rotor mass of 0.83 kg is as follows: \n
The magnitude of friction coefficient in the plain bearings was analysed in the past by the McKee brothers [2]. It has been found that bearing friction is dependent on a dimensionless bearing characteristic given by a ratio \n
An example of a gradual change of position of the bearing journal centre during an increase in speed up to 7k rpm at the constant increase rate is shown in Figure 2. The lubrication is of the boundary type in the range up to about 1.2k rpm and is accompanied by oscillations.
\nThe run-up of a journal bearing.
The reason for the oscillations is the step change of speed to about 300 rpm after switching on because it is not possible to increase the rotational speed continuously from zero. Hydrodynamic lubrication at stable motion is produced for rotational speed up to 5k rpm. Motion instability of the whirl type occurs when this speed of 5k rpm is exceeded. Fluid force makes sense to be modeled just for stable motion and hydrodynamic lubrication. It is almost impossible to determine the initial conditions for boundary lubrication. Notice that the centre of the journal rises to the level of the centre of the bearing bore and gradually approaches this centre so that the small eccentricity gradually decreases to zero as is shown on the right panel of Figure 2. The data for this orbit was approximated by the five-degree polynomial in the time interval which begins at the 3rd second and ends at the 12th second. The difference between thin and thick film lubrication is also evident on the right panel of Figure 2, which depicts an orbit plot for the entire measurement time up to sixteenth-second.
\nThe threshold of the instability of the journal movement in the bearing is given by the clearance and viscosity of the oil, which depends on the temperature.
\nFor developing a new design of the actively controlled bearing, a test rig was built; see Figure 3. This figure provides different views of the test rig. An inductive motor of 400 Hz drives the rotor, and therefore the maximum rotational speed is 23k rpm. The engine is connected to the rotor via the Huco diaphragm coupling. The bearing diameter is 30 mm, and the length-to-diameter ratio is equal to about 0.77. The span of bearing pedestals is of 200 mm. The results of the experiments presented in this article are for the radial clearance of 45 μm. Also, the journals of the other clearance are available for testing. The performance of the actively controlled bearing was tested on the test bench (Rotorkit) of the TECHLAB design [3, 4]. Additionally, it should be emphasised that research was focused at rigid rotors and the journal bushing of the cylindrical bore, where the journal motion is measured at the location closest to the bearing bushing. The research work resulted in putting into operation of the active vibration control system, which became the first functional bearing prototype known up to now [5].
\nActively controlled journal bearings.
The mechanical arrangement of the actively controlled bearing is shown on the right of Figure 1. Oil leakage from the volume between the bearing body and the loose bushing and the piezoactuator rod is sealed with rubber O-rings. As it was stated before, vibrations of the rotor is suppressed using the system for active vibration control with piezoelectric actuators enabling to move the non-rotating loose bushing. The motion of the bearing bushing is controlled by the controller, which responds to the change in position of the bearing journal related to the bearing housing. Two stacked linear piezoactuators are used to actuate the position of the bearing journal via the position of the bearing bushing. The bearing uses a cylindrical bushing which did not require unique technology of production and assembly. This new bearing enables not only to damp vibrations and to prevent instability but also enables to maintain the desired bearing journal position with an accuracy of micrometers.
\nThe bearing journal can be considered as a rigid body rotating within the bearing housing at an angular velocity \n
A cross-section of the hydrodynamic bearing.
where \n
In addition to force components in the horizontal and vertical directions, the force balance will be solved in other possible directions. Force in the direction of the line of the centers is denoted as a direct force \n
The system is described by two motion equations, and therefore the total order of the system is four. This system may become unstable even for positive parameter values such as stiffness and damping.
\nThe motion equation of the rotor with the journal bearing in coordinates \n
The derivation of the motion equation is described, for example, in the article [5].
\nThe theory of hydrodynamic bearing is based on a differential equation derived by Osborne Reynolds. Reynolds equation is based on the following assumptions: The lubricant obeys Newton’s law of viscosity and is incompressible. The inertia forces of the oil film are negligible. The viscosity \n
Furthermore, it is assumed that the thickness \n
There is no analytical solution for the Reynolds equation.
\nDuring operation, the journal axis shifts from the centre of the bearing bushing to the distance of \n
The oil film moves in adjacent parallel layers at different speeds, and shear stress results between them. The oil layer at the surface of the journal moves at the peripheral velocity of the journal, while the oil layers at the surface of the bearing bushing do not move (at zero velocity). The surface of the journal moves at a velocity of \n
On double integrating, see [7], we get
\nwhere \n
The solution must meet the boundary condition:
\nwhich gives
\nOn simplifying, we get a formula for calculating the first integration constant \n
Extreme oil pressure values as a function of the attitude angle \n
The first integration constant is related to the thickness of the oil film at the perimeter of the journal, where the maximum and minimum oil pressure is achieved:
\nThe attitude angle where the maximum and minimum pressure occur is given by
\nThe result of double integration is as follows:
\nThe first integration constant was selected to meet the boundary condition \n
Pressure distribution along the angular coordinate.
The forces acting on the journal in the centre of gravity along the bearing length of \n
where the force \n
Note that according to Eq. (14) the pressure on the part of the journal surface is negative, which is, in fact, a relative negative pressure. Since the pressure distribution is antisymmetric with respect to \n
Dependence of the direct and quadrature force on the eccentricity ratio.
The nominal force that multiplies the dimensionless functions \n
where \n
For speeds ranging from 1.25k to 5k rpm, the force factor \n
The presence of direct force can be explained, e.g., by the cavitation or the inability to achieve high vacuum, but the mathematical model is more complicated (Ferfecki) [8]. The lubricant flows through the bearing, but in the part of the bearing journal circumference where the pressure is below the barometric pressure, the lubricant can also be sucked. The magnitude of the negative pressure for \n
The effect of negative pressure reduction is demonstrated in the right panel of Figure 6. Negative pressure is limited to 1% of the magnitude of positive pressure for the angle interval of \n
where \n
The stiffness in the directions of the Cartesian coordinates \n
The vector of the direct and quadrature forces depends on the coordinates \n
The cross-coupled stiffness \n
The damping matrix can be derived based on its relationship to the stiffness matrix according to the model that was designed by Muszynska:
\nAs is \n
The sum of direct and quadrature forces must compensate for the gravitational force that does not depend on the speed of rotation. The suitability of this model is confirmed by Mendes [9].
\nIf the attitude angle approaches the angle of \n
The coordinate system in the complex plane for the bearing journal position is shown in Figure 7. A variable u is a control variable, and a variable r is a controlled variable. The controlled variable is a two-component coordinate of the bearing journal axis, while the control variable is a two-component coordinates of the bushing axis as is shown in Figure 4. Because both the variables indicate coordinates in the plane, then they can be considered as two-component vectors. The same meaning as the vector has a complex variables. The real part of this variable has the meaning of the x coordinate, while the imaginary part has the meaning of the y coordinate, therefore it is possible to denote it as \n
Coordinate system in the complex plane.
There are many ways how to model journal bearings, but this paper prefers a lumped parameter model, which is based on the concept developed by Muszynska [10]. This concept assumes that the oil film acts as a combination of the spring and damper, which rotates at an angular speed \n
where M is the total rotor mass, Ω is the rotor angular velocity, K and D are specifying proportionality of stiffness and damping to the relative position of the journal center displacement vector, λ is a dimensionless parameter which is slightly less than 0.5, and FP is an oscillating disturbing force defined by \n
Force action of the oil film on the bearing journal can be modeled by Reynolds partial differential equations. The good accuracy of the Muszynska approximate model confirms Mendes and Cavalca [9]. Eq. (2) can be rewritten in matrix form
\nThe entries of the stiffness and damping matrices according to Muszynska model and the calculation of these matrix entries using Reynolds equation agree except for very low rotor speed. Some entries are constants, and others are linear function of the rotational speed. Even entries of the damping matrix are similar. Coordinates of the bearing journal axis for the force of gravity \n
where \n
Movement of the bearing journal inside the bearing bushing may be unstable as is apparent from Eq. (26). This phenomenon is called a whirl. The threshold of stability in angular velocity of the rotor can be calculated by the Muszynska’s formula:
\nThe equation of motion in the complex form for the rigid rotor operating in a small, localised region in the journal bearing with the movable bushing (\n
The Laplace transform specifies the transfer functions relating the displacement of the bushing to the displacement of the shaft \n
where the mentioned transfer functions are as follows:
\nThe active vibration control of journal bearings uses the bushing position as the control variable \n
Closed control loop.
Substituting \n
The transfer functions relating the set point of the closed-loop system to the displacement of the shaft \n
The stability margin can be calculated under assumption that the open-loop frequency transfer function \n
If the proportional controller is disconnected, i.e. KP\n = 0, then the critical angular velocity Ω\nMAX\n coincides with the critical frequency Ω\nCRIT\n of the closed loop. Increasing of the stability margin for the rotational speed of the rotor is possible by introducing an additional feedback.
\nThe reciprocal value of the transfer function (Eq. (35)) has the meaning of dynamic stiffness for radial force acting at the rotor:
\nIf a static force is applied to a rotating journal, then the stiffness of the journal bearing is given by
\nwhich means that the stiffness is \n
Analysis of the effect of active vibration control on the stiffness of the bearing journal assumes a linear mathematical model. Practical calculation of matrix entries of stiffness \n
shows that the linear model does not differ substantially. The dependence of the matrix entries for the journal bearing of the test rig on the rotor rpm is given by the graphs in Figure 9. Pertinent stiffness and damping coefficients are obtained by solving Reynolds equation providing that the journal performs small harmonic motion in neighborhood of its equilibrium position.
\nReal stiffness and damping matrices according to the Reynolds model.
The range of the manipulated variable, which is the position of bearing bushing and at the same time, the controller gain, determines the way to install piezoactuators. The equivalent circuit of the mechanical branch of the control loop for the horizontal direction is shown in Figure 10. Parameters that indicate stiffness in the scheme in Figure 10 are associated to the individual elements of the control loop as follows: \n
Mechanical branch of the control loop.
The force produced by the piezoactuator balances the force effect of the oil film. Virtual motion of the unloaded piezoactuator is proportional to its control supply voltage \n
Piezoactuator operation graphs.
Operation graph with all the limitations for the piezoactuator of the P-844.60 type is shown in the left panel of Figure 11. If the stiffness of sealing rings is taken into account and the stiffness of the support is assumed to be infinite, then the original range of motion of the bearing bushing is reduced to the size as follows:
\nThe effect of the stiffness of the O-ring seal is shown in the middle panel of Figure 11. Displacement of the bearing bushing is reduced from 90 to 77 μm for the given parameters of the control loop. The ultimate stiffness of the support affects the virtual stiffness of the piezoactuator as follows:
\nwhere \n
First experiments with an imperfect support showed displacement of the bearing bushing of about 20 microns at maximum electrical voltage to supply the piezoactuators. This happened at the beginning of the development when the support arrangement was provisionally extended due to the use of longer piezoactuators. The ideal solution is to install piezoactuators into the bearing housing.
\nExperiments with the active vibration control run for several years, while the hardware and software of the control system was upgraded step by step. We have improved design of the piezoactuator support, found suitable sensors for measuring the position of the bearing journal, upgraded the lubrication system, and improved the control algorithm. Properties of the active vibration system have previously been described in the paper [11], and now the main results will be described only, which relate to control the position of the bearing journal.
\nThe instability onset of the bearing journal motion inside the bushing arises when crossing the threshold value of rotational speed Eq. (5). This phenomenon means that the steady-state rotation of the journal is not stable and the journal axis starts to whirl at the frequency, which is 0.42–0.48 multiple of the frequency of rotational speed of the rotor. Measurements in this article were carried out on the shaft with the radial clearance of 45 μm. Rotor speed increases according to a ramp function as it is shown in the left panel of Figure 12. The time history of the axis coordinates of the bearing journal is shown in the other panels of Figure 12. The x coordinate corresponds to horizontal direction, and the y coordinate is for vertical direction. Active vibration control is switched off for the time histories in the second panel. Instability occurs at about 2k rpm. This threshold of instability depends on the viscosity of the oil and the bearing clearance. Oscillations of the bearing journal position are limited by the journal clearance within the bushing.
\nrpm and the journal position as a function of time.
If the active vibration control is switched on and rates of increase of rotational speed are identical for both measurements, the instability of the bearing occurs at the rotational speed about 12k rpm as is shown in the third and fourth panel of Figure 12 from the left. Vibrations during the instable motion of the journal are also limited by the journal clearance within the inner gap of the bearing bushing.
\nThe transient of the journal seems to be reverse for the vertical motion (y-axis) of the bearing journal in the second and third panel of Figure 12. The scale for the vertical motion is reverse in these figures, meaning upside-down. The relationship between horizontal and vertical motion of the journal shows the orbit of the journal axis in the rightmost fourth panel of Figure 12. The shape of the orbit is approximately circular when instability occurs.
\nThreshold of instability is increased six times now using a proportional feedback. According to Eq. (12) this multiple corresponds to the open-loop gain, which is equal to 35. Years ago, we achieved an increase in the threshold of instability only about by 70% for a piezoactuator support with insufficient stiffness. Such an increase of the instability threshold corresponds to the open-loop gain equal to 2.
\nThe active vibration control is not turned on at 0 rpm of the rotor but after finishing a transient process, which ends by lifting the journal to approximately the middle position in the vertical direction which takes approximately 15 seconds for the given rate of the increase of speed.
\nThrough the experiment under specific conditions, the observed onset of instability was at 8450 rpm for control only in the x-axis direction and at 7100 rpm for control only in the y-axis direction [12]. It confirms the rule that static load delays the onset of instability at higher speeds. Control in both directions is required if the direction of the radial force may change or if the rotor has a vertical axis, i.e., the radial force is missing.
\nThe linear proportional controller was used for active vibration control for measurements presented in Figure 13. Parametric excitation means that at least one parameter of the system varies periodically in time according to a sinusoidal function, as was suggested by Tondl and Dohnal [13, 14]. The gain of the proportional controller was selected as this varying parameter. The system becomes nonlinear and nonstationary. The gain of the proportional controller is given as follows:
\nThe journal position as a function of time for tests with active vibration control on.
where \n
Dohnal [14] has solved a similar problem for magnetic bearings. Our experiments on the test bench were conducted for the following amplitudes of excitation \n
Power losses in the journal bearings were estimated from the electric power which is consumed by frequency convertor and motor. Dependence of electrical power upon rotational speed of the motor was measured with and without active control as it is shown in Figure 14. Basic power consumption of the motor and frequency convertor was measured with the disconnected clutch between the motor and rotor; it means that the bearings were inoperative. The friction loss of a pair of bearings at 7k rpm is 66 W in an unstable operation, and if the active vibration control is on, then the friction loss is of only 48 W. The active vibration control reduces the friction losses of journal bearings by 27%. The bearing clearance amounts to 90 μm for the bearing journal of the diameter 30 mm. As a lubricant the hydraulic oil of the OL-P03 type (VG 10 grade, kinematic viscosity 2.5 to 4 mm2/s at 40°C) was used. All tests were undertaken at ambient temperature about 20°C. For small power loss by friction in the bearings, the actively controlled bearings can be used in systems for storing the kinetic energy as they are flywheels that spin at high speed. Longer life compared with roller bearings is another advantage of this type of bearings [11].
\nThe electric power consumed by the frequency converter, motor, and bearings.
The bearing bushing is suspended on a pair of piezoactuators, and the bearing journal is supported by an oil wedge. According to catalogue data, we used a linear piezoactuator, which is able to generate force of 3 kN in pressure or 700 N in tension on the track in the range of 90 μm. These parameters correspond to the piezoactuator stiffness of 33 MN/m. Stiffness of the force transducer is 2000 MN/m, which is two orders of magnitude higher than the stiffness of piezoactuators. Stiffness of the O-ring seal is 5.5 MN/m which increases the stiffness of the piezoactuator by this value. Force is transmitted to the bearing journal through the oil film. Based on the simulations, it can be estimated that the direct stiffness (\n
Stiffness of precision rolling bearings ranges from 100 to 200 kN/m, regardless of the load, while the stiffness of hydrodynamic bearings in neighborhood of central position (low load) is of the order of several kN/m. However, with active control, the stiffness can increase as much as 35 times, i.e., it can achieve values around 100 kN/m, which is comparable to that of precision ball bearing.
\nExperiments prove the correctness of the theoretical prediction which refers to the extending of the operating range of plain bearings when active vibration control is used. The performance of the actively controlled bearing was tested on the test rig. The bearing diameter is 30 mm, and the length-to-diameter ratio is equal to about 0.77. The radial clearance of the journal is 45 μm and the very low viscosity oil is used. This combination causes instability of the oil whirl type from the rotational speed of 2k rpm. The active vibration control extends stable operating rotational speed up to 12k rpm, i.e., six times. Also the stiffness of the bearing journal increases significantly during a displacement from equilibrium position. The friction loss of a pair of bearings at 7k rpm is 66 W in an unstable operation, and if the active vibration control is switched ON, then the friction loss is of only 48 W. The active vibration control reduces the friction losses by 27%. The linear proportional controller was used for the active vibration control. The quality of control has been enhanced with the use of periodic changes of the controller gain, which is known as a parametric excitation. The effect of this way of control reduces the journal residual oscillation to the limits which does not exceed 8 μm. This amplitude is comparable with the radial clearance of the ball bearings of the deep groove type. The experiments with the time-periodic changes of the controller gain confirm the positive effect on the vibration response.
\nThis work was supported by the European Regional Development Fund in the Research Centre of Advanced Mechatronic Systems project, CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000867 within the Operational Programme Research, Development and Education and the project SP2020/57 Research and Development of Advanced Methods in the Area of Machines and Process Control supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports. This publication was issued thanks to supporting within the operational programme research and innovation for the project: “New generation of freight railway wagons” (project code in ITMS2014+: 313010P922) co-financed from the resources of the European Regional Development Fund.
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