Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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1. Introduction
1.1 Preface
The phenomenon in which solid particles float in a gas stream and have a liquid-like property is called a fluidized bed. This phenomenon of fluidization in gas or liquid flow was discovered by Fritz Winkler in the 1920s [1]. This one was investigated by Lewis et al. and had been raised to fluidized theory [2]. The first commercial fluidized bed dryer was installed in USA in 1948 [3]. The fluidized bed technology is used for drying of bulk materials, includes examples such as: vibrating fluidized bed dryer, normal fluidized bed dryer without vibrating device and pulsed fluidized bed dryer.
Mathematical modeling and computer simulation of grain drying are now widely used and become an important tool for designing new dryers, for analyzing existing drying systems and for identifying drying conditions [4]. Identifying the drying conditions is necessary to establish the optimal protocol for ensuring seed quality [5]. To solve the simulation models, equations concerning aerodynamic properties such as the gas stream velocity and particle velocity are the most important components. The aerodynamic properties are affected by shape, density and size of particles [6].
In recent years, the fluidized bed technology has been concerned in the application in the sugar drying and refined salt drying in Vietnam. In the scope of this chapter, we discuss the issues related to the hydrodynamics of refined salt particles in the gas stream at ambient temperature and temperature equivalent to that of drying particle. The focus of this chapter is to determine the velocity values of the gas through the particle layer to form the minimum, homogeneous and critical fluidized layers.
In industrial manufacturing practice, we often encounter the contact, interaction between solid-particle materials and gases. These interaction phenomena are described in Table 1.
Order
Function of gases
Function of solid materials
Equipment in practice
1
Heat carrier
Materials do not react to gases
Heaters supply to materials
Heat exchangers with heat recovery
2
Loading and transportation of particle materials
Materials do not react to gases
Pneumatic solid particle carrier
3
Heat carrier and material loading and transportation
Materials do not react to gases
Aerodynamic dryers
4
Chemical agents
Chemical reaction
Activated material for chemical reactions
As inert material which is used in fluidized bed combustion of boiler
The burner burns
Gasification equipment
Catalytic reconstitution
Oxidation equipment
Processing of metallurgical surfaces and annealing furnace
5
Agitation
Materials do not react to gases
Mixer of different materials in the tank
Table 1.
Relations and functions of gas interacting with solid particle in real production.
1.2 Applied materials in fluidized bed drying technology
According to Abrahamsen and Geldart [7], the two most important factors affecting the fluidization characteristic of the particle layer are particle size and particle density.
Geldart [8] visually observed the various conditions and classified fluidizable particles into four groups: A, B, C and D. As a result, the classification was related to the influence of the average particle size and particle density on the properties of the fluidized layer, as depicted in Figure 1 and Table 2.
Figure 1.
Diagram of the Geldart classification of particles [9, 10].
Particle group characteristics
C group
A group
B group
D group
Particle size (μm)
0–3
30 ≤ dp ≤ 100
100 ≤ dp ≤ 1000
≥ 1000
Density (kg/m3)
Smallest
1400
400–4500
Lower than other materials
The most obvious characteristics of group
Particles are cohesive and linked
Difficult fluidization
Easy fluidization
Dense phase expands stably before bubbling starts
Starting on bubble creation at the minimum fluidized velocity value
The rough solid particles
Typical granulars
Flour
Cement
Milk flour
FCC granular
Construction sands
Pebbles in rice
Coffee beans, wheat, lead shot
Properties of fluidization layer
Particle layer expansion
Channeling possibilities in the particles layer easily
The large bed expansion before bubbling is started
The minimum fluidization velocity is smaller than minimum bubbling
Medium
Difficult to fluidize evenly (low)
Properties of air bubbles
Do not form bubble
It does not form bubble fluidization
There is a maximum bubble size
The bubbles rise faster than the interstitial gas
Bubbles are large and grow rapidly and coalescence, as they rise through the bed
Bubbles rise more slowly than the rest of the gas percolating through the emulsion
Property of mixed solid particles
Very low
High
Solids’ recirculation rates are smaller
Low
Spaying
None
None
Only occurs in the upper layer
It occurs
Only occur in under layers
Table 2.
The classification of fluidization properties of particle groups according to Geldart [9, 11].
According to the content of this chapter, we focus on approaching, researching and experimenting on the mechanism and principle of interaction between air and the applied material in fluidized bed drying. The approach method is to arrange a stream of heat-carrying air blowing from the bottom of the particle chamber through a gas distributor (the holes arranged at an angle to the cross section of the tank). Hot air stream is evenly distributed and touches the surface of particles in tank (the particle layer was on the gas distributor). The continuous air stream ensures that the contact of particle surfaces with the gas flow is consecutive. The nature of the gas flowing through the particle layer may be laminar, turbulent, or transition flow at the material contact surface. The inflow of hot air affects the velocity of the interaction between the gas stream and the material.
1.3 Basic concept of fluidized particle layer and principle of fluidized particle layer creation
When the material layer is fluidized, its state is converted from a fixed bed to a dynamic state. The particle layer has liquid-like properties. The surface area of the particles contacting with the fluid increases, and therefore the heat transfer ability from fluid to particles rapidly rises.
In order for the fluidization phenomena to occur in the bulk material layer, the air stream must have sufficient pressure and velocity. The air stream flows upward, passes through the particle materials (follow the linear increment) through uncountable air holes of the distributor, which are arranged at the bottom of the particle material layer. When the velocity of air stream is small, pressure exerted on particles is small, the particle layer maintains its original fixed bed (the state from 0 before point A, Figure 2). As the air velocity is increased further, the aerodynamic traction appears, which has opposite effect of the gravitational force of the particles, causing the expansion of particle layers in a volume, and the particles begin to move apart from each other (at point A, Figure 1).
Figure 2.
Particle layer states with gas velocity changing [10].
By further raising the velocity of air stream to the critical value, the friction force between the particles and air is equal to the weight of particles. At this time, the vertical component of the compression pressure is eliminated, the upward-pulling force equals the downward gravity, causing the particle material to be suspended in the air stream. When the gas velocity reaches the critical value, the particle material layer will be converted to complete fluidization state, called the fluidization particle layer and having the liquid-like properties (position from A to B in Figure 2).
By further increasing the velocity of the gas, the bulk density of the particle layers continues to decrease, its fluidization becomes more violent, until the particles no longer form a bed and are swept up and fallen down in the fluidization motion (position from B to C, Figure 2). At this time, each particle material is covered with gas flow, the intensity of the heat and material transfer occurs violently. When granular material is fully fluidized, the bed will conform to the volume of the chamber, its surface remaining perpendicular to gravity; objects with a lower density than the bed density will float on its surface, bobbing up and down, while objects with a higher density sink to the bottom of the bed.
Fluidization has many applications in many technologies of manufacturing practice, such as mixing different types of granular materials; fluidized bed drying; cooling grain after drying; supporting interaction between chemicals in the fluidized bed; granulation technology; film coating technology of medicine and pharmacy; manufacturing technology through the combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers; and biomass fuel combustion technology in fluidized bed.
To clarify the dynamics of the fluidized beds for application in refined salt drying in the fluidized bed, the theoretical and experimental issues determining the velocity of gas through the particle layers to form different fluidized layers are described as follows.
2. Methodology
2.1 Determination of the minimum fluidization velocity from publications
2.1.1 Determination of Vmf using the Ergun equation
When the air stream having sufficient pressure and velocity passes through the static spherical particle layers, they begin to expand (the particles become “flexible”). In this condition, it is called the minimum particulate fluidization state and is described by the modified equation of Ergun (see position A in Figure 1) [12].
For particles of arbitrary shapes, the pressure drop of air stream at the minimum fluidization state is represented by Eq. (2). The spherical value of particle material got in the Eq. (1) [10] is given by:
For the particle layer to be converted from a fixed state to a fluidization state, the pressure of air stream must be large enough to overcome the weight of the particle layers and it is determined by Eq. (3) [10].
Δp=mρpAρp−ρfgE3
In Eq. (3), it is considered that there was no interaction force between particles in layer and no interaction between particles and the wall of the tank. So, that did not cause the pressure increasing effect. Thus, the pressure drop of the air stream was constant while increasing the gas velocity from the smallest fluidization velocity to the value when the entrainment process of particles occurred (position C, Figure 2).
In Eqs. (1) and (2), it is also shown that the pressure drop of the gas stream that is generated through the fluidized particle layer is depended on the particle size (dp), the bed voidage (ε) and the gas temperature (t°C). According to Eq. (3), the pressure drop of the gas stream through the particle layers is dependent upon the material mass (m), the gas distributor grate area (A), particle density (ρp) and gas density (ρf). Thus, we could calculate the minimum fluidization velocity value (Vmf), which was based on Eqs. (1)–(3) for non-spherical particles by solving Eq. (4).
The minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) is the root of Eq. (4), which is based on available parameters, such as the height of minimum fluidization bed (Hmf), the mass of particles in the air distributor (m), the area for gas distribution or called cross-sectional area of the bed (A), particle density (ρp), air density (ρf), mean particle diameter (dp), spherical degree of particles (ϕ) and void fraction at minimum fluidization particle layer (εmf).
Commonly, the sphere degree of particles (ϕ) must be determined in experiments [10]. The spherical degree of refined salt particles was found out by Bui [13, 14, 15]. Theoretically, in order to fluidize the particle layer, the actual weight of the solid particles must be equal to the force exerted on the particle layers and that is equal to the pressure drop across the bed (ΔP) multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the chamber (A). A minimum fluidization layer which must have determined layer thickness (Hmf), void fraction (εmf), then the expanded volume of the fluidized particles (U) has the value of the Eq. (5):
U=1−εmf.A.HmfE5
And the actual gravity of the particle mass has a value of:
W=1−εmfρp−ρf.A.Hmf..gE6
The balance of the real gravity components of the particle mass and the upward force exerted on the particle mass of the gas flow was calculated according to
Giving physical parameters of particle and gas into the Eq. (8), velocity (Vmf) was found out. In case of very small particles, the gas stream regime through the particle layer was laminar flow and the minimum fluidization velocity should be calculated by the Ergun equation [12]. In case of Remf < 1, we use Eq. (9) to calculate the minimum fluidization velocity of gas.
2.1.2 Determination of Vmf by the correlation of Remf and Archimeter (Ar)
When gas passes through the particle bulk, which can have any shape, the minimum fluidization Reynolds coefficient (Remf) is determined by Eq. (10).
Remf=ρmf.Vmf.dp.ϕμfE10
Eq. (11) describes the correlation between Ar and Remf with void fraction at minimum fluidization particle layer (Vmf)
Ar=1501−εmfϕ2εmf3Remf+1.75ϕεmf3Remf2E11
Archimeter (Ar) is determined by Eq. (12) for particles of any shape.
Substituting physical parameters into the Eq. (12), which includes the particle density (ρp), the gas density at the temperature of minimum fluidization velocity (ρf), the air dynamic viscosity (μf), spherical degree of particle (ϕ), void fraction at the minimum fluidization velocity (εmf), mean particle diameter (dm) [13, 14, 15] and getting Ar number value into the Eq. (13). Then, we solved the quadratic equation to find out the root of equation Remf in Eq. (10), we got only the positive value. Thus, we calculated the minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) from Eq. (10).
2.1.3 Determination of Vmf by the Kozeny-Carman correlation
Kozeny-Carman gave the formula of calculation of the minimum fluidization velocity for a very small particle size with the Remf < 10 in Eq. (14) described in Yates [16].
Vmf=gρp−ρf150μfεmf31−εmfϕ2dp2E14
For spherical particles or sphericity equivalent, the bed voidage of the minimum fluidization εmf = 0.4 ÷ 0.45.
2.1.4 Determination of Vmf by correlation of Wen and Yu
In case of the unavailability of the sphericity of particles, we determine the minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) by using of the experimental correlation of Wen and Yu [17]. An empirical formula of calculation of the void fraction at minimum fluidization particle layers in Eq. (15) or Eq. (16) with the available sphericity degree of particle (ϕ) or the calculation of the sphericity degree of particle (ϕ) in case void fraction (εmf) at minimum fluidization particle layer is available, which was also described by Wen and Yu equation (cited in Howard, 1989) [10].
1−εmfϕ2εmf3≈11or1ϕεmf3≈14E15
We can use the calculation of the void fraction at minimum fluidization particle layers from the other correlation, which is also converted from Wen and Yu.
εmf=0.071ϕ1/3E16
It is based on the calculation of the void fraction (εmf) (at position A in Figure 2) of Eq. (15) or Eq. (16) and substituting the obtained εmf value into the Ergun Eq. (2), we have Eq. (17).
Ar=1650Repmf+24.5Repmf2E17
Using the calculated Ar number from Eq. (12) and substituting the Ar value into Eq. (17), we obtain Eq. (18) to calculate the particle Reynolds number at the minimum fluidization velocity (Remf).
It was applied to calculate for solid particles with size larger than 100 μm [10]. From the Remf value that was found out in the Eq. (19), Vmf is calculated according to Eq. (10). In case of solid particles with small size (C group of Geldart, 1973) in the specified temperature conditions, the Vmf value is calculated in Eq. (20) by Wen and Yu.
Vmf=7.90.10−3dp1.82ρp−ρf0.94μf−0.83E20
2.1.5 Determination of Vmf by the correlation of Beayens and Geldart
For solid spherical particles with diameters ranging from 0.05 to 4 mm (0.05 mm < dp < 4 mm) and particle density ranging from 850 to 8810 kg/m3 (850 kg/m3 < ρp < 8810 kg/m3), the method of calculation of Vmf was proposed by Beayens and Geldart as shown in Eq. (21) [18].
Ar=1823Remf1.07+21.7Remf2E21
Then the Vmf can be calculated from Eq. (22) in case of available solid particle and gas parameters.
Vmf=9.125×10−4ρp−ρfg0.934dp1.8μf0.87ρp0.66E22
2.1.6 Determination of Vmf by correlation of Goroshko
The minimum fluidization velocity of spherical particles was determined by correlation shown in Eq. (23) by Goroshko described in Howard [10, 19].
aRemf2+bRemf−Ar=0E23
where
a=1.75ϕεmf3andb=1501−εmfϕ2εmf3E24
We get ϕ is 1.0 (ϕ = 1) then solving the Eq. (23) take the spherical degree value, we have the Eq. (25).
Remf=−b+b2+4aAr1/22aE25
Multiplying b+b2+4aAr by the numerator and denominator of Eq. (25), we have the Eq. (26)
Remf=Arb2+b22+aAr1/2−1E26
And its value was determined by Eq. (27) by Goroshko:
Repmf=Arb+aArE27
Eq. (27) is different from Eq. (26) by the added value b22+aAr=b2+a.Ar. There is a difference in Remf value between the Goroshko equation and Ergun equation. The Repmf of Goroshko equation [Eq. (27)] is smaller than Remf of Ergun [Eq. (26)]. This deviation interval depends on the value of Archimeter (Ar). Thus, we have a correlation equation, which is described in Eq. (28).
RemfErgunRepmfGoroshko=b+aArb/2+b/22+aAr1/2E28
2.1.7 Determination of Vmf following Goroshko and Todes equation
The minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) of sphericity particles was defined from the Remf by Goroshko et al. in Eq. (29) [19].
Repmf=Ar1501−εmfεmf3+1.75εmf3ArE29
In case of non-spherical particles with different sizes, the Repmf value was error from 15–20% in case we use the Eq. (29) of calculation described in [20]. In the case of rapid calculation, we considered the bed voidage of the minimum fluidization state to be equal to the bed voidage at static particle layers (εo = εmf = 0.4), and the Remf is calculated in Eq. (30) [21].
Remf=Ar1400+5.22ArE30
2.1.8 Determination of Vmf following Leva
From the formula of Carman-Kozan k=g.ρf.εmfμfkcS described in (as cited in Leva, [22]) yield the formula to define the minimum fluidization velocity [22, 23].
Vmf=5×10−3ϕdp2ρp−ρpgεmf3μmf1−εmfE31
The Leva formula is used in case of Reynolds to be smaller than 10 (Remf < 10). In case of Reynolds to be larger than 10 (Remf > 10), there is an adjustment factor added into this formula.
2.1.9 Determination of Vmf according to Kunii-Levenspiel
The formula of Kunii-Levenspiel was simplified from the Ergun formula and it gave out two cases of calculation of the minimum fluidization velocity. In the first case for solid particles of small size with Remf < 20, we have to use Eq. (32).
Vmf=ϕdp2150μfρp−ρfgεmf31−εmfE32
We have to use Eq. (33) for the larger particle size with Reynolds number larger than 1000 (Remf > 1000).
Vmf2=ϕdpρp−ρfg.εmf31.75ρfE33
2.1.10 Determination of Vmf based on the bed voidage problem
There is a correlation equation of particle mass balance at the minimum fluidization state (fluidization without bubbles), which was created by Kunii and Levenspiel as shown in Eq. (34).
g.H01−ε0ρp.A=1−εmfρpg.HmfE34
Thus, we can obtain a correlation as shown in Eq. (35).
HmfH0=1−ε01−εmfE35
According to Ginzburg, described in [18], the bed voidage of minimum fluidization and height of particle layer are calculated by Eq. (36) and Eq. (37).
εmf=ε0×10%E36
Hmf=H0×10%E37
McCabe et al. proposed εmf = 0.4 ÷ 0.45 for the spherical particle [24]. The bed voidage of minimum fluidization particle layers was 0.5 (εmf = 0.5) for larger particle size. The bed voidage is equal to 1.0 (εt = 1.0) when the particle layers are attracted to the gas stream (see position C in Figure 2).
2.2 Physical model of experiment
Experimental arrangement of determining the minimum fluidization velocity is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Model for determination of the minimum fluidization velocity. 1. Centrifugal fan; 2. air heater; 3. thermometer for surface particle temperature measurement; 4. pitot tube for measurement of dynamic pressure and total pressure of air; 5. U-manometer; 6. chamber of fluidization; 7. air distributor; 8. drying air inlet.
In order to gradually increase the bed surface velocity of hot air via the particle layers, the air fan (1) is equipped with an inverter to change the rotation of the fan motor.
2.3 Experimental equipment
The instruments in experiments include a moisture analyzer (Axis AGS100, Germany), measurement error ± 0.01%; a digital electronic scale (Satorius MA45, Germany), measurement error ± 0.001 g; an air velocity meter (Extech SDL350 Taiwan), measurement error ± 0.01 m/s and a digital thermometer (WIKA CTH6300, Germany), measurement accuracy 0.001°C. This instrument has two measuring rate modes including fast at 4/s and slow at 1/s; an inclined manometer (T10, UK), measured range is 0–280 mmwg with error ± 0.1% and a pitot pipe (PT6300, 304 Germany), measurement range is 0–400 mmwg with error ± 0.1%. For measurement on the bulk density and density of refined salt particles, we used instruments such as Graduated pipet, buret, graduated cylinder, all of them made in Germany with error measurement ± 0.01 ml. The HCl acid is used for density measurement of refined salt particles.
2.4 The materials of refined salt particles
The material of refined salt particles was supplied by a combined hydraulic separating-washing-grinding machine in the saturated saltwater condition and which was dried by a continuous centrifugal machines. Samples of refined salt were randomly taken at different sizes at Vinh Hao salt company in Binh Thuan Province, Bac Lieu salt company and Sea salt Research Center of Vietnam for analysis (Table 3) [14].
No.
Equipment/parts
Technical parameter
1
Drying air fan
Flow: 0.63 m3/s; total pressure: 1244 Pa; motor power: 2.2 kW
2
Electrical heater
Overall dimension (L × W × H): 600 × 630 × 275 mm; heating power: 1.0 kW; number of heater bars: 6
3
Drying chamber
Overall dimension (L × W × H): 1750 × 300 × 350 mm Fabrication material: SUS304
4
Salt dust settling chamber
Overall dimension (L × W × H): 1750 × 450 × 350 mm Fabrication material: SUS304
Table 3.
The basic parameters of the continuous fluidized bed dryer for experiment by authors.
3. Results and discussions
The above section presented nine methods to calculate minimum fluidization velocity based on the physical parameters of particles and physical thermal parameters of gas stream. These parameters were obtained from experiments in combination with the correlation calculation or empirical formulas.
In order to have the basis of comparison and accuracy evaluation of each calculating method in comparison with the empirical method, the theoretical calculation was carried out for refined salt particles with diameters of 1.5 mm, 1.2 mm, 0.9 mm, 0.6 mm and 0.3 mm. On the other hand, to achieve empirical result, samples of dried refined salt particles (of which mean-diameter was determined) were taken randomly from a combined hydraulic-separating-washing-crushing machine, presenting various particle sizes of the raw material that was put in the dryer.
3.1 Results of theoretical and empirical calculations for determining Vmf of refined salt particles
3.1.1 Some primary conditions for determining the Vmf by theoretical calculations
When calculating the pressure drop across a refined salt particle layer, we relied on the empirical results of physical parameters of particles and air (summarized in Table 4). Specific notes for each calculating method are as follows:
Calculation based on Ergun equations and correlations of pressure
Applying to calculate the minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) for refined salt particles with the fixed bed height (H0) is 30 mm, the bed voidage (ε0) is 0.5 using Eqs. (35) and (36) to find out the minimum fluidization state including Hmf = 1.1 × H0 = 33 mm; bed voidage εmf = 1.1 × ε0 = 0.56. Using the spherical degree value of refined salt particle is 0.71 (ϕ = 0.71) and other parameters were taken from the Table 5 which described in Bui (2009). Then we use the Ergun equations to calculate the minimum fluidization velocity. It is recommended that Remf had no limit [13, 14, 15].
Calculation based on the correlation between (Remf), (Ar) and Kozeny-Carman
In these two calculation methods, the parameters in the calculations are taken from the empirical results according to Table 5.
Determination of the (Vmf) value according to Wen and Yu
According to Wen and Yu methods, the bed voidage of the refined salt particle layer at minimum fluidization state (εmf) was unknown, but we had the value of spherical degree particle from experiments (see Table 5). We put the value of spherical degree into Eq. (5) or Eq. (16) and found out the value of bed voidage (εmf) from which the velocity value of gas passing through the minimum fluidization particle layer (Vmf) was calculated.
Determination of Vmf according to Groshko-Todes
In this method, we also used the results of physical parameters of refined salt particles and air supplied to the dryer from Table 5 to calculate Ar number. The Remf is determined by using Eq. 2 and the obtained result was multiplied by the error coefficient k = 1.2 and it was considered as the result of calculation of Remf for non-spherical salt particles (described by Lebedev, [21]).
In addition, in Todes method there was another calculation by using Eq.(29) based on the available results of the minimum fluidization velocity (εmf = 0.4). We put this value into Eq. (15) and we found out the spherical degree of salt particles according to correlation given by Wen and Yu. Then we put this value into Eq. (12) to determine Ar number. By replacing Eq. (29) with the value of Ar number, we found out Remf, from which we could calculate Vmf value by using Eq. (10).
Determination of Vmf by the formula of Beayens-Geldart, Goroshko, Leva, and Kunii-Levenspiel
The minimum fluidization bed velocity (Vmf) was determined by using theoretical calculation of formulas of Beayens-Geldart, Goroshko, Leva, and Kunii-Levenspiel with the available physical parameters of refined salt particles and gas given in Table 5 [18, 19, 22, 25, 26]. Table 4 shows the calculated results from the formulas of authors published last time.
Determination of the minimum fluidization velocity according to theoretical and empirical methods
No
dh (mm)
Minimum fluidization velocity
Ergun
Re andAr
Ko and Ca
Wen and Yu
Gedar
Go
Todes
Leva
Kunii and Levenspiel
Empirical methods
1
1.65
1.327
0.939
3.149
0.5414
0.45
1.1223
1.122
2.362
3.149
0.8
2
1.35
1.094
0.736
2.108
0.4002
0.331
0.9022
0.902
1.581
2.108
0.6
3
1.05
0.826
0.518
1.275
0.2625
0.219
0.6653
0.665
0.956
1.275
0.58
7
0.953
0.731
0.445
1.05
0.2209
0.186
0.586
0.586
0.788
1.05
0.55
4
0.75
0.522
0.298
0.651
0.1416
0.123
0.4188
0.419
0.488
0.651
0.42
5
0.45
0.22
0.115
0.234
0.0524
0.05
0.1863
0.186
0.176
0.234
0.2
6
0.225
0.058
0.029
0.059
0.0132
0.014
0.0537
0.054
0.044
0.059
0.15
Table 4.
Theoretical calculation results of minimum fluidization velocity for refined salt particles from equations and empirical correlation formulas of published authors, which compare to the experimental results of the physical model of author.
The bold values in Table 4 refers to the common average particle size for commercial refined salt in the Vietnamese market.
Physical parameters of refined salt grains and physical air.
Note: The particle diameter d = 0.953 is the average diameter of the salt particles.
3.1.2 Primary conditions for determining Vmf by experimental method
A model in Figure 3 and the other of fluidized bed dryer in Figure 4 was designed by authors to define the minimum fluidization velocity of refined salt particles in experiment. The dryer model was designed with its capacity of 48 kg/hour, the height of salt particle layer at the static bed was 30 mm (H0 ≥ 30 mm). In the experiments, the authors determined the minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) for refined salt particles with diameter 1.65, 1.35, 1.05, 0.9, 0.65, 0.4 and 0.3 mm. The experimental results of determination of the minimum fluidization velocity of the particle layers with the different particle sizes are shown in Table 4. Besides, these experimental minimum fluidization velocity values were also compared with results of theoretical models that were published by authors presented in the methodology part above (Figure 5).
Figure 4.
The model of continuous fluidized bed dryer used in experiments. 1. Air fan; 2. heating chamber; 3. air supplier; 4. air duct; 5. product outlet; 6. drying chamber; 7. dust separation chamber; 8. inlet feeder; 9. cyclone dust collector.
Figure 5.
Comparison of the minimum fluidization air velocity between calculated values of published authors and experimental values of the model [14].
3.2 Discussions
The obtained values of minimum fluidization velocity (Vmf) calculated by the Ergun equation and the correlation between Remf number and Ar number for all particle sizes agreed well with the experimental values. The value of Remf number varies from 0.3 to 51.7. Particles with sizes dp = 0.225; 0.45 and 0.75 had the tendency for laminar flow.
The obtained values of minimum fluidization velocity (vmf) determined by the Kozeny-Carman and Kunii equations for particles with diameter greater than 1 mm (dp > 1 mm) were much larger than experimental values (Vtmf > > Vemf). While, with particles having diameter smaller than 1 mm (dp < 1 mm), the result of calculation was nearly equal to the experimental values. Notably, the void fraction value of the minimum fluidization state from 0.4 to 0.5 (εmf = 0.4–0.5) the calculation result matches the experimental value.
By using the correlation of Wen and Yu to calculate void fraction at (εmf) knowing the spherical properties of particle, we obtained values that were much smaller than the experimental value. The Remf number varied from 0.07 to 21.1.
When using the correlation between Remf and Ar, the obtained values of minimum fluidization velocity fit quite well to experimental results. Reynolds values vary from 0.16 to 36.6.
The minimum fluidization velocity that was calculated according the correlation between Remf and Ar number of Beayens and Geldart (Eq. (19)) gave reasonable results.
The obtained values by using the Goroshko and Todes formula in Eq. (28) were nearly equal to the experimental values.
The calculated value of Vmf according to Beayens and Geldart was the lowest in comparison to other methods.
The difference between the values of Remf calculated according to Goroshko and Ergun was lower than 10–20% for particles that lie in the range of Remf number from 0.28 to 43.7 (Remf = 0.28–43.7). The obtained values of velocity value (Vmf) for particles with diameter smaller than 0.9 mm (dp < 0.9 mm) were closer to the experimental value in comparison with particles with diameter larger than 0.9 mm (dp > 0.9 mm).
The minimum fluidization velocity that was calculated by Leva formula was only suitable for particles with diameter smaller than 0.75 mm (dp < 0.75 mm) and value of Remf number smaller than 10 (Remf < 10). The regime of air flow through the particle layer is laminar flow.
The calculation method of the minimum fluidization velocity according to the Kunii and Levenspiel equations was suitable for particle with diameter dp = (0.225; 0.45; 0.75 mm) and the results were appropriate under the conditions Remf < 20, and the calculation result was close to the experimental value.
3.3 Determination of air velocity through the particle layer at the optimum fluidization regime (Vof)
The optimal fluidization velocity Vof was in the region from A to C (Figure 2). It meets the conditions:
Vmf<Vhf<VcfE38
The air superficial velocity value from A to C (Figure 2) was determined by the two standard equations as follows:
The air velocity through the solid particle layer at the optimum fluidization regime (Vof) was calculated according to Fedorov standard (Fe) by Eq. (39) (as cited in Lebedev [21]), with refined salt particles and drying air parameters taken from Table 5 (tf = 160°C) [13, 15].
Re-calculating the homogeneous fluidization velocity (Vhf1) by using the experimental equation Eq. (44) [27].
From Table 4 for the specific case: Vmf = 0.55 m/s and particle diameter was 0.953 mm.
Vhf1=2÷3×Vmf=2÷3×0.56=1.12÷1.68m/sE44
Both Vhf1 and Vhf2 met the conditions of the Eq. (38). Selecting the optimum velocity Vof:
Vof=Vhf1+Vhf2/2=0.99+1.66/2=1.33m/s
Re-calculating the standard Reynolds number at reasonable fluidization state (Reof) under the condition of optimum fluidization velocity (Vof = 1.33 m/s)
The value of optimum Reynolds number (Reof) was 30 (Reof = 30).
The void fraction of the particle layer at the reasonable fluidization state was determined by the Zabrodski formula (Eq. 46) (described in Lebedev, [21]).
These two calculation methods generated almost identical results.
3.4 Calculation of the critical air velocity flowing through the fluidization particle layer
In order to have a basis for determining the reasonable dimension of separating chamber of fluidized bed dryer (the chamber was located above the fluidization particle drying tank) and to limit removal of materials from the drying chamber, we defined the theoretical critical velocity (also called the final velocity).
From the calculation result of Remf of the minimum fluidization state (Remf = 10.032), this parameter of the air stream through the particle layer in the transition flow was in range 1 < Remf < 500.
According to the equation of Haider and Levenspiel (described in Wen-ChingYang) [28, 29], the critical velocity was calculated by Eq. (49).
In fact, during the drying process, to ensure the drying productivity and quality, the dryer operator must observe the fluidization particle layer and adjust the inlet doors of drying air capacity at appropriate the air velocity value in the range from A to C (Figure 2) and the correlation of velocity types Vmf < Vhf < Vcf.
We re-calculated the void fraction of particle layer with average particle diameter dp = ϕdm = 0.953 mm at the theoretical critical velocity in fluidization particle layer condition.
Re−calculatingRecf:Recf=ϕdp.ρf.VofμfE52
Substituting the above value into Eq. (52), we get:
Recf=0.71×956×10−6×0.815×2.32.4×10−5=0.53.
Using Eq. (46) to re-calculate the void fraction of particle layer at the complete fluidization state:
When the void fraction of particle layer was 1 (ε = 1), the fluidization particle layer turned to the transport regime in the air stream (called pneumatic transportation).
4. Conclusions
Most of the used correlations in the calculations and the formulas given by the authors, as mentioned above, were derived from the experiments with temperature close to the ambient temperature. So, when we use them in calculations in specific cases, they should consider the accuracy. The extrapolation should be used in the cases of the states at the temperature higher than the ambient temperature.
The mentioned theoretical calculations show the necessity for the determining of the minimum fluidization velocity of the solid particle layer with high accuracy. The sphericity of particle and void fraction of the particle layer were often not known, therefore it is required to get their values from the range of experimental variables. Empirically, the void fraction of the particles in the minimum fluidization layer at the ambient temperature is not the same as that in the increasing gas temperature.
The best method to determine the minimum fluidization velocity is to conduct the experiments. Firstly, we directly measured the pressure drop across the particle layer when the air velocity gradually decreased. Secondly, we built the graphs and read the results of the minimum fluidization velocity value.
However, if we were forced to find out the fluidization velocity without carrying out experiments to measure the pressure drop across the particle layer, the best way would be to determine the void fraction at the minimum fluidization velocity. Then we calculated the spherical property of the particle using the Ergun equations or correlation between Ar and Remf in Eqs. (10)–(12) to count out the minimum air velocity through the particle fluidization layer. This velocity value also had accuracy close to the experimental one.
The average particle diameter considered spherical degree of the particles of different sizes was 953 μm (dm = 953 μm). This diameter represented the size of the particles in dry grinding technology with the hammer crusher. It is also in the common size distribution range of the combined washing-grinding hydraulic-separation technology in Vietnam’s market. Besides, the particle diameter of 953 μm (dp = 953 μm) is also used in calculating the value of all types of velocity, characterized for the medium particle size of the refined salt production technology in Vietnam.
We calculated the values of three characteristic velocity types of fluidized bed drying for particles with average size dm = dp = 953 μm, including the minimum fluidization velocity Vmf = 0.55 m/s with void fraction εmf = 0.56; reasonable fluidization velocity Vhf = 1.33 m/s corresponding to the void fraction of particle layer εhf = 0.615; and the critical velocity of the air flow through the particle bulk Vcf = 2.3 m/s with the void fraction value of fluidization particle layer εcf = 0.73.
In fact, during the drying process, to ensure the drying productivity and quality, the dryer operator must observe the fluidization particle layer and adjust the inlet doors of drying air capacity at appropriate air velocity value in the range from A to C (Figure 2) to make sure the correlation of velocity types Vmf < Vhf < Vcf.
Nomenclature
A
cross sectional area of the bed
m2
area for gas distribution
H
height of the bed, m
Ar
Archimedes number, dimensionless
H0
initial bed height, m
ε0
void fraction at static particle layer
Hmf
minimum fluidization bed height, m
εmf
void fraction at minimum fluidization particle layer
ΔP
pressure drop across the bed, N/m2
εhf
void fraction at homogeneous fluidization particle layer
Re
Reynolds number
εtf
terminal void fraction
Remf
Reynolds number at the minimum fluidization velocity
Rehf
Reynolds number at the homogeneous fluidization velocity
dp
spherical particle diameter, m
ϕdm
equivalent spherical mean diameters, m
Recf
Reynolds number at the fluidization terminal velocity
ϕ
sphericity degree, dimensionless
Reof
Reynolds number at the optimum fluidization velocity
Fe
Fedorov standard, dimensionless
V
bed surface velocity or superficial velocity, m/s
g
acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
Vmf
minimum fluidization velocity, m/s
ρp
solid particle density, kg/m3
Vtmf
theoretical minimum fluidization velocity, m/s
ρb
particle bulk density, kg/m3
Vemf
experimental minimum fluidization velocity, m/s
ρf
air density, kg/m3
Vhf
homogeneous fluidization velocity, m/s
Kcc
Kozeny-Carman coefficient
Vohf
optimum homogeneous fluidization velocity, m/s
mp
mass of particles, kg
Vcf
terminal velocity or critical velocity, m/s
mb
mass of particles bulk, kg
μ
air dynamic viscosity, kg/ms
Ss
specific surface area, cm−1, cm2/g
U
cubic volume of particle layer, m3
W
weight of particle, mass, N
\n',keywords:"refined salt, solid particles, aerodynamic, minimum fluidization velocity, homogeneous fluidization, bed fraction, fluidized bed dryer",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71947.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71947.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71947",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71947",totalDownloads:1120,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:38,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 28th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 11th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 4th 2020",datePublished:"July 1st 2020",dateFinished:"April 26th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"After the centrifugation stage, refined salt particles have rather high moisture content; therefore, the moist salt particles in contact with each other will stick together in a short time. In particular, the moist salt particles will stick together faster and tighter and form a larger unit when they are exposed to drying hot air. For this reason, the refined salt was dried by rotary drum dryers with vibrating balls distributed along the drum or a vibrating fluidized bed dryers. These drying methods make poor product sensory quality, low product recovery efficiency, while also lead to an increase of heat and electricity energy consumption. In order to increase the efficiency of refined salt drying technology by conventional continuous fluidized bed dryers, the chapter focuses on the study of aerodynamic properties of refined salt grains in the continuous fluidized particle layer. The content of the chapter presents theoretical and empirical methods to determine fluidization velocity types in designing a continuous fluidized bed dryer.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71947",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71947",book:{id:"8540",slug:"current-drying-processes"},signatures:"Bui Trung Thanh and Le Anh Duc",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Preface",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Applied materials in fluidized bed drying technology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Basic concept of fluidized particle layer and principle of fluidized particle layer creation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Determination of the minimum fluidization velocity from publications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.1 Determination of Vmf using the Ergun equation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.2 Determination of Vmf by the correlation of Remf and Archimeter (Ar)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.3 Determination of Vmf by the Kozeny-Carman correlation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.4 Determination of Vmf by correlation of Wen and Yu",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.1.5 Determination of Vmf by the correlation of Beayens and Geldart",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.1.6 Determination of Vmf by correlation of Goroshko",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.1.7 Determination of Vmf following Goroshko and Todes equation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.1.8 Determination of Vmf following Leva",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.1.9 Determination of Vmf according to Kunii-Levenspiel",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.1.10 Determination of Vmf based on the bed voidage problem",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"2.2 Physical model of experiment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"2.3 Experimental equipment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"2.4 The materials of refined salt particles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"3. Results and discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"3.1 Results of theoretical and empirical calculations for determining Vmf of refined salt particles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.1.2 Primary conditions for determining Vmf by experimental method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.2 Discussions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"3.3 Determination of air velocity through the particle layer at the optimum fluidization regime (Vof)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"3.4 Calculation of the critical air velocity flowing through the fluidization particle layer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tavoulareas S. Fluidized-bed combustion technology. Annual Reviews. 1991;16:25-27'},{id:"B2",body:'Lewis WK, Gilliland ER, Bauer WC. Characteristics of fluidized particles. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 1949;41:1104-1117. DOI: 10.1021/ie50497a059'},{id:"B3",body:'Zahed AH, Zhu JX, Grace JR. Modelling and simulation of batch and continuous fluidized bed dryers. Drying Technology. 1995;13:1-28. DOI: 10.1080/07373939508916940'},{id:"B4",body:'Han JW, Keum DH, Kim W, Duc LA, Cho SH, Kim H. Circulating concurrentflow drying simulation of rapeseed. Journal of Biosystems Engineering. 2010;35(6):401-407. DOI: 10.5307/JBE.2010.35.6.401'},{id:"B5",body:'Hong SJ, Duc LA, Han JW, Kim H, Kim YH, Keum DH. Physical properties of rapeseed (II). Journal of Biosystems Engineering. 2008;33(3):173-178. DOI: 10.5307/JBE.2008.33.3.173'},{id:"B6",body:'Duc LA, Han JW. The effects of drying conditions on the germination properties of rapeseed. Journal of Biosystems Engineering. 2009;34(1):30-36. DOI: 10.5307/JBE.2009.34.1.030'},{id:"B7",body:'Abrahamsen AR, Gedart D. Behaviour of gas-fluidized beds of fine powders part I. Homogeneous expansion. Powder Technology. 1980;26:47-55. DOI: 10.1016/0032-5910(80)85006-6'},{id:"B8",body:'Geldart D. The effect of particle size and size distribution on the behaviour of gas-fluidized beds. Powder Technology. 1972;6:201-215'},{id:"B9",body:'Geldart D. Types of gas fluidization. Powder Technology. 1973;7:285-292. DOI: 10.1016/0032-5910(73)80037-3'},{id:"B10",body:'Howard JR. Fluidized Bed Technology: Principles and Application. Publisher Taylor and Francis Group; 1989. p. 214'},{id:"B11",body:'Rhodes M. Fluidization of particles by fluids. In: Educational Resources for Particles Technology. Melbourne, Australia: Monash University; 2001. pp. 1-39'},{id:"B12",body:'Ergun S. Fluid flow through packed columns. Chemical Engineering Progress. 1952;48:9-94'},{id:"B13",body:'Bui TT. Determination on geometrical parameters of refined salt particle applying of fluidized particle lay drying. Journal of Heat Science and Technology. 2009;86:10-13'},{id:"B14",body:'Bui TT. Determination on hydrodynamic parameters in fine salt drying in a model of fluidized bed dryer. Journal of Heat Science and Technology. 2009;90:13-17'},{id:"B15",body:'Bui TT. Researching and determining on basic physical parameters of refined salt particles to apply in the calculation and designing of continuous fluidized bed. Journal of Vietnam Mechanical Engineering. 2009;146:8-31 and 48'},{id:"B16",body:'Yates JG. Fundamentals of Fluidized-Bed Chemical Processes. 1st ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1983. p. 236'},{id:"B17",body:'Wen CY, Yu YH. A generalized method for predicting the minimum fluidized velocity. AICHE Journal. 1966;12:610-612'},{id:"B18",body:'Baeyens J, Geldart D. Predictive calculations of flow parameters in gas fluidized bed and fluidization behavior of various powders. In: Proceedings of the International Symposiu on Fluidization and its Applications; 1973'},{id:"B19",body:'Goroshko VD, Rozenbaum RB, Todes OM. Approximate laws of fluidized bed hydraulics and restrained fall. Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Neft i Gaz. 1958;1:125-131'},{id:"B20",body:'Tran VP. Calculation and Designing on the Drying System. Hanoi: Education Publishing House; 2002'},{id:"B21",body:'Lebedev PD. Calculation and Design of Drying Equipmet. Moscow, Leningrad: Gosenergoizdat; 1963. p. 320 (in Russian)'},{id:"B22",body:'Leva M. Fluidization. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1959. p. 281'},{id:"B23",body:'Carman PC. Fluid flow through granular beds. Transactions, Institution of Chemical Engineers. 1937;15:150-166'},{id:"B24",body:'McCabe WE, Smith JC, Harriott P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering. 6th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2001. p. 1132'},{id:"B25",body:'Kunii D, Levenspiel O. Various kinds of contacting of a batch of solids by fluid. In: Fluidized Engineering. Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.; 1977. pp. 24-56'},{id:"B26",body:'Kunii D, Levenspiel O. Fluidization engineering. 2nd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1991. p. 49'},{id:"B27",body:'Ginzburg AS. Theoretical and Technical Basis of Drying Food Products. Moscow: Pishchevaya Promyshlennost; 1973. p. 528 (in Russian)'},{id:"B28",body:'Yang WC. Particle characterization and dynamics. In: Yang WC, editor. Handbook of Fluidization and Fluid-Particle System. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2003. pp. 1-29'},{id:"B29",body:'Yang WC. Flow through fixed beds. In: Yang W-C, editor. Handbook of Fluidization and Fluid-Particle System. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2003. pp. 29-53'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bui Trung Thanh",address:"buitrungthanh@iuh.edu.vn",affiliation:'
Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Le Anh Duc",address:"leanhduc@hcmuaf.edu.vn",affiliation:'
Nong Lam University, Vietnam
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8540",type:"book",title:"Current Drying Processes",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Drying Processes",slug:"current-drying-processes",publishedDate:"July 1st 2020",bookSignature:"Israel Pala-Rosas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8540.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-110-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-109-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-861-7",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"284261",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Israel",middleName:null,surname:"Pala-Rosas",slug:"israel-pala-rosas",fullName:"Israel Pala-Rosas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1359"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"69796",type:"chapter",title:"Kinetics of Drying Medicinal Plants by Hybridization of Solar Technologies",slug:"kinetics-of-drying-medicinal-plants-by-hybridization-of-solar-technologies",totalDownloads:819,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Margarita Castillo Téllez, Beatriz Castillo Téllez, José Andrés Alanís Navarro, Juan Carlos Ovando Sierra and Gerardo A. Mejia Pérez",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"70034",type:"chapter",title:"Postharvest Treatment of Tropical Fruits Pineapple (Ananas comosus), Mamey (Mammea americana), and Banana (Musa paradisiaca) by Means of a Solar Dryer Designed",slug:"postharvest-treatment-of-tropical-fruits-pineapple-em-ananas-comosus-em-mamey-em-mammea-americana-em",totalDownloads:821,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Italo Pedro Bello Moreira, Edgar Ruperto Macías Ganchozo, Xavier Enrique Anchundia Muentes, Celio Danilo Bravo Moreira, Manuel Eduardo Anchundia Muentes, Hebert Edison Vera Delgado and Carlos Eduardo Anchundia Betancourt",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"69050",type:"chapter",title:"Convective Drying in the Multistage Shelf Dryers: Theoretical Bases and Practical Implementation",slug:"convective-drying-in-the-multistage-shelf-dryers-theoretical-bases-and-practical-implementation",totalDownloads:782,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Artem Artyukhov, Nadiia Artyukhova, Ruslan Ostroha, Mykola Yukhymenko, Jozef Bocko and Jan Krmela",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"71006",type:"chapter",title:"Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Rapeseed Drying on Concurrent-Flow Dryer",slug:"mathematical-modeling-and-simulation-of-rapeseed-drying-on-concurrent-flow-dryer",totalDownloads:783,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Le Anh Duc and Keum Dong Hyuk",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"71947",type:"chapter",title:"Determination on Fluidization Velocity Types of the Continuous Refined Salt Fluidized Bed Drying",slug:"determination-on-fluidization-velocity-types-of-the-continuous-refined-salt-fluidized-bed-drying",totalDownloads:1120,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Bui Trung Thanh and Le Anh Duc",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"69858",type:"chapter",title:"The Study of Fabric Drying Using Direct-Contact Ultrasonic Vibration",slug:"the-study-of-fabric-drying-using-direct-contact-ultrasonic-vibration",totalDownloads:825,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Chang Peng and Saeed Moghaddam",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"587",title:"Centrifugal Pumps",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63e8d44dcde9252628c0d9de84f1b12b",slug:"centrifugal-pumps",bookSignature:"Dimitris Papantonis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/587.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67159",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitris",surname:"Papantonis",slug:"dimitris-papantonis",fullName:"Dimitris Papantonis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"29649",title:"Analysis of Cavitation Performance of Inducers",slug:"analysis-of-cavitation-performance-of-inducers",signatures:"Xiaomei Guo, Zuchao Zhu, Baoling Cui and Yi Li",authors:[{id:"67695",title:"Prof.",name:"Zuchao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Zuchao Zhu",slug:"zuchao-zhu"},{id:"73809",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaomei",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Xiaomei Guo",slug:"xiaomei-guo"},{id:"135694",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",fullName:"Li Yi",slug:"li-yi"},{id:"136981",title:"Dr.",name:"Cui",middleName:null,surname:"Baoling",fullName:"Cui Baoling",slug:"cui-baoling"}]},{id:"29650",title:"Fault Diagnosis of Centrifugal Pumps Using Motor Electrical Signals",slug:"fault-diagnosis-of-centrifugal-pumps-using-motor-electrical-signals",signatures:"Parasuram P. 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1. Introduction
Members of the class Actinobacteria produce an impressive range of bioactive metabolites that are of commercial importance and many more that have the potential for future exploitation. This includes biosurfactants which are synthesised by many actinobacterial species. Microbial biosurfactants are gaining increased attention in the biotechnology industries as they are multifunctional, enabling diverse applications. Biosurfactants can also claim strong green credentials as not only are they biorenewable with the possibility of production on various substrates including wastes, but they may also be applied to environmental remediation [1]. Further, biosurfactants are generally considered superior to their chemically synthesized counterparts. Amongst the most common biosurfactant producers are members of the mycolic acid-containing (mycolate) genus Rhodococcus which have received considerable attention. However, other related mycolate genera including Corynebacterium, Dietzia, Gordonia and Tsukamurella also possess biosurfactant-producing strains but have not been explored to the same extent. Additionally, there are several other mycolate genera that have received little or no investigation in this respect that may produce novel biosurfactant compounds.
Membership of the mycolic acid-containing actinobacterial (MACA) group has expanded considerably over the past 20 years with revisions to the classification of existing species and the publication of copious new mycolate species and genera [2]. This substantial and metabolically diverse group therefore warrants further attention in the search for valuable biosurfactants. This chapter provides an overview of the current knowledge on biosurfactants produced by members of this group and describes approaches to the recovery, screening and biosurfactant-producing strains from the environment and their growth requirements. Methodologies applied to screen for biosurfactant production and for extraction, purification, and structural elucidation of biosurfactant compounds are also described. Current and potential future applications of biosurfactants derived from MACA are examined with particular focus on potential biomedical and environmental possibilities.
1.1 Biosurfactant properties
Microbial biosurfactants are amphipathic compounds, with both hydrophilic (polar) and hydrophobic (non-polar) moieties. The hydrophobic portion has saturated, unsaturated, or hydroxylated long-chain fatty acids and the hydrophilic portion can contain amino acids, carbohydrate, carboxyl acid, peptides, phosphate, or alcohol [3]. Biosurfactants may be categorised according to molecular weight (low or high), ionic charge (anionic, cationic, neutral, or non-ionic) or according to chemical composition and structure. The main classes of biosurfactants include fatty acids, glycolipids, lipopeptides, lipoproteins, neutral lipids, phospholipids, and polymeric biosurfactants. Their amphipathic nature enables biosurfactants to partition at water-air, oil-air, or oil-water interfaces thereby reducing surface and/or interfacial tension. They exhibit many other useful properties including de-/emulsification, dispersion, foaming, lubrication, softening, stabilisation, viscosity reduction and wetting [4].
Biosurfactants may be located intracellularly, on the cell surface (cell-bound) or excreted extracellularly (free) [5] and are produced during growth on both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substrates, to reduce surface or interfacial properties of the microbial cell or the surrounding environment. Biosynthesis of these compounds is required for gliding, motility, swarming, and biofilm formation. Biosurfactants also mediate between cells and hydrophobic compounds, enabling enhanced solubilisation and uptake across the cell membrane for utilisation as a substrate for growth and energy (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Emulsification of hydrocarbons by microbial biosurfactants to enhance bioavailability.
Many microbially derived biosurfactants are already used in diverse industries including agriculture, bioremediation, cosmetics, food, healthcare and medicine, and the petrochemical industry (Figure 2). In addition to being multifunctional, biosurfactants have several advantages over chemically synthesised surfactants. They are less/non-toxic and biodegradable, have higher surface activity and lower critical micelle concentrations (CMC), greater biocompatibility and selectivity, they function over wide pH, salinity, and temperature ranges, and can be produced using renewable and waste substrates [6]. These unique eco-friendly features make biosurfactants particularly attractive options as industries focus on longer-term sustainability and working towards a circular economy.
Figure 2.
Various sectors of application for microbial biosurfactants.
1.2 Mycolic acid-containing actinobacteria
The MACA form a phylogenetically coherent group that resides in the order Corynebacteriales based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. The members are Gram-positive with high guanine-plus-cytosine (G + C) content in their genomic DNA. They currently comprise more than 400 species classified in 15 genera, namely Corynebacterium, Dietzia, Gordonia, Hoyosella, Lawsonella, Millisia, Mycobacterium, Nocardia, Rhodococcus, Segniliparus, Skermania, Smarigdococcus, Tomitella, Tsukamurella and Williamsia [2]. The almost universal production of mycolic acids by members of this group is a synapomorphic trait that is unique to this phylogenetic lineage [7]. However, several members of this order appear to have lost the ability to produce mycolic acids over the course of evolution, including several species of the genus Corynebacterium and Hoyosella. It was recently proposed that the single species belonging to the genus Turicella, also characterised by the absence of mycolic acids, be reclassified in the genus Corynebacterium [8].
Mycolic acids, which are high molecular weight 3-hydroxy fatty acids with a long alkyl branch in the 2-position, represent the major lipid constituents of the cell envelope of these organisms. They show structural variations from relatively simple mixtures of saturated and unsaturated compounds in corynebacteria to highly complex mixtures in mycobacteria. Mycolic acids also vary in the number of carbons on the 2-alkyl-branch from C22–C38 in corynebacteria to C60–C90 in mycobacteria [9]. Mycolic acids play an essential role in the architecture and functions of the cell envelope, where attached to the cell wall arabinogalactan they help to form a barrier that contributes to impermeability and resilience and conveys hydrophobicity to the cell surface. Trehalose mycolates, also termed cord factors, play an important role in pathogenicity in mycobacterial species that cause infection [9]. The presence and carbon chain length of mycolic acids can be used as taxonomic markers for the identification and classification of actinobacteria to the order Corynebacteriales [2].
Members of order Corynebacteriales can usually be distinguished from one another and from corresponding taxa in the phylum Actinobacteria based on 16S rRNA phylogeny supported by phenotypic (cell wall chemistry and morphology) features. Cell morphology amongst the MACA varies from simple rods and cocci to branched filaments that fragment to pleomorphic forms (Table 1). Members of the species Skermania piniformis are micromorphologically unique in this group as they form pine tree-like acute-angle branched filaments [10]. Colonies growing on agar plates are normally visible within several days of inoculation (Figure 3) although slow-growing mycobacteria take considerably longer. Species vary widely in colony appearance and are often colourful however it is usually not possible to unambiguously assign strains to a genus based on this feature alone.
Genus
Micro-morphology
Acid-fastness
Aerial hyphae
Visible colonies (days)
Strictly aerobic
Corynebacterium
Pleomorphic rods, often club-shaped in palisade or angular arrangements
Some weakly acid-fast
Absent
1–2
No
Dietzia
Short rods and cocci
No
Absent
1–3
Yes
Gordonia
Rods, cocci and/or moderately branching hyphae
Partially acid-alcohol fast
Absent
1–3
Yes
Hoyosella
Cocci occur singly, in pairs, tetrads or in groups
Slightly acid–alcohol-fast
Absent
2
Yes
Lawsonella
Pleomorphic bacilli and cocci
Partially acid-fast
Absent
5–7
No
Millisia
Short rods
Acid-alcohol fast
Absent
1–3
Yes
Mycobacterium
Rods, occasionally branched filaments that fragment to rods and cocci
Strongly acid-fast
Rare
2–40
Yes
Nocardia
Mycelia that fragment into rods and cocci
Partially acid-fast
Present
1–5
Yes
Rhodococcus
Rods to extensive substrate mycelia that fragment to irregular rods and cocci
Partially acid-fast
Absent
1–3
Yes
Segniliparus
Rods
Acid-alcohol fast
Absent
3–4
Yes
Skermania
Acute angled branched mycelia
No
Only visible under the microscope
10–21
No
Smaragdicoccus
Coccoid
ND
Absent
7–14
Yes
Tomitella
Irregular rods
ND
Absent
ND
Yes
Tsukamurella
Single rods or in pairs or masses, sometimes rudimentary filaments and coccobacillary forms
Partially alcohol-acid fast
Absent
1–3
Yes
Williamsia
Thin rods or cocci in pairs or clusters
ND
Present
1–4
Yes
Table 1.
General phenotypic features of mycolate genera classified in the order Corynebacteriales.
The appearance of (a) Gordonia amarae, (b) Rhodococcus erythropolis and (c) Tsukamurella spumae on glucose yeast-extract agar after 7 days incubation at 30°C.
Chemotaxonomy is the study of the distribution of various cell wall components to classify and identify strains and is particularly useful to differentiate between the various mycolic acid-containing genera. Cell wall markers typically used to differentiate between MACA genera are summarised in Table 2. Some of the methods used to analyse these chemotaxonomic markers provide quantitative or semi-quantitative data, as in the case of fatty acids, whereas other techniques provide only qualitative data as in the case of muramic acid type and phospholipid pattern.
Reliable identification of MACA strains to species level depends upon phylogenetic analysis of the gene encoding 16S rRNA and DNA:DNA homology determination provides definitive delineation of species with 70% homology and above signifying membership of same species [11]. Increasingly, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) is becoming a standard technique and comparative genomic analysis is providing useful insights to the relatedness and divergence of MACA species [11]. Protein sequences from Corynebacteriales genomes have revealed many conserved signature indels (CSIs) conserved signature proteins (CSPs) that are specific for members of this order [12].
2. Biosurfactants produced by MACA
In addition to Rhodococcus, diverse members of the order Corynebacteriales have been reported to synthesise extra-cellular and cell-bound biosurfactants, including members of the genera Corynebacterium, Dietzia, Gordonia, Mycobacterium, Nocardia, and Tsukamurella. Species belonging to the genus Rhodococcus have been most extensively investigated and are known to produce different chemical types, including a variety of glycolipids. However, an interesting array of biosurfactant structures are synthesized by MACA including lipopeptides, oligosaccharide lipids, polymeric glycolipids, terpenoid glycosides, trehalose corynemycolates, trehalose mycolates and dimycolates, and trehalose lipid (THL) esters [13]. Example structures of the different types of biosurfactants produced by MACA are shown in Figure 4. The chemical structure of trehalose-containing glycolipids have perhaps been studied in most detail. Several structural types have been reported including mono-, di- and tri-corynemycolates which have been characterised for species such as Rhodococcus erythropolis, Rhodococcus ruber and Rhodococcus wratislaviensis [14] and trehalose di-nocardiomycolates which have been characterised for Rhodococcus opacus [13]. The mycobacterial trehalose mycolates or di-mycolates (cord factors) are also thoroughly investigated given their role as modulators of mycobacterial pathogenesis and host immune response.
Figure 4.
Types and key structural features of various biosurfactants produced by MACA. (Adapted from [13]).
3. Habitats, recovery, and growth requirements of MACA
MACA are widely distributed in the environment including natural habitats such as mangroves, soil, freshwater, and deep ocean sediments as well as man-made sites such as activated sludge foams, biofilters, industrial wastewater and indoor building materials. Although predominantly saprophytic, many species are opportunistic pathogens forming parasitic associations with plants and animals, including humans, notably immunocompromised individuals. Several members of the genus Mycobacterium cause a plethora of diseases most notably tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
MACA capable of producing various biosurfactants have been isolated from environments (Table 3) including oil-contaminated soils [24, 25], water from oil wells [26], wastewater from the rubber industry [21], activated sludge, and effluent and sediment from pesticide manufacturing facilities [23]. The ability of MACA to produce biosurfactants in these habitats appears to be driven by the environmental conditions to which they are exposed whereby the biosurfactants act as mediators for the biodegradation of hydrophobic carbon substrates. Genes involved in biosynthesis of rhamnolipids by Dietzia maris for example have been shown to be upregulated in the presence of hydrophobic substrates including n-hexadecane, n-tetradecane and pristane [15]. However, the true distribution of biosurfactant-producing MACA in the environment may not solely depend on the presence of hydrophobic substrates.
Various environmental sources of biosurfactant-producing MACA.
Isolation of biosurfactant producers largely relies on selective isolation strategies, utilising hydrophobic compounds as sole carbon sources for energy and growth. Typically, strains are isolated and cultivated using mineral salt medium containing essential trace elements supplemented with a hydrocarbon substrate such as crude oil, diesel, n-alkanes, n-hexadecane, paraffin, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), or vegetable oils such as olive oil and rapeseed oil, as the sole carbon source. These may be incorporated into the liquid or solid medium, spread across the agar surface or soaked onto a filter in the lid of petri dishes. Besides the selectivity of the culture medium, pre-enrichment techniques utilising hydrophobic compounds as the sole carbon source, can be used [27]. The principle of enrichment is to provide growth conditions that are favourable for the organisms of interest but not for competing organisms. This selective advantage allows target populations to expand through a series of passages, maximising the chances of successful recovery at the isolation stage. Incorporating antibiotics into the isolation media may provide a useful additional selective pressure to eliminate or reduce unwanted fungi and bacteria.
The ability of an organism to grow on hydrophobic compounds is a good indicator of biosurfactant production but is not a guarantee. It is therefore important that isolates of interest are tested in pure culture for biosurfactant production using further screening assays. It is also possible that biosurfactant-producing organisms may be present in an environment but not enriched by in the conditions provided or indeed producers may be recovered from the environment but not synthesize biosurfactants under the culture conditions imposed. Mining genomes for cryptic biosurfactant biosynthesis pathways, and metagenomic screening of DNA from environmental samples promise an alternative approach to biosurfactant discovery that may circumvent some of the issues associated with culture-dependent strategies [28].
4. Detection and characterisation of biosurfactants
4.1 Biosurfactant screening methods
A variety of methods, both qualitative and quantitative, have been applied to screen microbial cultures and cell-free media for total (intracellular, surface-bound, and freely released) and freely released biosurfactants, respectively. As biosurfactants are structurally diverse, complex molecules, most of these methods are indirect, reliant on physico-chemical properties such as emulsification, surface activity or hydrophobicity. Commonly reported screening methods used to detect biosurfactant production amongst MACA strains are listed in Table 4. Besides the bacterial adhesion to hydrocarbons (BATH) assay [37] other tests based on cell surface hydrophobicity include salt aggregation [38] and hydrocarbon overlay [39] assays. The atomized oil assay [40] may be used to directly screen colonies growing on primary isolation plates and is therefore useful as an initial screen for novel-producing strains recovered from the environment. The microplate assay [41] which relies on the wetting properties of biosurfactants and the penetration assay [42], which relies on the reduction of interfacial tension are also considered useful for screening large numbers of strains. Recently, a rapid, high throughput assay that utilises Victoria pure blue BO dye, and is based on surface-active properties, has been developed for quantitative screening, but has not yet been applied to MACA [43].
Examples of screening methods used to detect biosurfactant production by MACA.
These assays are simpler and more rapid than chemical analytical procedures, and most enable larger-scale screening for biosurfactant production. However, perhaps owing to the general and indirect nature of these assays and various limitations associated with some, test results between assays are not always congruent and no one assay is considered definitive for biosurfactant production. It is thus advisable to use several methods in combination, adopting simple methods to undertake preliminary screening of large strains collections prior to further investigation of those found to be most promising. The development of high-throughput screening, metabolic profiling technologies, and whole-genome analysis promise a more thorough investigation of potential biosurfactant producing strain in the future [28].
4.2 Extraction and structural analysis of biosurfactants
Crude biosurfactant extracts may be obtained from cell cultures (cell-associated and free surfactants) or cell-free broth (free surfactant only) by acidification and solidification followed by solvent extraction of the precipitate. In the case of MACA commonly used solvents include MTBE, dichloromethane, or varying ratios of chloroform–methanol or MTBE–chloroform [44]. Various analytical techniques are used in combination to detect, quantify, and characterise biosurfactants. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a straightforward method to separate biosurfactant fractions present in crude extracts. Samples are spotted at the base of a silica plate before development in a solvent system, then air-dried and sprayed with a particular reagent to detect certain chemical groups based on spot colour and/or Rf values. Orcinol, for example, allows detection and differentiation of glycolipids and can distinguish mono-rhamnolipid (MRL) and DRL congeners [45]. However, TLC provides little further detail on congener structure, and it is not generally considered suitable for quantitative analysis although densiometry has been used for this purpose [46]. Biosurfactants may be further separated by silica gel column chromatography.
High-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) allows more precise and accurate characterisation and quantitation of biosurfactant compounds. Isocratic HPLC-UV has been reported for structural and yield determination of THLs produced by R. erythropolis strain MTCC 2794 from semi-purified extractions of whole-cell broth [47]. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) is considered the gold standard method to characterise the chemical structure of novel biosurfactants. This has been used in combination with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF/MS) to elucidate the structure of two novel extracellular THLs TL A and TL B from Tsukamurella spp. [18].
A combination of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), NMR, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) enabled structural characterisation of a novel cyclic lipopeptide, Coryxin, produced by Corynebacterium xerosis NS5 [48]. Multiple-Stage Linear Ion-Trap Mass Spectrometry with Electrospray Ionization has been used to determine the structure of trehalose monomycolate (TMM) and trehalose dimycolate (TDM) in the cell wall of Rhodococcus equi and R. opacus [49]. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) has been utilised successfully for the purification and characterisation of sophorolipids and rhamnolipids in Pseudomonas aeruginosa [50] and could be applied to similar compounds produced by mycolate species. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is used to characterisation of the fatty acid and mycolic acid components and for the carbohydrate portion of THLs.
5. Potential applications of biosurfactants from MACA
Biosurfactants produced by rhodococci and related MACA have been investigated primarily for their potential application in oil remediation but are otherwise under-studied and under-exploited. However, research studies reveal various potential applications for these molecules, including in environmental and medical fields as summarised in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Promising medical and environmental applications for biosurfactants produced by MACA.
5.1 Biomedical applications
Biosurfactants produced by microorganisms are reported to have various potential biomedical and pharmaceutical applications which have been reviewed widely [1, 51, 52]. This stems from an array of biological properties including anti-adhesion and antibiofilm, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial (anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and anti-viral), antioxidant, anti-tumour, and wound healing activities. Other potential applications include adjuvants for antigens in vaccines, pulmonary surfactants, drug delivery systems, enhanced vehicles for gene therapy and in dermatological care. Biosurfactants also have several applications in therapeutic dentistry [53]. Daptomycin, a cyclic lipopeptide produced by the actinobacterium Streptomyces filamentosus, is used as an antibiotic to treat serious blood and skin infections caused by Gram-positive pathogens [54] and there are other examples of actinobacteria that produce surfactants with potential biomedical applications, such as Nocardiopsis strains [55]. Only limited investigation has focused on the biomedical potential of biosurfactants from MACA, except for TDM or cord factors synthesised by intracellular pathogens of the genera Mycobacterium. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 5, studies over the past two decades reveal that various biosurfactants produced by members of the genera Corynebacterium, Nocardia, Rhodococcus, and Tsukamurella demonstrate a range of promising properties.
Strain (origin)
Biosurfactant
Biomedical properties
Reference
C. xerosis NS5 (human axilla)
Purified Coryxin (lipopeptide)
Antibacterial activity, biofilm inhibition and disruption of pre-formed biofilms of Gram-positive S. aureus and Streptococcus mutans and Gram-negative E. coli and P. aeruginosa strains
Anti-tumour activity: cytotoxic effects on human tumour cell lines BV-173 and SKW-3, and to a lesser extent, HL-60. Mediated cell death by the induction of partial apoptotic DNA laddering
N. vaccinii IMB B7405 (K-8) (oil-contaminated soil)
Complex of amino lipids; neutral lipids (mycolic and n-alkanic acids); trehalose di-acelates and di-mycolates (surfactant solution and supernatant)
Anti-adhesive activity against Gram-negative bacteria E. coli, Proteus vulgaris, P. aeruginosa and Enterobacter cloaceae and the yeast Candida albicans on silicon urogenital catheters. Anti-adhesive activity against fungus C. albicans and bacterium E. coli on treated acrylic dental material and against Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and micromycete Aspergillis niger when coated on various abiotic substrates
In vitro induction of human promyelocytic leukaemia (HL60) cell line differentiation into monocytes and inhibition of protein kinase C
R. erythropolis IMВ Ac-5017 (EK-1) (oil-contaminated soil)
Complex of trehalose mono- and di-mycolates; neutral lipids (cetyl alcohol, palmitic acid, methyl ether of n-pentadecanoic acid, mycolic acids); phospholipids (phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanol-amine) (surfactant solution and supernatant)
Antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria B. subtilis and S. aureus and Gram-negative E. coli and Pseudomonas sp., and anti-fungal activity against C. albicans, C. utilis and C. tropicalis
Anti-adhesive activity against Gram-negative bacteria and fungus C. albicans on silicon urogenital catheters. Anti-adhesive activity against B. subtilis on various abiotic substrates, against C. albicans and E. coli on acrylic dental material and S. aureus and P. aeruginosa on plastic and steel
R. fascians BD8 (Arctic soil polluted with hydrocarbons
THL
Antibacterial activity against Vibrio harveyi and P. vulgaris, and partial inhibition of other Gram-positive and negative bacteria and fungus C. albicans. Anti-adhesion properties on polystyrene against various Gram-positive and negative strains and fungal strains of C. albicans. Biofilm inhibition on glass, polystyrene, and silicone urethral catheters against Gram-positive Enterococcus hirae and E. faecalis, Gram-negative E. coli, and fungus C. albicans
R. ruber IEGM 231 (spring water, oil-extracting enterprise)
Crude trehalolipids
Anti-adhesive activity against exponentially growing Gram-positive bacteria Arthrobacter simplex, B. subtilis, Brevibacterium linens, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Micrococcus luteus and against Gram-negative bacteria E. coli and P. fluorescens on polystyrene.
In vitro induction of Th1-polarizing factors IL-12 and IL-18 by human mononuclear cells and monocytes and reactive oxygen species (ROS) by peripheral blood leukocytes
In vivo suppression of bactericidal activity and proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β of mouse peritoneal macrophages, antibody production by splenocytes and stimulates the production of IL-10
Biomedical research on biosurfactants produced by MACA.
The amphipathic nature of biosurfactants makes them suitable for anti-adhesion and anti-biofilm applications such as the development of anti-adhesive coatings for intra-urinary devices that are prone to the formation of intractable biofilms, to prevent or delay the onset of biofilm growth by pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis. C. xerosis strain NS5, Nocardia vaccinii K-8 and various Rhodococcus strains demonstrate anti-adhesion, biofilm inhibition and/or biofilm disruption effects against various clinically significant pathogens (Table 5). Some also exhibit antimicrobial properties although in the case of R. ruber strain IEGM 231 the trehalolipids had no effect on cell viability despite preventing adhesion of various bacteria to polystyrene [63]. Oligosaccharides produced by Tsukamurella tyrosinosolvens (DSM 44370) showed some activity against Gram-positive bacteria, although the pathogenic strain Staphylococcus aureus was not affected. Rhodococcus strain I2R shows anti-viral activity against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and human coronavirus HcoV-OC43 [62].
Nocardia farcinica BN26 produces a THL with anti-cancer effects, showing cytotoxicity against human tumour and promyelocytic leukaemia (HL60) cell lines [57]. Rhodococcus erythropolis SD-74 and Rhodococcus sp. TB-43 also cause the induction of HL60 cells [59, 60]. R. ruber has been studied in some detailed and reported to show immunomodulatory effects, including both in vitro induction of Th1-polarizing factors IL-12 and IL-18 by human mononuclear cells and monocytes and in vivo induction of IL-1β by mouse peritoneal macrophages [64, 65, 68, 69]. Two succinoyl trehalose lipids, STL-1 and STL-3, produced by R. erythropolis SD-74 inhibit growth and induce cell differentiation into monocytes instead of cell proliferation when tested on the HL60 cell line.
Glycolipid bearing mycolic acids, such as trehalose dimycolate (TDM) have attracted extensive investigation as they play a central role in pathogenesis during infection by intracellular pathogens such as M. tuberculosis and R. equi. TDM’s have been researched as a possible tuberculosis vaccine and as an adjuvant. In addition, modification of mycobacterial TDM has been shown to reduce virulence and suppress the host immune response [9]. Interestingly, TDM also possesses biological activities that point towards medical and pharmaceutical applications, such as antitumor activity and immunomodulating functions. Despite this, the potential for TDM is perhaps limited by relatively high toxicity and the pathogenic nature of the species that produce them.
Although biologics including surfactants are generally regarded as less toxic than synthesized pharmaceuticals not much work has focussed on this with respect to MACA surfactants. However, a THL from R. erythropolis strain 51T7 has been reported to be suitable for use in cosmetic preparations as it was less irritating than SDS when tested on mouse fibroblast and human keratinocyte lines [70]. Further investigation into the potential biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of biosurfactants produced by members of the MACA, including toxicity testing, is certainly warranted. The high costs and technical challenges associated with production and downstream extraction of biosurfactants may not be a barrier to their commercial application in biomedical fields given that smaller-scale productions would likely be required.
5.2 Environmental applications
Biosurfactants have a range of promising, and increasingly important, applications in the environmental, industrial, and agricultural sectors (Table 6). These include bioremediation of both organic pollutants (especially hydrocarbons) and metals, microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR), cleaning and maintenance of tanks and pipelines in the petroleum industry, wastewater treatment, and agricultural applications such as promotion of plant growth/health and inhibition of phytopathogenic fungi [1, 78]. MACA-derived surfactants have been investigated in some of these contexts, although the focus is on well-known species such as R. ruber and R. erythropolis. Members of Gordonia, Corynebacterium, Nocardia and Dietzia have also been investigated but there is likely to be much unexplored potential within the group [79]. This is supported by the promising results obtained with rhamnolipids produced by other bacteria, most notably P. aeruginosa, and their commercialisation [80]. It is not unreasonable to expect that rhamnolipids produced by MACA may also exhibit such properties. Indeed, the search for non-pathogenic producers is important for further development of biosurfactant production at industrial scale [81].
Application
Examples of MACAs
Reference/s
Bioremediation: enhanced hydrocarbon solubility and degradation
D. maris As-13-3 D. maris WR3 G. amicalis HS-11 Gordonia cholesterolivorans AMP 10 N. otitidiscaviarum R. erythropolis 3C-9 R. pyridinivorans NT2
Various potential environmental applications of biosurfactants produced by MACA.
Pollution of soils with organic and inorganic chemical compounds is a major environmental issue. Biosurfactants are used to improve the solubility of hydrocarbon organic compounds, either to make them available for subsequent biodegradation or to facilitate removal by soil washing. A remediation agent called JE1058BS containing biosurfactant from Gordonia sp. strain JE-1058 was evaluated as an oil spill dispersant using the baffled flask test recommended by the US Environmental Protection Agency and performed better than commercially available dispersants. It also enhanced the bioremediation of crude oil by indigenous marine bacteria and significantly improved removal of crude oil from contaminated sea sand by washing compared with the use of seawater alone [73]. Various Dietzia, Gordonia and Rhodococcus strains have been shown to degrade hydrocarbon compounds and many studies show that the production of surface-active compounds makes an important contribution. In a recent study, G. amicalis HS-11 was able to remove 92.85% of the diesel oil provided as the sole carbon source after 16 days of incubation, with a corresponding reduction in surface tension due to the production of extracellular surfactants. Microscopy suggested that these surfactants play a role in the emulsification and uptake of the hydrocarbons. Plant-based bioassays also showed that toxicity of the diesel oil decreased. This illustrates the potential of this strain and perhaps other gordoniae for use in the bioremediation of contaminated environments, or industrial wastewaters [82].
The properties and actions of biosurfactants make them particularly relevant to the petroleum industry. MEOR is perhaps the most well-known application in this area. Biosurfactants, or biosurfactant-producing microorganisms, are used to extract some of the oil remaining in reservoirs after primary and secondary processing has been carried out. Mechanisms include reduction of capillary forces holding the oil in porous rock, stabilisation of desorbed oil in water and increased viscosity of oil for easier removal [83]. Dietzia sp. ZQ-4, a hydrocarbon-degrading, surfactant-producing MACA isolated from an oil reservoir, demonstrated potential for use in ex situ oil recovery. Fermentation broth significantly increased oil displacement efficiency by 18.82% in rock cores and performed well within the range reported for other strains. However, injection of the strain itself was not so successful, and field trials testing nutrient injection did not always result in an increase in the population of Dietzia sp. ZQ-4, indicating that an in-situ approach may not be viable although it may be possible to optimise this strategy further [72]. Biosurfactants produced by various rhodococci strains recovered from oil-polluted soils have been shown to be effective at recovering trapped oil from oil-saturated sand packs. Glycolipids produced by strain ST-5 recovered up to 86% [84] and a mix of glycolipids and extracellular lipids produced by strain TA6 up to 86% [24] using the sand pack column method. Studies on biosurfactant produced by R. ruber IEGM 231 showed that 2.5 times greater washing activity could be achieved than with synthetic surfactant Tween-60 in soil columns spiked with polyaromatic carbons (PAHs) and alkanes. The biosurfactant maintained activity at a high (5% w/w) contamination level and consistently removed 0.3–0.5 g PAHs per kg dry soil in a single run of washing [71].
Biosurfactants may also be used to de-emulsify water–oil emulsions that form during oil production in the oilfields, as well as during transportation, and processing and offer a more ecologically friendly solution than chemically synthesized de-emulsifiers. A lipopeptide bio-demulsifier produced by Dietzia sp. strain S-JS-1 grown on waste frying oil achieved 88.3% of oil separation ratio in water/oil emulsion and 76.4% of water separation ratio in oil/water emulsion [75].
Biosurfactants have been shown to reduce phytotoxicity of heavy metals, and pre-treatment of seeds could allow plants to be grown successfully in contaminated soil, facilitating phytoremediation of the environment. Crude biosurfactant from R. ruber IEGM 231 mitigated the toxic effects of high concentrations of molybdenum on oat, white mustard, and vetch seeds. Germination increased up to 4.5 times and shoot and/or root length up to 2.5 times when seeds were pre-treated with a biosurfactant emulsion and grown under conditions of molybdenum contamination [85]. Similar results have been recorded for other heavy metals such as copper [86].
The use of biosurfactants in environmental and industrial applications is limited by the current high costs of production, and the large amounts of biosurfactant required. However, using waste and/or renewable substrates would be cheaper, and a highly purified product is not essential so costs of downstream processing can also be reduced. In addition, different approaches such as selective stimulation of biosurfactant producers in situ, and inoculation of biosurfactant-producing cultures, are being explored [87]. This could potentially overcome some of the challenges associated with accessing the cell-bound biosurfactants produced by MACA such as Rhodococcus spp.
5.3 Challenges to commercialisation
Currently, commercial production of biosurfactants is not economically competitive with chemical surfactant production as there are various challenges to overcome. Bioprocesses presently achieve low biosurfactant productivity and yield and substrates are expensive [6]. Foam formation can cause serious operational issues and downstream biosurfactant recovery can be technically involved and costly. Development work to optimise bioprocesses should focus on enhancing biosurfactant yield and potency. Approaches include the search and discovery of novel biosurfactant-producing organisms and strain improvement by various genetic engineering methods and/or stress-fermentation including co-cultivation [84]. Yield can also be enhanced through the optimisation of culture conditions and costs reduced through the introduction of renewable or waste products [6, 28, 77] as cheaper feed stocks. The effects of biosurfactants on human health and the environment also require further assessment to ensure safe production and use.
6. Conclusions
Biosurfactants offer an attractive proposition for biotechnological application across various sectors and are considered superior to synthetic surfactants. Diverse MACA produce biosurfactants with interesting properties that have been explored in the context of biomedicine and environmental remediation. However, many MACA have not yet been investigated for biosurfactant production and various potential applications are yet to receive significant research. Rapid, reliable methods for high throughput screening for biosurfactant production are essential as are robust standard methods for biosurfactant purification and characterisation. Efforts to evaluate and expand the knowledge of structural characteristics and gene regulation of biosurfactants are warranted to improve their effectiveness and productivity. Commercial-scale production will need to employ various existing and new strategies to become economic and sustainable. Cutting-edge technologies such high-throughput omics-based tools should accelerate the development of commercial production of biosurfactants. Furthering our understanding of biosurfactants produced by MACA will facilitate their commercial exploitation thereby contributing to a sustainable bio-based economy.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"actinobacteria, antimicrobial, bioemulsifiers, bioremediation, biosurfactants, biotechnology, Corynebacteriales, mycolic acids, Rhodococcus",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81978.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81978.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81978",totalDownloads:6,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 19th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2022",datePrePublished:"May 27th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 27th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Actinobacteria produce an array of valuable metabolites including biosurfactants which are gaining increased attention in the biotechnology industries as they are multifunctional, biorenewable and generally superior to chemically synthesized compounds. Biosurfactants are surface-active, amphipathic molecules present at the microbial cell-surface or released extracellularly and in a variety of chemical forms. The mycolic acid-containing actinobacteria (MACA), classified in the order Corynebacteriales, represent a potentially rich source of biosurfactants for novel applications and undiscovered biosurfactant compounds. Members of the mycolate genus Rhodococcus produce various well-characterised glycolipids. However, other mycolate genera including Corynebacterium, Dietzia, Gordonia and Tsukamurella although less extensively investigated also possess biosurfactant-producing strains. This chapter captures current knowledge on biosurfactant production amongst the MACA, including their chemical structures and producer organisms. It also provides an overview of approaches to the recovery of biosurfactant producing MACA from the environment and assays available to screen for biosurfactant production. Methodologies applied in the extraction, purification, and structural elucidation of the different types of biosurfactants are also summarised. Potential future applications of MACA-derived biosurfactants are highlighted with particular focus on biomedical and environmental possibilities. Further investigation of biosurfactant production by MACA will enable the discovery of both novel producing strains and compounds with the prospect of biotechnological exploitation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81978",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81978",signatures:"Fiona M. Stainsby, Janki Hodar and Halina Vaughan",book:{id:"10893",type:"book",title:"Actinobacteria",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Actinobacteria",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Wael N. Nabil Hozzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-097-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-096-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-098-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"189233",title:"Prof.",name:"Wael N.",middleName:"Nabil",surname:"Hozzein",slug:"wael-n.-hozzein",fullName:"Wael N. Hozzein"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Biosurfactant properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Mycolic acid-containing actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Biosurfactants produced by MACA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Habitats, recovery, and growth requirements of MACA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Detection and characterisation of biosurfactants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Biosurfactant screening methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Extraction and structural analysis of biosurfactants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Potential applications of biosurfactants from MACA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1 Biomedical applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2 Environmental applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.3 Challenges to commercialisation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mnif I, Ghribi D. Lipopeptides biosurfactants: Mean classes and new insights for industrial, biomedical, and environmental applications. Biopolymers. 2015;104:129-147. DOI: 0.1002/bip.22630'},{id:"B2",body:'Goodfellow M, Jones AL. Corynebacteriales ord. nov. In: Whitman WB, editor. Bergey’s Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria. New Jersey: Wiley; 2015. p. 14. DOI: 10.1002/9781118960608.obm00009'},{id:"B3",body:'Bognolo G. Biosurfactants as emulsifying agents for hydrocarbons. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 1999;152(1-2):41-52. 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Department of Life Sciences, School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
Department of Life Sciences, School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
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IL-23 receptor is expressed by various innate and adaptive immune cells, including group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3), neutrophils, γδ T cells, Th17 and natural killer T (NKT) cells. IL-23 regulates various functions of the responding cells critical for host protective responses but is also implicated in many chronic inflammatory diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). IL-23 receptor signaling components and downstream effector cytokines IL-17A/F, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), IL-22, granulocyte macrophage colony–stimulating factor (GMCSF) have been shown to impact IBD-like disease development in various animal models; therapeutic approaches targeting the IL-23 pathway in IBD are in clinical trials. In this chapter, we attempt to review the literature on IL-23–mediated IBD pathogenesis. 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She is currently a full professor of Molecular Biology and Dcs in Immunology, and Head of Department of Molecular Biology, Immunology and Medical Genetics at the Faculty of Medicine, Trakia University. \nAt the department, she leads the Molecular Immunology research unit at the crossroad of genetics and immune regulation. Their main research goals are to gain an insight into the molecular mechanisms of gene expression with an emphasis on implication of cytokine gene polymorphisms and intracellular signaling in immune mediated and cancer diseases. Dr Stanilova is a member of the European Federation of Immunological Society and has reviewed for several scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Trakia University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"179725",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuya",surname:"Inoue",slug:"takuya-inoue",fullName:"Takuya Inoue",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka Medical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"180771",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumant",surname:"Arora",slug:"sumant-arora",fullName:"Sumant Arora",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama at Birmingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"180979",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsvetelina",surname:"Velikova",slug:"tsvetelina-velikova",fullName:"Tsvetelina Velikova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180979/images/system/180979.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tsvetelina Velikova received her MD and Ph.D. degrees, both with honors, from the Medical University of Sofia, Bulgaria. Subsequently, she became involved in active immunology research and teaching. Dr. Velikova also received advanced training in Clinical Immunology at University Hospital St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria. \r\nShe is currently an assistant professor of Clinical immunology affiliated to the Sofia University and University Hospital Lozenetz, Bulgaria. \r\nHer research focuses on autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease, IBD, diabetes, asthma, as well as on the delicate autoimmunity mechanisms involving Th17 and Treg cells, cytokines, biomarkers, novel biologic therapies and their implication in clinical practice.\r\nDr. Velikova has been engaged in fifteen projects in the field of immunology and internal medicine. 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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Pal is Professor of Physics at Mahindra École\nCentrale Hyderabad India since July 1st 2014 after retirement\nas Professor of Physics from IIT Delhi; Ph.D.’1975 from IIT\nDelhi; Fellow of OSA and SPIE; Senior Member IEEE;\nHonorary Foreign Member Royal Norwegian Society for\nScience and Arts; Member OSA Board of Directors (2009-\n11); Distinguished Lecturer IEEE Photonics Society (2005-\n07).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"69653",title:"Dr.",name:"Chusak",middleName:null,surname:"Limsakul",slug:"chusak-limsakul",fullName:"Chusak Limsakul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Prince of Songkla University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"23804",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Arof",slug:"hamzah-arof",fullName:"Hamzah Arof",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/23804/images/5492_n.jpg",biography:"Hamzah Arof received his BSc from Michigan State University, and PhD from the University of Wales. 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Haas",authors:[{id:"191397",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:"Miranda",surname:"Marwali",slug:"eva-marwali",fullName:"Eva Marwali"},{id:"191414",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaus",middleName:null,surname:"Haas",slug:"nikolaus-haas",fullName:"Nikolaus Haas"},{id:"202373",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Heineking",slug:"beatrice-heineking",fullName:"Beatrice Heineking"}]},{id:"68042",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Meningitis",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-meningitis",totalDownloads:1178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Despite improvements in neonatal intensive care, neonatal bacterial meningitis continues to be a serious disease with mortality rates varying between 10 and 15%. Additionally, long-term complications are observed among 20–50% of survivors, depending on time of diagnosis and therapy and virulence of the infecting pathogen. It is more common during the neonatal period than at any other age with the estimated incidence of 0.25 per 1000 live births. The absence of specific clinical presentation makes diagnosis of meningitis more difficult in neonates than in older children. Culture of cerebrospinal fluid is the traditional gold standard for diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, so all newborn infants with proven or suspected sepsis should undergo lumbar puncture. However, deciding when to perform lumbar puncture and interpretation of the results are challenging. Although the pathophysiology of neonatal meningitis is complex and not fully understood, researches on diagnostic and prognostic tools are ongoing. Prevention of neonatal sepsis, early recognition of infants at risk, development of novel, rapid diagnostics and adjunctive therapies, and appropriate and aggressive antimicrobial treatment to sterilize cerebrospinal fluid as soon as possible may prevent the lifelong squeal of bacterial meningitis in newborn infants.",book:{id:"7527",slug:"neonatal-medicine",title:"Neonatal Medicine",fullTitle:"Neonatal Medicine"},signatures:"Mehmet Şah İpek",authors:[{id:"267903",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mehmet Şah",middleName:null,surname:"İpek",slug:"mehmet-sah-ipek",fullName:"Mehmet Şah İpek"}]},{id:"71427",title:"Factors Influencing Maternal Decision-Making on Infant Feeding Practices",slug:"factors-influencing-maternal-decision-making-on-infant-feeding-practices",totalDownloads:984,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The decision to formula feed or breastfeed a child typically begins with an established prenatal intention. This chapter will examine the multiple dimensions influencing maternal decision-making in regards to the feeding practices of infants including 1) individual maternal characteristics, 2) organizational factors, 3) hospital/provider recommendations, and 4) systematic/policy factors. The chapter will also examine the impact of infant feeding practices on early infant and childhood health outcomes. Research has demonstrated the benefits of breastfeeding on infants and early childhood which includes but is not limited to protection against common illnesses and infections, improved IQ , and even increased school attendance. Moreover, the World Health Assembly global nutrition objectives focus on encouraging breastfeeding support across all sectors in addition to implementing tailored community-based approaches, limiting the excessive marketing of infant formula, and enforcing supportive breastfeeding legislation. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the dynamic interplay between individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors, such as policies that impact breastfeeding rates and more specifically the health of infants.",book:{id:"9805",slug:"infant-feeding-breast-versus-formula",title:"Infant Feeding",fullTitle:"Infant Feeding - Breast versus Formula"},signatures:"Whitney N. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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