Conceptual framework for spin-offs typology.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4614",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Surface Energy",title:"Surface Energy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The words hydro, phobic and philic are derived from Greek and they mean water, fear and adoration respectively. These words are being used to define the interaction of water and other materials. As an example, these words are being used in classification of liquids and solids based on their solubility in water, as well as classification of solid surfaces regarding to their wettability. A lot of surfaces in the nature have Superhydrophobic and self-cleaning properties. For example the wings of a butterfly, leaves of some plants, including cabbage and Indian Cress, have the mentioned properties. The best example is the LOTUS leaf. This book collects new developments in the science of surface energy.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2216-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6646-7",doi:"10.5772/59354",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"surface-energy",numberOfPages:382,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0e17cd77d2616f544522495c30285475",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",publishedDate:"December 16th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4614.jpg",numberOfDownloads:30820,numberOfWosCitations:63,numberOfCrossrefCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:79,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:180,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 13th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 3rd 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 1st 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 31st 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155413/images/3939_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmood Aliofkhazraei works in the corrosion and surface engineering group at the Tarbiat Modares University. He is the head of Aliofkhazraei research group (www.aliofkhazraei.com). Dr. Aliofkhazraei has received several honors, including the Khwarizmi award and the best young nanotechnologist award of Iran. He is a member of the National Association of Surface Sciences, Iranian Corrosion Association, and National Elite Foundation of Iran. His research focuses on materials science, nanotechnology, and its use in surface and corrosion science.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:{name:"Tarbiat Modares University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"813",title:"Engineering Mechanics",slug:"mechanical-engineering-engineering-mechanics"}],chapters:[{id:"49063",title:"Re-derivation of Young’s Equation, Wenzel Equation, and Cassie-Baxter Equation Based on Energy Minimization",doi:"10.5772/61066",slug:"re-derivation-of-young-s-equation-wenzel-equation-and-cassie-baxter-equation-based-on-energy-minimiz",totalDownloads:5082,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:27,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recently, Young’s equation, the Wenzel equation, and the Cassie-Baxter equation have been widely used with active research on superhydrophobic surfaces. However, experiments showed that the Wenzel equation and the Cassie-Baxter equation were not derived correctly. They should be reviewed on a firm physical ground. In this study, these equations are re-derived from a thermodynamic point of view by employing energy minimization and variational approach. The derivations provide a deeper understanding of these equations and the behavior of a contact angle. Also, in applying these equations, the limitations and considerations are discussed. It is expected that this study will provide a theoretical basis for the careful use of these equations on rough or chemically heterogeneous surfaces.",signatures:"Kwangseok Seo, Minyoung Kim and Do Hyun Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49063",authors:[{id:"97132",title:"Prof.",name:"Do Hyun",surname:"Kim",slug:"do-hyun-kim",fullName:"Do Hyun Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"48532",title:"Capillary Bridges — A Tool for Three-Phase Contact Investigation",doi:"10.5772/60684",slug:"capillary-bridges-a-tool-for-three-phase-contact-investigation",totalDownloads:2195,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Subject of investigation are capillary bridges (CB) between two parallel solid plates normally oriented to the gravity field. Presented are results of study of CB with negligible gravity effects and CB undergoing observable gravitational deformations. Among the discussed problems some new aspects of the CB behavior are formulated. One of them is the so-called stretching thickness limit, i.e. the maximal thickness above which a CB of given volume and contact angles cannot exist. It is shown that the stretching thickness limit of a concave CB substantially differs from that of a convex one. Analysis of the forces acting on CB plates is presented. It clearly demonstrates that the gravity part of the forces, relative to the part of capillary forces, increases with stretching. Most of the observed effects are interpreted on the basis of the two CB radii of curvature analysis, thus avoiding the ponderous procedures of obtaining (integrating) the CB generatrix profile. The success of this approach lies in its combination with image analysis of CB profile. Discussed are the contact angle hysteresis effects at CB stretching and pressing.",signatures:"Boryan P. Radoev, Plamen V. Petkov and Ivan T. Ivanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48532",authors:[{id:"173768",title:"Prof.",name:"Boryan",surname:"Radoev",slug:"boryan-radoev",fullName:"Boryan Radoev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49310",title:"Solid-Liquid-Solid Interfaces",doi:"10.5772/61572",slug:"solid-liquid-solid-interfaces",totalDownloads:2317,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Interfaces comprised of a liquid interposed between two solids in close proximity are common in small-scale devices. In many cases, the liquid induces large and undesired adhesive forces. It is of interest, therefore, to model the way in which forces are developed in such an interface. The following chapter presents several models of liquid-mediated adhesion, considering the roles of surface geometry, liquid surface tension, elastic deformation, surface roughness, and surface motion on the development of interfacial forces.",signatures:"Jeffrey L. Streator",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49310",authors:[{id:"174610",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Streator",slug:"jeffrey-streator",fullName:"Jeffrey Streator"}],corrections:null},{id:"48490",title:"Adhesive Properties of Metals and Metal Alloys",doi:"10.5772/60599",slug:"adhesive-properties-of-metals-and-metal-alloys",totalDownloads:3049,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The paper presents the effect of some surface treatment on the bonded joints strength of selected construction materials, adhesive properties of adherends after surface treatment and surface roughness. The aluminium alloys sheets, the titanium sheets and the stainless steel sheets were tested. In the experiments the following surface treatments were investigated: degreasing (chemical cleaning), mechanical treatment, mechanical treatment and degreasing, etching, anodising and chromate treatment. Adhesive joints were formed with a two component epoxy adhesive, Loctite 3430. Adhesive joint tensile-shear strength tests were performed in accordance with EN DIN 1465 standard on Zwick/Roell Z100 and Zwick/Roell Z150 testing machines. Adhesive properties were determined by surface free energy and surface free energy was determined by the Owens-Wendt method. The roughness of specimens was qualified by the method for measuring contact roughness, using an M2 profilometer manufactured by Mahr. The surface view was obtained by used NanoFocus uscan AF2. Results obtained from adhesive joint strength tests of materials evidence that surface treatment plays an important role in increasing strength of analysed joints. Tests indicate that in numerous instances this is mechanical treatment only or mechanical treatment followed by chemical cleaning which translate to the highest joint strength. The surface treatment method which introduces extensive changes in the analysed materials surface geometry is mechanical treatment. The results of surface roughness parameters measurement carried out on test samples subjected to anodising indicate that anodising has an impact on the height of surface irregularities. The application of various surface treatments in different structural materials allows modification of their adhesive properties, determined by the surface free energy. It was noted that different surface treatments contribute not only to the surface free energy changes but to the SFE components share in the total value. In the majority of variants of EN AW-2024PLT3 aluminium alloy sheet surface treatment the dispersive component amounted to the 93-99% of the total surface free energy. The assumption then should be that in order for the determination of a particular surface for adhesive processes to be comprehensive it should account for the adherends surface geometry as well as its adhesion properties. The geometry of surface can influence the mechanical adhesion and the surface free energy is connected with both mechanical adhesion and the other constituent of adhesion – proper adhesion.",signatures:"Anna Rudawska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48490",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48490",authors:[{id:"110857",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Rudawska",slug:"anna-rudawska",fullName:"Anna Rudawska"}],corrections:null},{id:"48712",title:"Plasma Processing for Tailoring the Surface Properties of Polymers",doi:"10.5772/60927",slug:"plasma-processing-for-tailoring-the-surface-properties-of-polymers",totalDownloads:3585,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter details how plasma treatments can be used to tailor the wettability of polymers. A plasma is an excited gas, and exposure of a polymer to a plasma discharge generally results in an enhancement in surface energy and associated with this is an increase in wettability. The effect however can be short lived due to hydrophobic recovery. In this review the use of both low and atmospheric plasmas for the activation of polymers will be discussed, as will the use of these plasmas for the deposition of plasma polymerised coatings. The latter can be used to produce polymer surfaces with tailored functionalities, thus achieving stable water contact angles ranging from superhydrophilic to superhydrophobic, as required.",signatures:"Hisham M. Abourayana and Denis P. Dowling",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48712",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48712",authors:[{id:"173659",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Hisham",surname:"Abourayana",slug:"hisham-abourayana",fullName:"Hisham Abourayana"},{id:"176771",title:"Dr.",name:"Denis",surname:"Dowling",slug:"denis-dowling",fullName:"Denis Dowling"}],corrections:null},{id:"48815",title:"DFT Investigations on the CVD Growth of Graphene",doi:"10.5772/61031",slug:"dft-investigations-on-the-cvd-growth-of-graphene",totalDownloads:2156,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chemical vapor deposition technique is the most popular for preparing high-quality graphene. Surface energy will dominate the nucleation process of graphene; thus, the surface energy problems involved in thin film growth are introduced first. The experimental tools to describe the growth process in detail are insufficient. So, a mass of simulation investigations, which can give out a very fine description of the surface atomic process, have been carried out on this topic. We mainly summarized the density functional theory works in unearthing the graphene nuclei process and mechanisms. In addition, some studies using molecular dynamics methods are also listed. Such a summary will be helpful to stimulate future experimental efforts on graphene synthesis.",signatures:"Meicheng Li, Yingfeng Li and Joseph Michel Mbengue",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48815",authors:[{id:"173687",title:"Prof.",name:"Meicheng",surname:"Li",slug:"meicheng-li",fullName:"Meicheng Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"48687",title:"Modern Methods (Without Determining the Contact Angle and Surface Tension) for Estimating the Surface Properties of Materials (Using Video and Computer Technology)",doi:"10.5772/61041",slug:"modern-methods-without-determining-the-contact-angle-and-surface-tension-for-estimating-the-surface-",totalDownloads:1768,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the study of surface phenomena including nanotechnology, the main and only instrumentally determined parameters are the surface tension and the contact angle. These indicators have been introduced over 200 years ago, and any new inventions in this area do not exist anymore. In line with this, we have developed a new method and device for determining the surface activity.",signatures:"A.O. Titov, I.I. Titova, M.O. Titov and O.P. Titov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48687",authors:[{id:"173750",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Titov",slug:"andrew-titov",fullName:"Andrew Titov"}],corrections:null},{id:"48952",title:"A General-Purpose Multiphase/Multispecies Model to Predict the Spread, Percutaneous Hazard, and Contact Dynamics for Nonporous and Porous Substrates and Membranes",doi:"10.5772/60807",slug:"a-general-purpose-multiphase-multispecies-model-to-predict-the-spread-percutaneous-hazard-and-contac",totalDownloads:1809,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A computational model to solve the coupled transport equations with chemical reaction and phase change for a liquid sessile droplet or the contact and spread of a sessile droplet between two approaching porous or non-porous surfaces, is developed. The model is general therefore it can be applied to toxic chemicals (contact hazard), drug delivery through porous organs and membranes, combustion processes within porous material, and liquid movements in the ground. The equation of motion and the spread of the incompressible liquid available on the primary surface for transfer into the contacting surface while reacting with other chemicals (or water) and/or the solid substrate are solved in a finite difference domain with adaptive meshing. The comparison with experimental data demonstrated the model is robust and accurate. The impact of the initial velocity on the spread topology and mass transfer into the pores is also addressed.",signatures:"Navaz Homayun, Zand Ali, Gat Amir and Atkinson Theresa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48952",authors:[{id:"20980",title:"Prof.",name:"Homayun",surname:"Navaz",slug:"homayun-navaz",fullName:"Homayun Navaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"48739",title:"Micro/Nano Hierarchical Super-Lyophobic Surfaces Against Gallium-Based Liquid Metal Alloy",doi:"10.5772/60984",slug:"micro-nano-hierarchical-super-lyophobic-surfaces-against-gallium-based-liquid-metal-alloy",totalDownloads:2086,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Against a gallium-based liquid metal alloy, we report super-lyophobic surfaces that have micro/nano hierarchical structures made of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and carbon nanotube (CNT) materials. The surface oxidation of the liquid metal is a challenging problem to be utilized for various applications, as it wets most surfaces. However, the micro/nano hierarchical structures of a fabricated-PDMS micro pillar array with dual-scale surface texturing and a grown-CNT surface enable one to minimize a contact area between the liquid metal droplet and the surface. Due to the low contact area, a large static contact angle and a low contact angle hysteresis are achieved, indicating super-lyophobic surfaces. Based on these super-lyophobic surfaces, the gallium-based liquid metal alloy can be more widely utilized for undeveloped applications that rely on the liquid metal’s mobility.",signatures:"Daeyoung Kim and Jeong-Bong Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48739",authors:[{id:"173814",title:"Prof.",name:"Daeyoung",surname:"Kim",slug:"daeyoung-kim",fullName:"Daeyoung Kim"},{id:"174149",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeong-Bong(J.-B.)",surname:"Lee",slug:"jeong-bong(j.-b.)-lee",fullName:"Jeong-Bong(J.-B.) Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"48638",title:"Effect of Certain Ethylene Oxide Heterogeneous Heterobifunctional Acyclic Oligomers (HEHAO) on Wetting",doi:"10.5772/60998",slug:"effect-of-certain-ethylene-oxide-heterogeneous-heterobifunctional-acyclic-oligomers-hehao-on-wetting",totalDownloads:1966,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The effect of ethylene oxide (EO) heterogeneous heterobifunctional acyclic oligomers (HEHAO) on wetting represents a continuation of the review of the research partly published by the author on ethylene oxide (EO) homogeneous heterobifunctional acyclic oligomers (HOHAO). Heterogeneous polyoxyethylene chains obtained by the anionic polymerization of EO (“anionic ring-opening polymerization”) with a certain polydispersity degree are hydrophilic, flexible (specific spatial conformation), biocompatible “bridges,” without toxicity. After the purification of polyethoxylated higher alcohols (technical products), heteroderivatization performed by an adapted classical reaction scheme led to the colloidally evaluated HEHAO series.",signatures:"Calin Jianu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48638",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48638",authors:[{id:"169634",title:"Dr.",name:"Calin",surname:"Jianu",slug:"calin-jianu",fullName:"Calin Jianu"}],corrections:null},{id:"48778",title:"Recent Advances in the Methods for Designing Superhydrophobic Surfaces",doi:"10.5772/60852",slug:"recent-advances-in-the-methods-for-designing-superhydrophobic-surfaces",totalDownloads:2808,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The investigations of superhydrophobicity and self-cleaning surfaces have been given a lot of attention in the last few decades. The surfaces having water contact angle larger than 90° are termed as hydrophobic surfaces and those which exhibit contact angle higher than 150° are said to be superhydrophobic. Such surfaces were first observed in nature in various plants and animals, for example, lotus leaf-like structures. Water repellence of various materials have shown great influences on various applications such as self-cleaning, anti-ageing, water-oil separation, water corrosion in electrical industry, water proof textiles, controlled transportation of fluids, etc. Generally, surface micro/nanostructuring combined with low surface energy of materials leads to extreme anti-wetting properties. The hundreds of research articles and more than 450 patents on the subject of nature mimicking self-cleaning surfaces prove the potential of this topic.",signatures:"Harinarayanan Puliyalil, Gregor Filipič and Uroš Cvelbar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48778",authors:[{id:"174326",title:"Prof.",name:"Uros",surname:"Cvelbar",slug:"uros-cvelbar",fullName:"Uros Cvelbar"},{id:"174327",title:"MSc.",name:"Harinarayanan",surname:"Puliyalil",slug:"harinarayanan-puliyalil",fullName:"Harinarayanan Puliyalil"},{id:"174328",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregor",surname:"Filipič",slug:"gregor-filipic",fullName:"Gregor Filipič"}],corrections:null},{id:"49569",title:"Lipid Self-Spreading on Solid Substrates",doi:"10.5772/61584",slug:"lipid-self-spreading-on-solid-substrates",totalDownloads:1999,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is dedicated to wetting and fracturing processes involving molecular phospholipid films and high-energy solid surfaces. In these systems, wetting of planar surfaces occurs in an aqueous environment by means of self-spreading of phospholipid membranes from artificially generated lipid sources, which range from manually deposited single sources (multilamellar liposomes) to liposome suspensions of different particle sizes, which are directly pipetted onto the substrate. The most prominent of the molecular lipid films is the phospholipid bilayer, which constitutes the fundamental structure of the biological cell membrane. Lipid membranes have peculiar characteristics, are highly dynamic, feature two-dimensional fluidity, and can accommodate functional molecules. Understanding the interactions of lipid films with solid interfaces is of high importance in areas like cell biology, biomedical engineering, and drug delivery.",signatures:"Irep Gözen, Paul Dommersnes and Aldo Jesorka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49569",authors:[{id:"114596",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Jesorka",slug:"jesorka",fullName:"Jesorka"},{id:"174347",title:"Dr.",name:"Irep",surname:"Gözen",slug:"irep-gozen",fullName:"Irep Gözen"},{id:"174348",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Dommersnes",slug:"paul-dommersnes",fullName:"Paul Dommersnes"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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In this chapter, we will evaluate the conditions for the development of the sharing economy from the point of view of management of technology transfer. The development of sharing economy depends on the possibility of enhancing the sharing of different surplus services, products, or solutions between providers and consumers by using nontraditional forms of exchange using the latest information and communication technologies (ICTs), as well as Internet as a space for interconnection with various information platforms or other intelligent devices. People are closer to each other due to professional Internet applications. The better the conditions for sharing technology, the more effective the levels of sharing. The basic assumptions are created using the development of all dimensions of digitization, in particular the dimension of global Internet expansion, its penetration into most business, public and private activities, or modifying expansion. New solutions should be available from different environments using unified solutions for different applications. However, their development and application into the practice will not succeed without the need, willingness, and ability of people to offer, develop, and exploit their potential, accessed through the necessary services or products using simple and unpretentious solutions. Therefore, nowadays, more attention should be paid to research the conditions for setting up and supporting the business doing of spin-off companies in such regions [1]. In this chapter, we also will evaluate the conditions for the development of the sharing economy from the point of view of IT transfer as a tool for sharing products or services in that ways of doing business regarding potential of such regions. We will also examine the possibilities of economic model for management of environment for sharing technologies.
\nIf we want to formulate principles of sharing economy as an alternative model of traditional economy, we can find many different approaches to their evaluation. In addition, some authors did not agree with the notion of “sharing economy” and introduce other concepts, in identical or similar terms.
\nThe sharing economy can be defined as an economy that is based on the principle of accessing services and goods, which are owned by another person, but they are surplus and are available, and it is possible to provide them to another user (either because their total capacity is not being used or there exists the intention to use them just in such way), depending on the creation of conditions for a sharing economy. The principles of “sharing and sharing the economy” lie in the existence of a certain good (or potential of free service capacity). On the other hand, the existence of an entity (e.g. a natural person) interested in using such good or service, even for a fee, is assumed.
\nThe definition of the sharing economy varies according to the approaches to assessing the principles of its functioning. Many authors argue that the model of a sharing economy is a competing model for a classic system of product and service delivery.
\nSome authors point out that consumers buy the traditional market products (which they own then) and services, while in the case of a sharing economy, suppliers temporarily share their goods and services with customers either for free or for financial or nonfinancial remuneration [2].
\nEckhardt and Bardhi [3] state that the “access economy” is a more precise term for a sharing economy. “Sharing is perceived as a form of social exchange that takes place among people (e.g. family, neighbors, friends) without any profit.” They say the advantage of an “access economy” lies in two key success factors:
Competition between the providers will not depend on whether the provider offers greater social interactions and community ownership, but acceptable comfort at a lower cost.
Consumers will be driven more by their benefits and experiences than marketing oriented to communicate brand and its ownership [4]; if they can try, for example, to taste more identities directly, they will feel better in their decision-making.
These statements confirm the benefits of sharing economy, which offers the opportunity to assess the quality of products offered within the EU, without being a restriction on the place of purchase or the place of origin of the product, respecting the importance and role of marketing.
\n“Circular economy” is an alternative expression for a sharing economy that emphasizes the reuse of product features more than sharing them. At the same time, it points out that reuse has a beneficial effect on the environment, better use of materials, and energy embodied in products [5]. Reuse may be:
parallel (good may use more people—the term nonlife consumption is usually used in economics in this sense—for example, road use by many drivers at the same time, but also more people transport by the same car);
serial (for example, you can use more individuals not at the same time but gradually over time—for example, accommodation in a private apartment).
The sharing economy was also evaluated as a “swarm economy” by Rick Falkvinge [6], which is considered as an economy based on a weakening power of large entities. The existence and exploitation of the benefits of electronic communications reduces the need to have only classical deals. “Swarm economy” is based on massive decentralization and overcoming traditional economic models. He also states:
for contact of the seller and the buyer, an Internet platform is sufficient;
goods or services are also provided using supplementary platforms;
it is not the unusual phenomenon that the traditional model of employment will be overcome, one will perform several jobs simultaneously, one or two to subsistence and existence, another for fun;
customer can listen to the music or watch the movie again at the current time and he/she will not wait for what television or radio will offer him;
it will probably have to change advertising, the individual will not be dependent on buying everything, and if he will be more in control of the advice of price and price comparators than the advertisement;
even class distributors will have to change if a number of stone shops now offer goods through e-shops in parallel, perhaps they will have to go to the principles of a shared economy.
In [7], it was stated that the term “sharing economy” was in the year 2015 introduced into the Oxford English Dictionary but draws attention to the fact that a number of other terms are used in the same or similar terms: “peer economy,” “collaborative economy,” “gig economy,” and “on-demand economy.” For completeness, let us add that the abovementioned dictionary defines a sharing economy as an “economic system in which assets or services are shared between private individuals, either free of charge or for a fee, usually via the Internet.”
\nThe integral part of sharing economy is also a sharing city, where the goal is to “connect forces of technology, citizens, data, and design to the most effective interconnection of people, products, and services” [8]. Their provision must reach a certain level with additional support to be part of the range of services and product consumption. An important role is also played by “e-government.” It represents “the use of information technology by public institutions for the exchange of information with citizens, private organizations, and other public institutions in order to increase the efficiency of internal functioning and providing fast, affordable, and high-quality information services” [9]. It is clear that, besides the elements that integrate commercial platforms, like in the case of a sharing city, in a sharing economy, public data and citizens of the cities should also be involved in order to simplify and make the use of public services more efficient. It increases the role of Internet and new technologies used as a support for electronic ways of communication.
\nFrom a macroeconomic point of view, the sharing economy does not create a new market; the goal is only to take over a certain part of the existing market, not to generate new customers. It means that it only takes over traditional distribution channels and service providers and provides them with the use of nontraditional ways. People can switch from being only consumers of classically supplied goods or services to those who drive new services enriched with new experiences or events. They can become even designers as we can see in community housing (cohousing, respectively, baugruppe), in multifunctional use of former buildings and spaces, or in sharing cultural activities. To develop a sharing economy, some assumptions should be created. As we can see, for many people, it is more acceptable to have operational access to products or services when they need it, which is a move away from owner rights to user rights [10]. Especially, young people prefer the dynamics of the availability of products and services provided in nontraditional ways, where they prefer something unexpected, unpredictable, or different in comparison with the traditional ways of their availability or consumption. This fact is confirmed by the results of recent studies [11], where about two-thirds of respondents said they are heading toward a less materialistic lifestyle and four-fifths of respondents believe that rent has greater advantages than ownership. It is due to opportunities that the sharing economy allows:
sharing services and goods between unknown entities, over long distances, outside closed family or neighboring communities, where the reason is also partly the need to discover something new, to gain experience in a nontraditional way, or perhaps as an effort to give up the traditional models to meet their own needs;
changes in lifestyle, value, especially preferred by younger generations, which is far less associated with property ownership, product gathering, etc., and more preferring to survive something new.
The common practice is that many people increase your own revenue through a business that is a part of the sharing economy. As stated in [11], about 11% of UK residents receive revenue based on running applications that are part of the sharing economy. Of course, there will be a lot of people (the first surveys show about 50%) who will hold the opinion that their stuff will never be shared with others.
\nThe sharing economy can also support the growth of employment and enterprise performance. In the key sectors of sharing economy, such as finance, accommodation, transport, small domestic services, and professional services, the number of operations is expected to increase up to 20 times in comparison with the situation in 2015 [12]. It is due to the opportunity of employing people in productive age, post- as well as preproductive age, as they are not only consumers but also providers or intermediaries of the various products or services. In accordance with nontraditional ways of doing business, the disadvantages associated with sharing economy are also occurring. There are situations where the circumvention of valid business regulation arises and tax payments are not strictly compliant on the part of providers. It is the case that a certain market group operates under certain regulatory conditions (qualifications, insurance, hygiene, etc.), and the other group is not required to formally await their confirmation. It means that conditions for doing business are different, which is why an unequal competitive environment is formed [13]. In order to increase the benefits of the sharing economy, it is necessary to deal with various specific issues such as regulatory treatments and conditions for sharing or easily disposing with nontraditional means of accessing products or services.
\nIn a sharing economy, the common discussion is focused on the problem, how to create a platform for sharing the involved elements and how to support their accessibility.
\nIf companies want to benefit from sharing economy, the basic conditions must be respected. It is necessary to provide the broader accessibility of:
modern information and communication technologies;
modern information platforms and Internet;
large databases accessing, where their disposability allows, for example, sharing of public goods (products and services) created from public funds intended for the public or private institutions (see, e.g., databases arising in connection with the implementation of e-government) as well as for private property;
technological solutions, as well as smart devices—smart phones that connect people to each other and create an opportunity to access to professional Internet applications much closer;
availability of the online payment systems.
To do it, in particular, it is very important to bring innovations to traditional areas and sectors as well. It is necessary to deal with the issue of technology transfer and make them accessible to a wide range of users. The creation of a modern online platform and the availability of many different tools should be realized with the most effective combination of new technologies and relevant resources.
\nAs follows, providers and intermediaries, who are involved in sharing economic transactions, gain new experiences and benefits associated with engaging in sharing transactions [14]. In connection with this, there is a new service sector formed, which can also play the role as an employer. The provider sector where operators, who develop, improve, and operate products and services sharing platforms, are included is formed. It is applied to both the new product or service providers and their intermediaries, where:
on the side of providers, most operators are already trying to push the style of communication so that both partners feel at the same level, which means that the provider does not restrict the applicant,
on the side of intermediaries, they dispose with new opportunities: to try the role of a taxi driver, accommodation provider, courier, risk borrowing money at higher interest rates, and also attract, seek for unusual leisure time, to enter the liberal working style model, etc.
The B2B platform acquires its importance in such services or products delivering.
\nThe use of information and communication technology brings the macroeconomic advantages of sharing economy that lies in the fact that a new model of interconnection should be observed between supply and demand from the point of view
of customers, where it is the comfort associated with the fact that information and communication are mediated through the computer screen or mobile display, the tool of connectivity support is continuously updated and has its online support as well as its own transaction support;
of the information platform, where it is possible to reach a much wider range of customers; the modern communication platform minimizes the level of information asymmetry, where both parties dispose with high-quality information for their transactional decision-making. It should also lead to savings on transaction costs [14], as follows:
search and information costs—platforms offer fast and often clear and comparative product and service information to help reduce loss due to lack of information or knowledge of the product or service,
negotiation costs—communication and contract costs,
implementation costs—shipping agreement, payments, insurance, guarantees, etc.
It is also necessary to address the microeconomic problem where the modern sharing economy combines two unfamiliar partners. In the case of private transactions, the success of cooperation between the partners strongly depends on the degree of fairness and responsible behavior toward each other based on mutual personal relationships. The trust among partners is affected by the degree of personal acquaintance, which is why it is necessary to be respectful and anticipate the behavior of its partner. As business support as well as communication between partners and providers is based on the electronic business support that is fully utilized, it is also possible to exploit the application as a service quality regulator. Many applications offer the ability to perform backup control by which platform providers try to map the dissatisfaction of their clients. In such developed applications, there is a possibility that unsatisfied clients can report their negative experiences, record incidents, and so on. This option addresses problems associated with poor quality of service or product properties that may occur due to the ways of their provision. In such situations, it is important to build on the support of a single electronic platform and to develop an area where electronically supported applications or other means will be easily accessed. Very often, it is necessary to quickly adapt to new technologies and apply them to business practice. In these processes, the importance of the role of spin-offs, start-ups, and also small and medium-sized enterprises is growing because they are more flexible in nontraditional ways of delivering services or products. They are able to quickly respond to market needs, both in terms of developing and using new applications supported by ICT.
\nAt present, the university research and scientific departments and their staff, which devote considerable resources and capacity to research and development activities, represent a progress in the field of technological development and delivery. As the research and development sector is not continuously linked to business practice, it is difficult to create the right conditions for technology and knowledge transfer to practice. Many universities are collaborating with practice (e.g. Oxford University Innovation (OUI) [15]), but the problem is the commercialization of technology potential. The goal is to convert technology and knowledge potential into usable products or services. Both sides of this relationship (both, university, enterprise) dispose with a variety of resources: research and human resources, skills, experience, and know-how, as well as intellectual property (IP), certification capacities, permits, production facilities, supply relationships and chains, the possibility of marketing, distribution, etc. In order to achieve successful interconnection between the transfer of technology and knowledge, the following options are available:
licensing an existing company;
creating new company and its licensing (spin-off company);
transformation for further use within the institution;
moving business to the incubator to establish a start-up firm;
commercialization of the mutual research results between the research institution and the partner from the commercial sphere (joint venture).
Despite the fact that it is difficult to create the conceptual definition of the establishment of new companies, such as spin-offs and start-ups, their innovative, scientific, and technological potential is a guarantee for future success of such companies. Therefore, we have tried to define spin-offs and start-ups and their role in sharing economy.
\nAs stated in [16], the small companies—the so-called spin-offs—play the special role, which consists in research and knowledge transfer. Spin-off is a newly founded company cofounded by a university or research laboratory that owns the licensed technology and applies it to the market with the aim to leverage available academic knowledge for commercialization (firstly established by McQueen and Walmark [17]). This company is a profit-oriented entity. This fact is confirmed by many authors [1, 18, 19, 20] who state that spin-off founding helps to create an innovative company that guarantees collaboration with universities and transfer knowledge and technology from universities to practice. The classic university spin-off examples include the Stanford University in Silicon Valley (USA), Google, Hewlett-Packard, Sun Microsystems, Cisco Systems or Silicon Graphics, all established by former university students. Both factors, the founding of spin-off companies and technology licensing, are the basic assumptions for successful technology transfer into real practice.
\nCertain universities, however, do not use the term spin-off but rather use the term start-up or the term employee’s enterprises designed to commercialize IP. Spin-out is also often used instead of spin-off; however, upon closer analysis, both of these terms have a similar meaning.
\nMany authors have tried to identify common aspects in different spin-off definitions. In [21], spin-offs were divided into two categories:
spin-offs where the inventor takes part in the business position (active commercialization of proprietary inventions);
spin-offs where entrepreneurs are not inventors but hold rights for the use of university inventions (position of inventor from the university is replaced by a manager from the practice).
Another important feature is that the university still remains as a co-owner in a given spin-off company but that company can flexibly and freely create your own unique intellectual property (IP). This is confirmed by the authors in [22], who define the university spin-offs as “companies established by one or several university employees who left the university in order to establish legally and technically independent entity which is supported by the university at least in the initial phase of development.” The term spin-off is also described as an innovative company established for the use and further development of academic IP. They state that the definition of spin-off within academic conditions reflects various differences in the perception of requirements related to IP commercialization as well as differences in maturity of business environment in different countries. As we have found, in order to define the concept of spin-offs, it is possible to find many different criteria and approaches to their categorization. As stated in [15], it is possible to identify 14 common elements or categorization criteria of different definition and 46 spin-offs categories. In Table 1, we assume the results of conceptual categorization of spin-offs based on the ways of establishment of spin-off with relation to the founders or networking creation.
\nConceptual framework for new spin-off categories typology | \n||
---|---|---|
Criteria, methods, and tools | \nResearch fields | \nNew spin-off categories | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \nEstablished in cooperation: \n
\n
\n
| \n
Conceptual framework for spin-offs typology.
These fundamentally mentioned categorizations could be extended with new categorization criteria with respect to the industry sector in which the spin-off company operates its business or in terms of company size according to the total number of employees, etc.
\nNext factor that is more important in terms of properties of spin-offs is the region. The region where the academic institution is located determines the access to the rights of the various parties, also the IP rights, the type and definition of spin-off and start-up companies. We can state that the intellectual property of academic institutions can be viewed as public, private, and social resources. Many spin-off definitions are usually incorporated into internal directions, regulating IP protection and the ways of commercialization at a particular university. At the end, we can summarize that it is more important to pay attention to the regulatory framework, as well as to create acceptable legal or technical conditions for doing business in sharing economy.
\nThe European Union (EU) has its own legal system, whose main rules and principles are laid down in the founding treaties [23]. The EU can adopt legislative acts, which member states must comply with and apply. As we have seen, neither the EU nor its own countries have yet defined a single legislative framework that would govern the area of the sharing economy as a whole. In this area, divided into two parts, the platforms of the sharing economy and users of platforms; however, regulatory measures can be found to help producers create better conditions for the operation and support of business activities in the electronic virtual space. In the study [24], the authors summarized a set of measures concerning the legal and regulatory framework for the European Economic Area (EEA) as follows: Directive for E-commerce 2000/31/EC, Services Directive 2006/123/EC, Rights Directive 2011/83/EC, and The Unfair Commercial Practices Directive 2005/29/EC. In 2013, Proposal for a Regulation of the European parliament and for the council laying down measures concerning the European single market for electronic communications and to achieve a Connected Continent, and amending Directives 2002/20/EC, 2002/21/EC and 2002/22/EC and Regulations (EC) No 1211/2009 and (EU) No 531/2012, was introduced [23]. In 2015, the European Commission launched the digital single market (DSM) strategy. According to this strategy, DSM is a comprehensive market in which people and businesses can trade, innovate, and cooperate legally, safely, and at an affordable price. This sector covers areas such as digital marketing, e-commerce, and telecommunications. The single digital market seeks to maintain the rules of fair competition, consumer protection, and the removal of geographic and copyright issues [25].
\nThe DSM is built on three pillars:
Better access for consumers and businesses to online goods—turning the EU digital world into a single market with the same conditions for sale and purchase.
An environment in which digital networks and services can be successfully developed—design the rules that respond to the rate of technology and infrastructure development.
Digitization as a driving force for growth—its role is to ensure that the European economy, industry, and jobs make the conditions for full use of the benefits of digitization.
The DSM strategy, which has been implemented so far, has produced several key and priority legislative proposals addressing e-commerce, copyright, audio-visual and media services, telecommunications services, ePrivacy, harmonization of digital rules, and harmonization of rules on the admission and functioning of value added tax.
\nIn 2016, the European Commission presented also a single market strategy (SMS), where the main objective was to unlock the full potential of the single market for the European Economic Community established by the states of the European Union [26].
\nThere were also presented policy recommendations that should lead to a reduction of barriers that prevent the growth of the sharing economy in the European Union [27].
\nRegulation (EU) No 1291/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2013 establishing a Horizon 2020—the Framework Program for Research and Development—has been adopted to regulate the creation of a framework for research and innovation and Innovation (2014–2020) and repealing Decision No 1982/2006/EC [28].
\nAs Henna Virkkunen, who is responsible for steering plans regarding online platforms and the digital single market modified by the Parliament of the EU [29], states, “the global nature of digital economy increases choices for consumers and boosts price competition.” She added that “it offers workers chances to decide how much and where they want to work. Workers should also be able to transfer and accumulate users’ electronic ratings and reviews, which constitute their “digital market value” as an equivalent to the traditional market value.” In these processes, the question is What is more important?—What is the role of the Internet and traditional business doing? What is the role of their relationship to innovations? and What is the role of spin-off companies in sharing economy?. We tried to find answers to these questions. As the basis for the creation of the conclusions, we provide an evaluation of the research results obtained by performing various economic analyses of indicators of sharing economy, spin-off company functioning, and also the assessment of attitudes of small and medium enterprises to innovations and IT adaptation. These research activities were carried out in the framework of partial research activities of research institutes of the partner universities (University of Žilina, Prague and Institute of Management Systems in Poprad, Matej Bel University, Banska Bystrica) between 2015 and 2017.
\nNext, we review the current state of the sharing economy and predict its future development. We analyze the available indicators and propose suitable recommendations.
\nAn analysis of the amount of unregistered entrepreneurs from the small and microenterprises sector is provided. In the revision of the estimates, their share in the labor market is estimated comparing the outputs of the labor sample survey based on data from the Czech Statistical Office and the Labor Office statistics. The aim of this analysis is to review the ways in which the share of producers deliberately not registered on the labor market is estimated and to assess their verity. The evaluation and comparison of the variety of indicators of sharing economy were provided by using the statistical methods and validation tools that are part of the SPSS program.
\nAs outlined in [13], if we want to identify the database for the analysis of the sharing economy, it is necessary to build on the revisions of national accounts statements1. This document describes the impact of changes in methods and changes in data sources within the so-called “major revision of annual national accounts.” In the context of revisions, the search and identification of leakages in the form of so-called gray economy. Although the sharing economy is not exactly the same as the gray economy, these two sets overlap in many ways.
\nIt is recommended to follow the estimates of:
the impact of accommodation services on GDP in the form of dwelling services—imputed rent. In this case, it is necessary to use the stratification method of the imputed rent estimation rather than the unit cost method (UCM). The size of the imputed rent according to (a) the size of the municipality, (b) the type of the building, (c) the size of the apartment, and (d) the equipment is determined;
producers deliberately not registering—The estimated values are obtained using the analysis of data collection obtained from the pilot study “Exhaustiveness of Czech National Accounts”—from the mutual project of Eurostat and the Czech Statistical Office. The calculation of the values of the indicators is done in two steps (using the old method). First, the percentages obtained by the industry sector are calculated. Secondly, the amount of unofficial unemployment on the basis of the labor market disparity (according to the average labor productivity in the sector) is estimated. In 2010, the estimated value of the variance was 2.8% (employees in full-time equivalents) in CZK 78.513 million, in Euro 2.606 million.
The results of the new method are also obtained in two phases. First, a comparison of generic productivity with productivity that businesses achieve by using credibly leading accounting is provided. Secondly, the estimated value is calculated according to labor market disparities.
\nThe results of the second method are surprising. The deviation is 35.5% (CZK 103.689 million, in Euro 3.442 million €) for employers and 13.4% (CZK 110.846 million, in Euro 3.679 million €) for self-employed persons. As pointed out, the new method allows for more accurate estimates of differences in monitored parameters.
\nIf we want to assess the situation in terms of demand and supply in the sharing economy, what services or products are preferred, it should be realized using the survey analysis of respondents’ opinions that are involved in providing the related services or products.
\nThe aim of the survey should be to find out what is the real state and what is the dynamics of changes in supply and demand in the sharing of the economy by sector, including an estimate of the size of individual markets. On the basis of the survey, target groups should be identified precisely, offering both demand and supply in sharing economic services, according to the age, level of education, personal attitudes, preferred values by them, etc. Survey should be performed anonymously between the population aged above 15 years. Design of data collection for the quantitative sample survey of the sharing economy, we propose to ensure the following methodological parameters, which will ensure a sufficiently precise description of respondents:
Number of respondents: 3000 respondents.
The research should be stratified with the same probability of selection in the four main stratums according to the size of the municipality (less than 1000, 1000–9999, 10,000–99,999, and 100,000 and more).
Selection method: random selection.
First of all, a face-to-face interview, where recording respondents’ views in the paper questionnaire should be captured.
Estimated cost of the survey: 1,000,000 CZK without VAT, which means approximately 333,33 € without VAT
In the future, we suggest to use the alternative data collection provided by computer-assisted telephone interviewing or by electronic survey.
\nUsing the Conceptual Sharing Economy Model (CSEM) [13], the effectiveness of sharing economy should be researched. It is the basic model that allows to point out the behavior and relationships of economic entities. It is based on the theory of economic subjects and describes the relations of these entities in the environment of sharing the economy. It should also be used to provide recommendations for regulatory measures in the context of public interest theory and enforcement of socially effective behavior (including the limitation of negative externalities). Its basic schema is shown in Figure 1. The basis of the model is the largest concentric circle—a true sharing economy. It means that it is an economic model based on the sharing or leasing of products, as opposed to their exclusive and indivisible ownership. The basic interaction in the model is interaction between households and businesses. On the left side of the graph, the impact of households dominates, and in the right part, the impact of the behavior of the enterprise and the business environment prevails.
\nConceptual Sharing Economy Model—CSEM.
In the description of the model, we can deduce two possible approaches of Internet platform operators (context model) to create support for their delivering. The first approach is to optimize shopping behavior and social efficiency. There are open platforms where information is not hidden for any reason; it is not necessary to share it with other market participants, including state institutions. There are preferred innovation processes, product innovations, as well as helping in a social order to support innovative business activities.
\nThe second approach plays the role as a tool for controlling market activities. From the theory of public interest, there is a significant constraint due to the fact that these platforms produce negative externalities. While, for example, extra charges received in the form of a local tax on accommodation in traditional hotels are returned to the municipal budget, which generally subsidizes local public activities, it contributes to the increase in attractiveness, interest, and it contributes to the increase in attractiveness, interest, and quality of accommodation; in case of sharing, this will not happen. The sharing of accommodation provided by the private sector cannot be taken into account as a driver of progress because it does not contribute to the attractiveness of the service in these ways. It is necessary to assess the need for regulation and choose what is more appropriate—to support traditional business or activities provided by sharing economy. From a control point of view, the most important gray area is the area to the right of the C curve. This “fuzzy sharing” area is a gray zone, an area of social interest in regulation. It is a gray economy that is not socially effective.
\nThe support of spin-off companies also provides science parks. Science parks play a very important role when setting up university and nonuniversity spin-off companies.
\nThe result of such cooperation [30] creates a basis for suggestions formulating, based on best practices (prepared by experts from Taiwan who have been familiar with the situation regarding the already mentioned Bilateral Agreement, for example, the University of Zilina and Broker Center of Air Transport visit), as follows:
State support, regional, and local autonomy is essential when building science parks, which should be built according to the situation in state development.
It is important to provide infrastructure and management of high quality while building science parks.
It is necessary to find qualified experts for effective communication. Experts who will be able to discuss park’s business interests suggest examples of “best experience” either from the science park environment or abroad.
This should also be applied to the Broker Center of Air Transport for knowledge and technology transfer with the aim of developing transport and transport infrastructure.
Autonomy is very important for a science park (in Taiwan, this autonomy is created by companies that are located directly in a science park).
Ideal equipment should include high-quality, fast Internet connections, free zones, hot links available 24 hours a day, restaurant, coffee shop, shopping area, relaxation center, etc.
It is advised and effective to learn from the experienced ones when it comes to knowledge transfer and a spin-off company setup. Many people are still expected to “learn from the experienced ones.” For service or product providers, it should be a challenge in order to progress and successfully deal with the problems and obstacles we are experiencing.
Next, we also evaluate the possibilities of technology transfer and their commercialization, implemented through spin-off or start-up companies based on the evaluation of experiences from examples of best practices. To assess the current situation in the attitude of SMEs to implement or innovate IT as a basic support of their IS management, we evaluated the opinions of 189 SME managers and of 29 representatives of IT companies (data collection realized by electronic survey and by structured interviews), and data analysis was provided using validation of hypotheses, where we used the statistical methods and validation tools as a part of the SPSS program.
\nAlthough many surveys are mostly oriented toward developed and innovative regions, our research activities have been oriented to spin-off companies in economically less developed regions or those with lower innovation activities. While such regions are mostly characterized by the absence of excellent research, the influence of spin-off companies is not only symbolic but instead helps to improve the flow of knowledge within the region. Nevertheless, the number of university-related spin-offs is relatively low, but its interconnection with universities demonstrates that universities can be considered as catalyst for the business sector within the region. Many spin-offs are oriented toward providing consulting services, which in turn could help develop specialized expert services or groups offering knowledge-intensive services within the region. It also supports network creation with other companies and expanding personal contacts between specialists and practitioners. Newly established spin-offs could help develop a second generation of technologically advanced spin-offs in the future.
\nThe worse situation is in the area of other small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which play a significant role in the sharing economy, especially in less developed regions. According to our previous research (realized in 2015 with managers of SMEs), only a small part of SME was interested in the new technologies. We tried to find the key barriers, which prevent companies to utilize the potential of new technologies and innovations. In [31], dealt with a similar issue, they stated that managers of SMEs (representatives of 50 small and medium-sized enterprises located in Lower Silesia) declare lack of financial resources and infrastructure for the comprehensive implementation of integrated information systems to facilitate interpersonal communication in plants. They use only traditional tools, their level of skills is low, and their awareness of staff production facilities in the field of information security, especially when working on the computer and using traditional media, is low, too.
\nWe analyzed respondents’ answers to the question if companies have enough information about technologies and innovations. The result is that in two of the abovementioned companies, companies see the low level of satisfaction with the rate of their awareness. Using the Wilcoxon signed rank nonparametric test, we considered a mutual relationship between awareness of new technologies and innovations. As we found, α = 0.127 > 0.05, we want to state that they feel better informed about technologies than about innovations. Then, we reviewed the frequency of seeking information about technologies and innovations. We considered the answers to the question “How often do you search for information about technologies or innovations?” We tried to find out if they often seek information daily, weekly, or monthly or prefer to seek information once a year or never. By Wilcoxon signed rank, we tested the frequency of seeking information. We calculated that α = 0.827 > 0.05. We found out that they are mostly seeking information about innovation or technologies (approximately monthly, 29%, or half yearly, 20.5%). That is why we can state that if companies are interested in new technologies and innovations, they will be more interested in new information about them.
\nWe have also examined the barriers that restrict the widespread use of IT, system integration of IS, and tools supporting business process automation based on arguments of respondents—company managers and representatives of IT companies. We can state that most of SMEs (93.7%) use basic software support for business doing. This creates conditions that increase the importance of implementing electronic business models also in the small and medium sector as a basic tool for data processing and information search and for their distribution and sharing. This is important when they want to provide their services effectively in strong competition.
\nBefore implementing software for business support, it is necessary to acquire adequate information about the company. We classify this information in the following order: finding functionality to use software support, the level of integration with other tools, identifying areas of corporate activities, and the price they are willing to invest in ICT support, technical requirements, existing IT support, and other requirements included—bottlenecks in business processes, knowledge of work practices, current processes, and planned changes, as well as application to be integrated. If companies have this information, they also create the conditions for the transfer and dissemination of knowledge across the enterprise. In the sharing economy, it is more important, as SMEs are the initiators of changes. It is due to the ability to look for suitable solutions at low cost to the innovation and implementation of electronic ways of connectivity and communication.
\nThe digital economy creates not only new opportunities but also new challenges for sharing economy. Companies have developed online platforms (such as Uber and Deliveroo) that other people can use to fill their needs sharing some products or services. These products are then shared between these companies as well as providers. These companies gain an advantage over traditional companies as they benefit from providing their own equipment or service. This reduces costs for them and creates opportunities for providing some “on-demand” services. Their own interest is their technical support and online accessibility.
\nEvaluating the research findings allows us to define the procedures and conditions that lead to full professional support of sharing. The newest developed technologies are often not fully functional, and related problems with their cooperability need to be solved in practice. Licensed technology addresses these issues and is also a guarantee of their functionality. However, it is well known that companies are not willing to pay for such licenses.
\nThe spin-off companies are the best way to realize the complex development of a functional product that can be later evaluated on the market and offered to a wide range of business partners. The license provides the contractual relationship between the university and the spin-off company, which enables them to further develop and thus contribute to the maintenance and development of the local or regional innovation ecosystem. Managers get the opportunity to understand how to set up and develop an innovative business and what kind of relationships between the university and the spin-off company (especially in the legal and financial field) can arise in transferring knowledge from the university environment into practice. It builds and also strengthens the mutual nonfinancial relationships between the university and the spin-off, where the effect of applying science to business marketing and improving the quality and scope of practical education is done.
\nAccording to the OECD Recommendation [32], we can state that a sharing economy is a reality, which makes no sense to distinguish between classical and online activities, but it is necessary to focus on predicting and preparing for digitization, looking for ways to take advantages of digital economy, boosting trust across sectors in a network, complex and global ecosystem. Furthermore, it is necessary to move forward in the digital agenda, in four key policies, as to be opened toward the Internet and innovation, confidence in the digital economy, the construction of a global interconnection, and creating jobs and skills.
\nSome areas of the sharing economy can impact that they can be positively rated from a certain point of view, from another negative one. It is given by the following aspects:
Because of offering lower transaction costs and a desire to reach out to the young generation in particular, the prices fall in comparison with payments for traditionally provided services; it can be positively rated by consumers, but it evokes a deflationary impact.
Platform operators require a lower level of regulation of selected activities, especially services, which may be positively perceived by the service provider, but it creates a negative impact on consumer protection or fiscal interests.
The importance and the need to dispose with regulatory tools and regulatory measures is growing. In this way, the use of the Conceptual Sharing Economy Model (CSEM) plays its role. Managers get a tool for evaluating their own business, where the use of IT offers sophisticated ways of decision-making. They can better decide which regulatory measures or innovations are to be preferred. The result is the ability to get up-to-date information that actually informs about the current business situation.
\nAs a result of our research activities, we recommend the managers to realize:
population research aimed at the supply and demand for a sharing economy by sectors, including an estimate of the size of individual markets
analysis of trends in individual sectors of the sharing economy (e.g., Airbnb), which would provide an estimation of the size of these segments on an annual basis, which will provide an overview of ongoing service offerings, including occupancy analysis
Market sensitivity analysis, including spatial elasticity, based on data obtained from regions, enables partial analyses as a basis for assessing the impacts of the sharing economy on specific entities, including the worsening of their economic results
The statistical evaluation of the practical experience allows for better conditions for the commercialization of technology and also for identifying and making recommendations for the regulatory treatment of the sharing economy.
\nSharing economy is not only an alternative distribution and user model but also a competitive alternative to entities offering distribution and use of products, services, time, skills, or competencies. It is due to the fact that some online applications allow feedback and flexible evaluation of the quality of the product or service provided. Based on this information, they may affect the quality of the provider or exclude poor-quality products or service providers from the offer. Even this element of self-regulation could be used to support the limitation of regulatory measures.
\nThis chapter contains the outputs of research results supported by following grants: APVV-14-0512 Universities and economic development of regions (UNIREG) and VEGA 1/0087/18 Strengthening the competitiveness of the region of Zilina by improving the impact of University of Zilina in the region and the city of Zilina.
\nThe impurity dopants in zinc oxide (ZnO) produce interesting optical, electrical and magnetic functionalities. For example, photoluminescence behaviors are observed by doping with rare-earth and transition-metal atoms [1, 2, 3, 4]. Ferromagnetic properties are found by the incorporation of transition-metal atoms into the host [5, 6, 7]. Above all, the donor dopants, such as Ga and Al ions, lead to the metallic conductivity of ZnO which has been widely used as transparent electrodes [8, 9]. The metallic properties of ZnO are also prospective candidates for alternatively plasmonic materials in the infrared (IR) range [10, 11, 12, 13]. Unlike classical plasmonic materials such as Ag and Au metals, plasmonic resonances can be controlled by changing electron density in ZnO. Additionally, the electronic structure of ZnO is composed of 4
It is known that ZnO is one of the interesting materials in biological sensing.
Optical and electrical techniques detect biomolecular interactions on ZnO film surfaces. The piezoelectric responses of ZnO have been applied to biosensors based on surface acoustic waves [18]. Electrochemical impedance is needed to use transparent electrodes based on ZnO [19]. These interesting properties of ZnO as biocompatible materials have generated much attention as solid oxide substrates for highly sensitive biosensing platforms. Our group has investigated layer samples of ZnO to improve the optical technology associated with SPRs. In particular, layer samples could readily be employed in biological sensing based on propagation-type SPRs. The benefits of layer samples with large surface areas render film platforms more attractive for industrial applications. Recently, SP waves, which are excited by traverse magnetic polarization, have been produced in ZnO-based optical fibers as biochemical sensing probes [20, 21]. Surface-enhanced infrared absorptions have also been confirmed on ZnO film surfaces using a prism-based SPR method [22, 23]. These previous studies indicate the potential of ZnO-based SPR (ZnO-SPR) biosensors and have motivated the study of biological sensing.
In this chapter, we discuss the structural and optical properties of ZnO-SPR from experimental and theoretical approaches. We first outline single layers’ SPR properties based on ZnO: Ga, which is referred to as a single sample. The single sample is excited by Kretschmann-type SPRs using attenuated total reflection (ATR) optics. Second, the utilization of an insulator–metal–insulator (IMI) structure to a ZnO-SPR (IMI sample) is introduced in relation to the long-range SP mode. Finally, we fabricate hybrid layer structures with the capping of thin dielectric layers to ZnO-SPR (dielectric-assisted ZnO-SPR; hybrid sample) to enhance SPR properties in the IR range. Schematic pictures of single, IMI and hybrid samples are shown in Figure 1. Each sample’s detection sensitivity is discussed from the viewpoint of electric-field distribution (
Schematic figures of SPR sensing platforms of (a) single, (b) IMI and (c) hybrid samples.
This section deals with the correlation between SPR phenomena and evanescent fields on metallic ZnO: Ga film surfaces. The fabrication of ZnO: Ga film is introduced as follows [13]. ZnO: Ga films with 5% Ga content were grown on BK-7 glass substrates at 260°C using the pulsed laser ablation (PLD) method. ArF excimer laser pulses (193 nm, 3 Hz, and 1 J/cm2) were irradiated on a ZnO: Ga ceramic target in an O2 atmosphere of 10−4 Pa. The film thickness (
Figure 2(a) shows SPR reflectance spectra of a 174 nm-thick film as a function of incident angle (
(a) Experimental and (b) calculated SPR reflectance spectra of a 174 nm-thick ZnO: Ga film. Water was selected as the dielectric medium. The incident angle of light (
The SPR performance was evaluated by examining the bulk sensitivity using a change in the refractive index of glucose-water mixed solution. Figure 3(a) shows the SPR reflectance spectra at
(a) SPR reflectance spectra of the single film measured with varying glucose content in water from 0, 1 and 5 g/dL. (b) Correlation between peak shift (Δ
where Δ
This section introduced the SPR responses of single ZnO: Ga film surfaces in the IR range. We could clearly observe the SPR spectra and their field distributions. The bulk sensitivity was evaluated using the glucose-water solution to estimate sensing performance. However, the bulk sensitivity requires improvement for real-time monitoring of biological interactions.
The evanescent depth of SPR plays an essential role in determining the sensing performance of plasmonic devices [26]. Above all, an IMI structure can control the evanescent field by changing the thickness of the metal layer [27]. This IMI structure is applied to slightly asymmetric dielectric media [28]. The slightly asymmetric IMI structure can provide benefits for aqueous sensing solutions. To date, no attention has been paid to the SPR property based on a ZnO-related IMI structure. The employment of IMI geometry to SPR excitations on ZnO: Ga films remains unclear. In this section, we introduce asymmetric IMI structures consisting of water, ZnO: Ga, and a cytop polymer. In particular, water-based IMI structures are one of the interesting sensing platforms in SPR applications. The benefits of SPR are confirmed from the bulk sensitivity based on index changes. We discuss the sensing performance of ZnO-SPR based on the proof-of-concept of an IMI structure.
The fabrication of IMI samples was performed as follows. The refractive index of a cytop polymer is kept close to water, which can excite SPRs using IMI structures with ZnO: Ga films. A Cytop polymer (perfluropolymer) film (1.8 mm-thickness) was deposited on BK-7 glass substrates using a polymer content of 9% in fluoride solvent by a spin coating method (2500 rpm for 50s). The coated polymer films were annealed at 220°C for 2 h in the air to evaporate the solvent. ZnO: Ga films were fabricated on polymer/glass substrates using PLD at room temperature. ArF excimer laser pulses (193 nm, 5 Hz, and 1 J/cm2) were focused on ZnO: Ga targets in an O2 flow of 10−4 Pa [29].
The IMI sample SPR reflectance spectra are shown in Figure 4(a). The peak positions gradually moved within the 4000 to 6000 cm−1 range with an increasing incident angle from 60.5o to 64o in 2o increments [29]. The SPR spectra were observed even at a film thickness of 22 nm. The SPR peak dependence on the incident angle of light for the IMI sample was higher than that for the single ZnO film. In addition, the IMI sample showed narrower spectral features than those of the single ZnO films. These behaviors were also confirmed by theoretical SPR spectra (Figure 4(b)) [29].
(a) Experimental and (b) calculated SPR reflectance spectra of the ZnO IMI sample with a film thickness (
The SP mode of an IMI structure is separated into two types of plasmon branches comprising the short-range and long-range SP modes. The dispersion curves of both SP modes can be described using the Maxwell relations in a planar structure [30]:
where
Figure 4(d) shows a depth profile of a mean-square evanescent field at 4500 cm−1 of the
Figure 5(a) shows the SPR reflectance spectra (
(a) SPR reflectance spectra of the IMI sample measured with varying glucose content in water from 0, 1, and 5 g/dL. (b) Correlation between peak shift (Δ
In this section, we investigated the SPR properties and sensing performance of the IMI sample. The SPR spectra of the IMI sample displayed narrower features than those of the single film. This result provided the extended evanescent field depth and the long propagation distance. Consequently, the sensitivity of the IMI sample was markedly enhanced compared to that of the single film.
In Sections 2 and 3, we introduced the SPR properties of the single film and IMI sample. The single film showed broad SPR resonances and weak evanescent fields. The use of an IMI structure increased the evanescent field because of the long-range SP mode. However, the IMI sample produced a large sensing volume on the sample surface due to the long penetration depth, where it is not easy to detect small changes in the refractive index near the sample surfaces. Therefore, there is a need to find new strategies for circumventing the structural limitations of ZnO-SPRs in terms of penetration depth and evanescent field. Consequently, we propose a new structural concept based on dielectric-assisted SPRs to overcome some difficulties associated with ZnO-SPRs for real-time monitoring of biological interactions.
When sufficiently thick dielectric layers are placed on Ag and Au-metal layer surfaces, waveguide modes are supported in addition to the conventional SP mode [32, 33]. However, the sensing performance of a waveguide is comparable to that of a classical SPR. However, the Ag and Au-based SPR devices with thin dielectric layers (e.g., Al2O3 and SiO2) show SP waves along the thin dielectric layer surfaces with a thickness insufficient to support a waveguide mode. The SP waves of dielectric-assisted SPRs sufficiently penetrate the analyte region, unlike the waveguide mode. Therefore, the introduction of thin dielectric layers on top of Ag and Au metallic films has been reported to improve the sensing performance in the visible range [34].
In this section, we report on the capping of thin dielectric layers to a ZnO-SPR sensing platform to enhance the detection sensitivity in the IR range. Here, we define dielectric-assisted ZnO-SPR devices as “hybrid samples”. The insertion of dielectric layers changes the
The fabrication of hybrid samples was conducted as follows. Cytop polymer films (2.2 μm thickness) were deposited on BK-7 glass substrates. Metallic ZnO: Ga films with a thickness of 22 nm were fabricated on the polymer-coated substrates using a PLD method at room temperature (RT). Fabrication conditions of the polymer and ZnO: Ga films were the same as those of the IMI sample. In this study, we selected Ga2O3 as a dielectric layer. 190 m-thick Ga2O3 dielectric layers were deposited over ZnO: Ga layers on the polymer/glass substrates at RT in an O2 flow of 10−4 Pa using the PLD method [35].
Figure 6(a) shows a hybrid sample’s experimental SPR reflectance spectra with a Ga2O3 thickness of 190 nm [35]. The peak positions moved within the 4000–5500 cm−1range as the incident angle increased in 2.5o increments. The dependence of the SPR peak on the incident angle of light for the hybrid sample was higher than that for the IMI sample. The hybrid sample exhibited narrower spectral features than those of the IMI sample. These SPR behaviors were further reproduced by theoretical SPR spectra (Figure 6(b)) [35]. The difference in SPR response between the hybrid and IMI samples is attributed to the propagation length. An experimental
(a) Experimental and (b) calculated SPR reflectance spectra of the hybrid sample with a Ga2O3 thickness of 190 nm. Water was selected as the dielectric medium. (c) Experimental and calculated dispersion curves of the IMI sample and hybrid sample. Black open and closed circles indicate experimental data. Dotted and straight lines represent calculation data. (d) a depth-dependent mean square evanescent field at calculated at 4500 cm−1 for the hybrid sample (
Figure 7(a) shows the SPR reflectance spectra of the hybrid sample [35]. The dip peaks shifted to lower wavenumbers with increasing glucose concentration. A wavenumber shift of 19 cm−1 at 1 g/dL was observed from the SPR reflectance spectra taken at
(a) SPR reflectance spectra of the hybrid sample measured with varying glucose content in water (0, 1, 1, 2 and 4 g/dL). (b) Correlation between peak shift (Δ
This relation is used to quantify the general performance of a biosensor [36]. This normalization allows for comparison with other sensing platforms. The hybrid sample provided a higher FoM value (51.0 RIU−1) than did the IMI sample (36.1 RIU−1). The enhanced FoM was attributed to the narrowing of the spectral linewidth resulting from the insertion of the Ga2O3 layer.
We evaluated the SPR sensing performance of the hybrid sample using the biological interactions between biotin-PEG-DPPE and streptavidin. PEG and DPPE indicate poly(ethylene glycol) and 1, 2 dipalmitoyl-
The Ga2O3 layer surface of the hybrid sample was chemically modified using a SAM of
(a) XPS core-level spectra of Ga(3d), P(2p), C(1 s) and O(1 s)-related peaks following different surface modifications. The XPS spectra were taken after surface treatments of ODPA in ethanol, ethanol only and O2 plasma. (b) Ga(3d)- and C(1 s)-related peak intensities as a function of OPDA treatment time. (c) P(2p)-related peak and intensity ratio of C(1 s) and P(2p) as a function of OPDA treatment time (
Biological interactions were conducted as follows [35]. The hybrid and IMI samples were washed with ethanol several times and then dried using nitrogen gas. Both samples were first exposed to a phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution with pH = 7.4 [PBS (1) process], until a stable SPR signal was obtained. Next, both samples were exposed to a solution of biotin-PEG-DPPE (100 μg/mL in PBS) for 35 min, followed by washing with PBS for 5 min [PBS (2) process]. After the sample surfaces were treated with biotin-PEG-DPPE, bovine serum albumin (BSA) was introduced to confirm non-specific protein adsorption to the sample surfaces [BSA process], followed by another PBS wash [PBS (3) process]. PBS solutions with different streptavidin concentrations (0–10 μg/dl in PBS) were then introduced [Streptavidin process]. The streptavidin concentrations were used to monitor the specific biological bonding of biotin and avidin [38].
Figure 9(a) shows the SPR reflectance spectra measured after each process [35]. The SPR peak position shifted to small wavenumbers after the surfaces were treated with biotin-PEG-DPPE and streptavidin. The SPR peak shift (Δ
Experimental SPR reflectance spectra of the hybrid sample (a) and the IMI samples (c) in each process in the biological reaction between biotin-PEG-DPPE and streptavidin of a concentration of 5 μg/mL. Detection of streptavidin at different concentrations using biotin-PEG-DPPE of the hybrid (b) and IMI samples (d). Differential reflectance (DR) was monitored at 4250 and 5250 cm−1 for the hybrid and IMI samples, respectively, (
The present detection limit of the hybrid samples was approximately 1 μg/ml (15 nM) due to the background noises. Industrial applications are expected to detect bio-molecule concentration at the ng/dl (~ pM) level. The spectral features of the present ZnO-SPRs were markedly influenced by the interface roughness, relating to the sensing activity for biomolecular detection. Recently, high-sensitive SPR detection at the pM levels of small biomolecules (e.g. biotin) using nanophotonic devices such as cavity structures and metamaterials with layer structures have been reported [39, 40, 41]. Recently, biological sensing based on ZnO-related SPR and metamaterials are reported by some papers [42, 43, 44]. Therefore, monitoring biological interactions at the pM level could be realized by enhancing the structural and crystalline quality of ZnO-SPR sensors. The detection sensitivity of ZnO-SPR is expected to improve the employment of new nano-plasmonic structures such as cavities and metamaterials.
This chapter reported on the structural and optical properties of ZnO-SPR with different layer structures (single, IMI, and hybrid samples) from experimental and theoretical approaches. First, the SPR properties and sensing performance of the single sample were investigated. Second, the IMI sample was introduced in ZnO-SPR devices to enhance sensing activity. Finally, the hybrid sample with the capping of thin dielectric layers to ZnO-SPR was developed to monitor biological interactions between biotin and streptavidin. This work highlights new insights for fabricating biological sensing platforms on ZnO materials.
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distance learning in higher education. One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. Distance learning-based programs could increase access for students to higher education, whereas open and distance-learning programs may be difficult to implement in the laboratory sciences, but they have real potential to maximize the use of technology.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",authors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",middleName:"Petrus",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}]},{id:"59935",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74843",title:"The Challenges of E-learning in South Africa",slug:"the-challenges-of-e-learning-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:2652,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The University of South Africa (UNISA) is the largest open distance e-learning (ODeL) university in the continent of Africa, with a student headcount more than 300,000. Over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, vast inequalities across race, class, gender and socio-economic status persist in South Africa, with the majority of the African people being the most affected. Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country’s total population, compared to whites, who constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet African households carry the highest burden of poverty, living way below the official poverty line of $1.90/day as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. This chapter explores these inequalities and ponders on the role of e-learning for this poorest section of society in a country where modern technological devises in the form of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and access to the Internet are perceived to be ubiquitous. South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) commits to “an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more ‘satellite’ premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)”. This chapter also explores the role of UNISA in the provision of distance learning through structured and sustainable e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Moeketsi Letseka, Matsephe Martha Letseka and Victor Pitsoe",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:"Justice",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",middleName:null,surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. 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A survey captures responses on their technological, lifestyle and learning preparedness for the ELS to produce an e-readiness score. A modified DeLone and McLean model evaluates the impact of their level of e-readiness during their use of the ELS. Identifying where and when students have difficulties, pinpointing their deficits or recommending the more appropriate modality could help students achieve a positive course outcome.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Glenda H. E. Gay",authors:[{id:"225677",title:"Dr.",name:"Glenda",middleName:"H. E.",surname:"H.E. Gay",slug:"glenda-h.e.-gay",fullName:"Glenda H.E. Gay"}]},{id:"59762",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74862",title:"Applying a Usability Technique in the Open Source Software Development Process: Experiences from the Trenches",slug:"applying-a-usability-technique-in-the-open-source-software-development-process-experiences-from-the-",totalDownloads:909,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The growth in the number of non-developer open source software (OSS) application users has drawn attention to usability in the OSS community. OSS communities do not generally know how to apply usability techniques and are unclear about which techniques to use in each activity of the development process. The aim of our research is to determine the feasibility of applying the focus groups technique in the OSS ERMaster project. To do this, we participated as project volunteers. We used the case study research method to investigate technique application and OSS community participation. As a result, we identified adverse conditions that were an obstacle to the application of the original technique. We then adapted the technique to make it applicable in an OSS project. We can conclude that was not easy to recruit OSS users and developers to participate in technique application.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Lucrecia Llerena, Nancy Rodriguez, Mayra Llerena, John W. Castro\nand Silvia T. Acuña",authors:[{id:"231253",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lucrecia",middleName:null,surname:"Llerena",slug:"lucrecia-llerena",fullName:"Lucrecia Llerena"},{id:"231767",title:"MSc.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"nancy-rodriguez",fullName:"Nancy Rodriguez"},{id:"231769",title:"Dr.",name:"John W.",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",slug:"john-w.-castro",fullName:"John W. 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Prior studies carried out by researchers confirm that technology utilization and adoption in education undeniably helps teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. This chapter serves as a stepping stone to support teachers to do better in utilizing and adopting technology in education to a certain extent as an alternative of overlooking their thoughts, efforts and desires in blindly trying to vie with the swift change of technology in education in this epoch. Hence, this chapter discusses technology in education, the roles of technology in education, factors associated with technology utilization and adoption in education and the factors that limit the proper utilization and adoption of technology in education.",book:{id:"7803",slug:"the-role-of-technology-in-education",title:"The Role of Technology in Education",fullTitle:"The Role of Technology in Education"},signatures:"Aliyu Mustapha, Abdulkadir Mohammed, Abdullahi Raji Egigogo, Abdullahi Abubakar Kutiriko and Ahmed Haruna Dokoro",authors:[{id:"284060",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Aliyu",middleName:null,surname:"Mustapha",slug:"aliyu-mustapha",fullName:"Aliyu Mustapha"},{id:"294267",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulkadir",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"abdulkadir-mohammed",fullName:"Abdulkadir Mohammed"},{id:"294268",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdullahi",middleName:null,surname:"Raji Egigogo",slug:"abdullahi-raji-egigogo",fullName:"Abdullahi Raji Egigogo"},{id:"294270",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdullahi",middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar Kutiriko",slug:"abdullahi-abubakar-kutiriko",fullName:"Abdullahi Abubakar Kutiriko"},{id:"294272",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Haruna Dokoro",slug:"ahmed-haruna-dokoro",fullName:"Ahmed Haruna Dokoro"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60465",title:"The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Distance Learning in Higher Education",slug:"the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:5078,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"The chapter deals with opportunities and challenges of distance learning in higher education. One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. Distance learning-based programs could increase access for students to higher education, whereas open and distance-learning programs may be difficult to implement in the laboratory sciences, but they have real potential to maximize the use of technology.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",authors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",middleName:"Petrus",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}]},{id:"59935",title:"The Challenges of E-learning in South Africa",slug:"the-challenges-of-e-learning-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:2656,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The University of South Africa (UNISA) is the largest open distance e-learning (ODeL) university in the continent of Africa, with a student headcount more than 300,000. Over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, vast inequalities across race, class, gender and socio-economic status persist in South Africa, with the majority of the African people being the most affected. Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country’s total population, compared to whites, who constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet African households carry the highest burden of poverty, living way below the official poverty line of $1.90/day as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. This chapter explores these inequalities and ponders on the role of e-learning for this poorest section of society in a country where modern technological devises in the form of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and access to the Internet are perceived to be ubiquitous. South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) commits to “an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more ‘satellite’ premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)”. This chapter also explores the role of UNISA in the provision of distance learning through structured and sustainable e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Moeketsi Letseka, Matsephe Martha Letseka and Victor Pitsoe",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:"Justice",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",middleName:null,surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. 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Everyday, e-learning environments bring out new antagonistic concepts. As these new concepts rapidly entered our lives, they began to become indispensable materials in the field of education. New e-learning environments are being used as platforms that are related to each other. They essentially support the concept of e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Fatih Çağatay Baz",authors:[{id:"241866",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatih Çağatay",middleName:null,surname:"Baz",slug:"fatih-cagatay-baz",fullName:"Fatih Çağatay Baz"}]},{id:"66544",title:"Factors Affecting the Utilization and Adoption of Technology in Education",slug:"factors-affecting-the-utilization-and-adoption-of-technology-in-education",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Education is vital in any type of society for the conservation of lives of its associates and the preservation of the public formation. The rationale of this chapter is not only to reveal the role of technology in education but also to reveal the factors affecting the proper utilization and adoption of technology in education. Prior studies carried out by researchers confirm that technology utilization and adoption in education undeniably helps teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. This chapter serves as a stepping stone to support teachers to do better in utilizing and adopting technology in education to a certain extent as an alternative of overlooking their thoughts, efforts and desires in blindly trying to vie with the swift change of technology in education in this epoch. 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An example of an electric power system is the network that supplies a region’s homes and industry with power. Due to the complexity and nonlinearity of the power system, hand calculations may be very complicated in some cases, especially when the number of buses or inputs is very large. Here comes the role of software for convergence, time saving, and accuracy. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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